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81 class
I [klɑːs] [AE klæs]1) sociol. classe f., ceto m.2) (group of students) classe f.; (lesson) corso m. (in di)to take a class — BE tenere un corso; AE seguire un corso
3) AE (year group) = gruppo di studenti laureati nello stesso anno4) (category) classe f., categoria f.to be in a class of one's own o by oneself essere in una categoria a parte, essere più unico che raro; she's in a different class from him non c'è confronto tra lei e lui; he's not in the same class as her — non è al suo stesso livello
5) colloq. (elegance) classe f.6) (travelling) classe f.to travel first, second class — viaggiare in prima, seconda classe
7) BE univ. = ciascuno dei livelli di valutazione del profitto di uno studente per un anno accademico o per l'asse gnazione del voto di laureaa first-, second-class degree — = laurea con lode, con una buona votazione
8) biol. mat. classe f.II [klɑːs] [AE klæs]to class sb., sth. as — classificare qcn., qcs. come
* * *1. plural - classes; noun1) (a group of people or things that are alike in some way: The dog won first prize in its class in the dog show.) categoria2) ((the system according to which people belong to) one of a number of economic/social groups: the upper class; the middle class; the working class; ( also adjective) the class system.) classe3) (a grade or rank (of merit): musicians of a high class.) classe4) (a number of students or scholars taught together: John and I are in the same class.) classe5) (a school lesson or college lecture etc: a French class.) lezione6) ((American) a course or series of lectures, often leading to an examination.) corso2. verb(to regard as being of a certain type: He classes all women as stupid.) classificare- class-room* * *I [klɑːs] [AE klæs]1) sociol. classe f., ceto m.2) (group of students) classe f.; (lesson) corso m. (in di)to take a class — BE tenere un corso; AE seguire un corso
3) AE (year group) = gruppo di studenti laureati nello stesso anno4) (category) classe f., categoria f.to be in a class of one's own o by oneself essere in una categoria a parte, essere più unico che raro; she's in a different class from him non c'è confronto tra lei e lui; he's not in the same class as her — non è al suo stesso livello
5) colloq. (elegance) classe f.6) (travelling) classe f.to travel first, second class — viaggiare in prima, seconda classe
7) BE univ. = ciascuno dei livelli di valutazione del profitto di uno studente per un anno accademico o per l'asse gnazione del voto di laureaa first-, second-class degree — = laurea con lode, con una buona votazione
8) biol. mat. classe f.II [klɑːs] [AE klæs]to class sb., sth. as — classificare qcn., qcs. come
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82 self
self [self]1. noun(plural selves)2. compounds• send a self-addressed envelope envoyez une enveloppe à votre nom et adresse ► self-adhesive adjective autocollant• self-assessment system (British = taxation system) système de déclaration des revenus avec autoévaluation des impôts à payer ► self-assurance noun confiance f en soi► self-conscious adjective ( = shy) [person, manner] emprunté ; ( = aware of oneself or itself) [art, person, political movement] conscient (de son image)• to be self-conscious about sth être gêné par qch ► self-consciously adverb ( = shyly) de façon empruntée ; ( = deliberately) volontairement• a self-defeating plan un plan qui va à l'encontre du but recherché ► self-defence noun autodéfense f• to be self-deprecating [person] se dénigrer soi-même ► self-destruct intransitive verb s'autodétruire adjective[device, program] autodestructeur (- trice f)• she has a tendency to be self-destructive elle présente une tendance à l'autodestruction ► self-determination noun autodétermination f• he is self-disciplined il fait preuve d'autodiscipline ► self-doubt noun manque m de confiance en soi• to be self-employed travailler à son compte ► the self-employed plural noun les travailleurs mpl indépendants• to have low/high self-esteem avoir une mauvaise/bonne opinion de soi-même ► self-evident adjective évident• buying flowers for myself seems self-indulgent m'acheter des fleurs semble une dépense inutile ► self-inflicted adjective volontaire• out of self-protection pour se défendre ► self-raising flour noun (British) farine f pour gâteaux (avec levure incorporée)► self-starter noun (in car) démarreur m ; ( = hard-working person) personne f motivée (et pleine d'initiative)* * *[self]1) gen, Psychology moi mone's better self — le meilleur de soi/de lui/d'elle etc
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83 class
[klɑːs] 1. nklasa f; ( period of teaching) lekcja f; ( at university) zajęcia pl, ćwiczenia pl2. cpd 3. vt* * *1. plural - classes; noun1) (a group of people or things that are alike in some way: The dog won first prize in its class in the dog show.) klasa, kategoria2) ((the system according to which people belong to) one of a number of economic/social groups: the upper class; the middle class; the working class; ( also adjective) the class system.) klasa, sfera3) (a grade or rank (of merit): musicians of a high class.) klasa4) (a number of students or scholars taught together: John and I are in the same class.) klasa5) (a school lesson or college lecture etc: a French class.) lekcja, zajęcia6) ((American) a course or series of lectures, often leading to an examination.) ćwiczenia, zajęcia2. verb(to regard as being of a certain type: He classes all women as stupid.) klasyfikować- class-room -
84 class
1. plural - classes; noun1) (a group of people or things that are alike in some way: The dog won first prize in its class in the dog show.) grupa; kategorija2) ((the system according to which people belong to) one of a number of economic/social groups: the upper class; the middle class; the working class; ( also adjective) the class system.) šķira3) (a grade or rank (of merit): musicians of a high class.) izcilība4) (a number of students or scholars taught together: John and I are in the same class.) klase5) (a school lesson or college lecture etc: a French class.) (mācību) stunda; nodarbība6) ((American) a course or series of lectures, often leading to an examination.) lekciju/nodarbību cikls2. verb(to regard as being of a certain type: He classes all women as stupid.) klasificēt; ierindot- class-room* * *šķira; stunda; šķira, kategorija, grupa; klase; izcilība; izlaidums; iesaukums; ierindot, klasificēt -
85 class
1. plural - classes; noun1) (a group of people or things that are alike in some way: The dog won first prize in its class in the dog show.) klasė, kategorija2) ((the system according to which people belong to) one of a number of economic/social groups: the upper class; the middle class; the working class; ( also adjective) the class system.) klasė3) (a grade or rank (of merit): musicians of a high class.) meistriškumas4) (a number of students or scholars taught together: John and I are in the same class.) klasė5) (a school lesson or college lecture etc: a French class.) pamoka, paskaita6) ((American) a course or series of lectures, often leading to an examination.) kursas2. verb(to regard as being of a certain type: He classes all women as stupid.) laikyti- class-room -
86 class
n. klassrum; status; del, avdelning; datastruktur som även innehåller systemet för att behandla datan (data)--------v. tillskriva; klassificera* * *1. plural - classes; noun1) (a group of people or things that are alike in some way: The dog won first prize in its class in the dog show.) klass2) ((the system according to which people belong to) one of a number of economic/social groups: the upper class; the middle class; the working class; ( also adjective) the class system.) klass3) (a grade or rank (of merit): musicians of a high class.) klass4) (a number of students or scholars taught together: John and I are in the same class.) klass5) (a school lesson or college lecture etc: a French class.) lektion6) ((American) a course or series of lectures, often leading to an examination.) kurs2. verb(to regard as being of a certain type: He classes all women as stupid.) klassa- class-room -
87 class
1. plural - classes; noun1) (a group of people or things that are alike in some way: The dog won first prize in its class in the dog show.) třída2) ((the system according to which people belong to) one of a number of economic/social groups: the upper class; the middle class; the working class; ( also adjective) the class system.) třída; třídní3) (a grade or rank (of merit): musicians of a high class.) třída, kategorie4) (a number of students or scholars taught together: John and I are in the same class.) třída5) (a school lesson or college lecture etc: a French class.) hodina, přednáška, kurz6) ((American) a course or series of lectures, often leading to an examination.) kurz2. verb(to regard as being of a certain type: He classes all women as stupid.) (za)řadit- class-room* * *• třída• třídit• přednáška• ročník• jakost• klasifikovat• kvalita -
88 class
1. plural - classes; noun1) (a group of people or things that are alike in some way: The dog won first prize in its class in the dog show.) trieda2) ((the system according to which people belong to) one of a number of economic/social groups: the upper class; the middle class; the working class; ( also adjective) the class system.) trieda; triedny3) (a grade or rank (of merit): musicians of a high class.) trieda4) (a number of students or scholars taught together: John and I are in the same class.) trieda5) (a school lesson or college lecture etc: a French class.) hodina, prednáška6) ((American) a course or series of lectures, often leading to an examination.) ročník, semester2. verb(to regard as being of a certain type: He classes all women as stupid.) považovať- class-room* * *• zaradit• triedit• trieda• hodina• rocník -
89 class
1. plural - classes; noun1) (a group of people or things that are alike in some way: The dog won first prize in its class in the dog show.)2) ((the system according to which people belong to) one of a number of economic/social groups: the upper class; the middle class; the working class; ( also adjective) the class system.)3) (a grade or rank (of merit): musicians of a high class.)4) (a number of students or scholars taught together: John and I are in the same class.)5) (a school lesson or college lecture etc: a French class.)6) ((American) a course or series of lectures, often leading to an examination.)2. verb(to regard as being of a certain type: He classes all women as stupid.) a categorisi- class-room -
90 class
1. plural - classes; noun1) (a group of people or things that are alike in some way: The dog won first prize in its class in the dog show.) κατηγορία2) ((the system according to which people belong to) one of a number of economic/social groups: the upper class; the middle class; the working class; ( also adjective) the class system.) κοινωνική/αστική τάξη3) (a grade or rank (of merit): musicians of a high class.) κλάση4) (a number of students or scholars taught together: John and I are in the same class.) τάξη5) (a school lesson or college lecture etc: a French class.) μάθημα6) ((American) a course or series of lectures, often leading to an examination.) σειρά διαλέξεων, σεμινάριων2. verb(to regard as being of a certain type: He classes all women as stupid.)- class-room -
91 class
[klaːs] plural ˈclasses1. noun1) a group of people or things that are alike in some way:صِنْفThe dog won first prize in its class in the dog show.
2) (the system according to which people belong to) one of a number of economic/social groups:طَبَقَه( also adjective) the class system.
3) a grade or rank (of merit):دَرَجَه، طَبَقَهmusicians of a high class.
4) a number of students or scholars taught together:صَفJohn and I are in the same class.
دَرْس، مُحاضَرَهa French class.
6) (American) a course or series of lectures, often leading to an examination.دَوْرَه، مَساق2. verbto regard as being of a certain type:يُصَنِّفHe classes all women as stupid.
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92 class
1. plural - classes; noun1) (a group of people or things that are alike in some way: The dog won first prize in its class in the dog show.) classe2) ((the system according to which people belong to) one of a number of economic/social groups: the upper class; the middle class; the working class; ( also adjective) the class system.) classe3) (a grade or rank (of merit): musicians of a high class.) classe4) (a number of students or scholars taught together: John and I are in the same class.) classe5) (a school lesson or college lecture etc: a French class.) cours6) ((American) a course or series of lectures, often leading to an examination.)2. verb(to regard as being of a certain type: He classes all women as stupid.) classer- class-room -
93 class
1. plural - classes; noun1) (a group of people or things that are alike in some way: The dog won first prize in its class in the dog show.) categoria2) ((the system according to which people belong to) one of a number of economic/social groups: the upper class; the middle class; the working class; ( also adjective) the class system.) classe3) (a grade or rank (of merit): musicians of a high class.) classe4) (a number of students or scholars taught together: John and I are in the same class.) classe5) (a school lesson or college lecture etc: a French class.) aula6) ((American) a course or series of lectures, often leading to an examination.)2. verb(to regard as being of a certain type: He classes all women as stupid.) classificar- class-room -
94 Salazar, Antônio de Oliveira
(1889-1970)The Coimbra University professor of finance and economics and one of the founders of the Estado Novo, who came to dominate Western Europe's longest surviving authoritarian system. Salazar was born on 28 April 1889, in Vimieiro, Beira Alta province, the son of a peasant estate manager and a shopkeeper. Most of his first 39 years were spent as a student, and later as a teacher in a secondary school and a professor at Coimbra University's law school. Nine formative years were spent at Viseu's Catholic Seminary (1900-09), preparing for the Catholic priesthood, but the serious, studious Salazar decided to enter Coimbra University instead in 1910, the year the Braganza monarchy was overthrown and replaced by the First Republic. Salazar received some of the highest marks of his generation of students and, in 1918, was awarded a doctoral degree in finance and economics. Pleading inexperience, Salazar rejected an invitation in August 1918 to become finance minister in the "New Republic" government of President Sidónio Pais.As a celebrated academic who was deeply involved in Coimbra University politics, publishing works on the troubled finances of the besieged First Republic, and a leader of Catholic organizations, Sala-zar was not as modest, reclusive, or unknown as later official propaganda led the public to believe. In 1921, as a Catholic deputy, he briefly served in the First Republic's turbulent congress (parliament) but resigned shortly after witnessing but one stormy session. Salazar taught at Coimbra University as of 1916, and continued teaching until April 1928. When the military overthrew the First Republic in May 1926, Salazar was offered the Ministry of Finance and held office for several days. The ascetic academic, however, resigned his post when he discovered the degree of disorder in Lisbon's government and when his demands for budget authority were rejected.As the military dictatorship failed to reform finances in the following years, Salazar was reinvited to become minister of finances in April 1928. Since his conditions for acceptance—authority over all budget expenditures, among other powers—were accepted, Salazar entered the government. Using the Ministry of Finance as a power base, following several years of successful financial reforms, Salazar was named interim minister of colonies (1930) and soon garnered sufficient prestige and authority to become head of the entire government. In July 1932, Salazar was named prime minister, the first civilian to hold that post since the 1926 military coup.Salazar gathered around him a team of largely academic experts in the cabinet during the period 1930-33. His government featured several key policies: Portuguese nationalism, colonialism (rebuilding an empire in shambles), Catholicism, and conservative fiscal management. Salazar's government came to be called the Estado Novo. It went through three basic phases during Salazar's long tenure in office, and Salazar's role underwent changes as well. In the early years (1928-44), Salazar and the Estado Novo enjoyed greater vigor and popularity than later. During the middle years (1944—58), the regime's popularity waned, methods of repression increased and hardened, and Salazar grew more dogmatic in his policies and ways. During the late years (1958-68), the regime experienced its most serious colonial problems, ruling circles—including Salazar—aged and increasingly failed, and opposition burgeoned and grew bolder.Salazar's plans for stabilizing the economy and strengthening social and financial programs were shaken with the impact of the civil war (1936-39) in neighboring Spain. Salazar strongly supported General Francisco Franco's Nationalist rebels, the eventual victors in the war. But, as the civil war ended and World War II began in September 1939, Salazar's domestic plans had to be adjusted. As Salazar came to monopolize Lisbon's power and authority—indeed to embody the Estado Novo itself—during crises that threatened the future of the regime, he assumed ever more key cabinet posts. At various times between 1936 and 1944, he took over the Ministries of Foreign Affairs and of War (Defense), until the crises passed. At the end of the exhausting period of World War II, there were rumors that the former professor would resign from government and return to Coimbra University, but Salazar continued as the increasingly isolated, dominating "recluse of São Bento," that part of the parliament's buildings housing the prime minister's offices and residence.Salazar dominated the Estado Novo's government in several ways: in day-to-day governance, although this diminished as he delegated wider powers to others after 1944, and in long-range policy decisions, as well as in the spirit and image of the system. He also launched and dominated the single party, the União Nacional. A lifelong bachelor who had once stated that he could not leave for Lisbon because he had to care for his aged mother, Salazar never married, but lived with a beloved housekeeper from his Coimbra years and two adopted daughters. During his 36-year tenure as prime minister, Salazar engineered the important cabinet reshuffles that reflect the history of the Estado Novo and of Portugal.A number of times, in connection with significant events, Salazar decided on important cabinet officer changes: 11 April 1933 (the adoption of the Estado Novo's new 1933 Constitution); 18 January 1936 (the approach of civil war in Spain and the growing threat of international intervention in Iberian affairs during the unstable Second Spanish Republic of 1931-36); 4 September 1944 (the Allied invasion of Europe at Normandy and the increasing likelihood of a defeat of the Fascists by the Allies, which included the Soviet Union); 14 August 1958 (increased domestic dissent and opposition following the May-June 1958 presidential elections in which oppositionist and former regime stalwart-loyalist General Humberto Delgado garnered at least 25 percent of the national vote, but lost to regime candidate, Admiral Américo Tomás); 13 April 1961 (following the shock of anticolonial African insurgency in Portugal's colony of Angola in January-February 1961, the oppositionist hijacking of a Portuguese ocean liner off South America by Henrique Galvão, and an abortive military coup that failed to oust Salazar from office); and 19 August 1968 (the aging of key leaders in the government, including the now gravely ill Salazar, and the defection of key younger followers).In response to the 1961 crisis in Africa and to threats to Portuguese India from the Indian government, Salazar assumed the post of minister of defense (April 1961-December 1962). The failing leader, whose true state of health was kept from the public for as long as possible, appointed a group of younger cabinet officers in the 1960s, but no likely successors were groomed to take his place. Two of the older generation, Teotónio Pereira, who was in bad health, and Marcello Caetano, who preferred to remain at the University of Lisbon or in private law practice, remained in the political wilderness.As the colonial wars in three African territories grew more costly, Salazar became more isolated from reality. On 3 August 1968, while resting at his summer residence, the Fortress of São João do Estoril outside Lisbon, a deck chair collapsed beneath Salazar and his head struck the hard floor. Some weeks later, as a result, Salazar was incapacitated by a stroke and cerebral hemorrhage, was hospitalized, and became an invalid. While hesitating to fill the power vacuum that had unexpectedly appeared, President Tomás finally replaced Salazar as prime minister on 27 September 1968, with his former protégé and colleague, Marcello Caetano. Salazar was not informed that he no longer headed the government, but he never recovered his health. On 27 July 1970, Salazar died in Lisbon and was buried at Santa Comba Dão, Vimieiro, his village and place of birth.Historical dictionary of Portugal > Salazar, Antônio de Oliveira
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95 Clark, Edwin
SUBJECT AREA: Civil engineering[br]b. 7 January 1814 Marlow, Buckinghamshire, Englandd. 22 October 1894 Marlow, Buckinghamshire, England[br]English civil engineer.[br]After a basic education in mathematics, latin, French and geometry, Clark was articled to a solicitor, but he left after two years because he did not like the work. He had no permanent training otherwise, and for four years he led an idle life, becoming self-taught in the subjects that interested him. He eventually became a teacher at his old school before entering Cambridge, although he returned home after two years without taking a degree. He then toured the European continent extensively, supporting himself as best he could. He returned to England in 1839 and obtained further teaching posts. With the railway boom in progress he decided to become a surveyor and did some work on a proposed line between Oxford and Brighton.After being promised an interview with Robert Stephenson, he managed to see him in March 1846. Stephenson took a liking to Clark and asked him to investigate the strains on the Britannia Bridge tubes under various given conditions. This work so gained Stephenson's full approval that, after being entrusted with experiments and designs, Clark was appointed Resident Engineer for the Britannia Bridge across the Menai Straits. He not only completed the bridge, which was opened on 19 October 1850, but also wrote the history of its construction. After the completion of the bridge—and again without any professional experience—he was appointed Engineer-in-Chief to the Electric and International Telegraph Company. He was consulted by Captain Mark Huish of the London \& North Western Railway on a telegraphic system for the railway, and in 1853 he introduced the Block Telegraph System.Clark was engaged on the Crystal Palace and was responsible for many railway bridges in Britain and abroad. He was Engineer and part constructor of the harbour at Callao, Peru, and also of harbour works at Colón, Panama. On canal works he was contractor for the marine canal, the Morskoy Canal, in 1875 between Kronstadt and St Petersburg. His great work on canals, however, was the concept with Edward Leader Williams of the hydraulically operated barge lift at Anderton, Cheshire, linking the Weaver Navigation to the Trent \& Mersey Canal, whose water levels have a vertical separation of 50 ft (15 m). This was opened on 26 July 1875. The structure so impressed the French engineers who were faced with a bottleneck of five locks on the Neuffossée Canal south of Saint-Omer that they commissioned Clark to design a lift there. This was completed in 1878 and survives as a historic monument. The design was also adopted for four lifts on the Canal du Centre at La Louvière in Belgium, but these were not completed until after Clark's death.JHB -
96 Mignet, Henri
SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace[br]b. 19 October 1893 Saintes, Franced. 31 August 1965 Bordeaux, France[br]French inventor of the Pou-du-Ciel or Flying Flea, a small aeroplane for the do-it-yourself constructor, popular in the 1930s.[br]Throughout the history of aviation there have been many attempts to produce a cheap and simple aeroplane for "the man in the street". The tiny Demoiselle built by Alberto Santos- Dumont in 1909 or the de Havilland Moth of 1925 are good examples, but the one which very nearly achieved this aim was Henri Mignet's Flying Flea of 1933. Mignet was a self-taught designer of light aircraft, which often incorporated his unorthodox ideas. His Pou-du-Ciel ("Sky Louse" or "Flying Flea") was unorthodox. The materials used in construction were conventional wood and fabric, but the control system departed from the usual wing plus tailplane (with elevators). The Flea had two wings in tandem. The rear wing was fixed, while the forward wing was hinged to allow the angle of incidence, and hence its lift, to be increased or decreased. Reducing the forward wing's lift would cause the Flea to dive. After Mignet's first flight, on 6 September 1933, and the publication of his book Le Sport de l'air, which explains how to build a Poudu-Ciel, a Pou-building craze started in France. Mignet's book was translated into English and 6,000 copies were sold in a month. During 1935 the craze spread to Britain, where a Flying Flea could be built for £50–£90, including the engine. After several fatal crashes, the aircraft was banned in 1936. A design fault in the control system was to blame, and although this was remedied the wave of popular enthusiasm vanished. Mignet continued to design light aircraft and during the Second World War he was working on a Pou- Maquis for use by the French Resistance but the war ended before the aircraft was ready. During the post-war years a series of Flying Flea derivatives appeared, but their numbers were small. However, the home-build movement in general has grown in recent years, a fact which would have pleased Henri Mignet, the "Patron Saint of Homebuilders".[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsChevalier de la Légion d'honneur. Médaille de l'Aéronautique.Bibliography1935, The Flying Flea: How to Build and Fly it, London (English edn).Further ReadingKen Ellis and Geoff Jones, 1990, Henri Mignet and His Flying Flea, Yeovil (a full account).Geoff Jones, 1992, Building and Flying Your Own Plane, Yeovil (describes the Flying Flea and its place in the homebuild story).JDS -
97 Rillieux, Norbert
SUBJECT AREA: Agricultural and food technology[br]b. 1800 New Orleans, Louisiana, USAd. 1894 France[br]African-American inventor of a sugar-evaporation process.[br]A free black, he was the son of Vincent Rillieux, a white engineer, and Constance Vivant, a quadroon. The family was prosperous enough to send him to France to be educated, at the Ecole Centrale in Paris. There he studied engineering and later taught mechanical engineering, developing a special interest in thermodynamics and steampower. In 1830 he devised a vacuum evaporation system with industrial possibilities, but he was unable to interest any French firms in the device. He therefore returned to New Orleans and ob-tained his first patent in 1843. Two years later he was able to have the evaporation system installed on a plantation to refine sugar. It soon demonstrated its worth, for planters were able to recoup the cost of the plant within a year through raised production and reduced operating costs. It came to be the generally accepted method for processing sugar-cane juice, and the price of refined sugar fell so that white sugar ceased to be a luxury food for the rich.Rillieux's patents protected him from repeated efforts to counterfeit the process, which thus earned him considerable wealth. However, because of increasing hostility and discriminatory laws against blacks in New Orleans, he did not long enjoy it and he returned to France, taking up the study of egyptology.[br]Further ReadingP.P.James, 1989, The Real McCoy: AfricanAmerican Invention and Innovation 1619– 1930, Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, pp. 41–3.LRD -
98 Whitney, Eli
[br]b. 8 December 1765 Westborough, Massachusetts, USAd. 8 January 1825 New Haven, Connecticut, USA[br]American inventor of the cotton gin and manufacturer of firearms.[br]The son of a prosperous farmer, Eli Whitney as a teenager showed more interest in mechanics than school work. At the age of 15 he began an enterprise business manufacturing nails in his father's workshop, even having to hire help to fulfil his orders. He later determined to acquire a university education and, his father having declined to provide funds, he taught at local schools to obtain the means to attend Leicester Academy, Massachusetts, in preparation for his entry to Yale in 1789. He graduated in 1792 and then decided to study law. He accepted a position in Georgia as a tutor that would have given him time for study; this post did not materialize, but on his journey south he met General Nathanael Greene's widow and the manager of her plantations, Phineas Miller (1764–1803). A feature of agriculture in the southern states was that the land was unsuitable for long-staple cotton but could yield large crops of green-seed cotton. Green-seed cotton was difficult to separate from its seed, and when Whitney learned of the problem in 1793 he quickly devised a machine known as the cotton gin, which provided an effective solution. He formed a partnership with Miller to manufacture the gin and in 1794 obtained a patent. This invention made possible the extraordinary growth of the cotton industry in the United States, but the patent was widely infringed and it was not until 1807, after amendment of the patent laws, that Whitney was able to obtain a favourable decision in the courts and some financial return.In 1798 Whitney was in financial difficulties following the failure of the initial legal action against infringement of the cotton gin patent, but in that year he obtained a government contract to supply 10,000 muskets within two years with generous advance payments. He built a factory at New Haven, Connecticut, and proposed to use a new method of manufacture, perhaps the first application of the system of interchangeable parts. He failed to supply the firearms in the specified time, and in fact the first 500 guns were not delivered until 1801 and the full contract was not completed until 1809.In 1812 Whitney made application for a renewal of his cotton gin patent, but this was refused. In the same year, however, he obtained a second contract from the Government for 15,000 firearms and a similar one from New York State which ensured the success of his business.[br]Further ReadingJ.Mirsky and A.Nevins, 1952, The World of Eli Whitney, New York (a good biography). P.J.Federico, 1960, "Records of Eli Whitney's cotton gin patent", Technology and Culture 1: 168–76 (for details of the cotton gin patent).R.S.Woodbury, 1960, The legend of Eli Whitney and interchangeable parts', Technology and Culture 1:235–53 (challenges the traditional view of Eli Whitney as the sole originator of the "American" system of manufacture).See also Technology and Culture 14(1973):592–8; 18(1977):146–8; 19(1978):609–11.RTS -
99 pictorial
pɪkˈtɔ:rɪəl
1. прил.
1) живописный;
изобразительный pictorial art Syn: graphic, figurative, decorative
2) графический, сделанный в форме рисунков hieroglyphs or, in other words, pictorial forms ≈ иероглифы, или, другими словами, графические формы
3) иллюстрированный;
снабженный иллюстрациями She taught her child at home on the new system, by a pictorial alphabet. ≈ Она обучала своего ребенка дома, по новой системе, с помощью иллюстрированного алфавита. Syn: illustrated
4) живой, красочный, яркий, образный( о стиле и т. п.) a pictorial description ≈ яркое описание Syn: picturesque, graphic
2. сущ.
1) иллюстрированное периодическое издание
2) почтовая марка с красочным изображением (часто в память о каком-либо событии) Pictorials are a characteristic feature of the second half of our hundred years of postage stamps. ≈ Памятные марки являются характерной чертой второй половины уже почти вековой эпохи существования марок. иллюстрированное периодическое издание - the Lady's P. дамский иллюстрированный журнал изобразительный - * art изобразительное искусство яркий, живой;
живописный - * description яркое /живописное/ описание - * phrase яркое /образное/ выражение иллюстрированный - * alphabet алфавит с картинками относящийся к живописцу;
связанный с живописью - the * calling призвание художника пиктографический, рисуночный - * writing пиктографическое письмо pictorial живописный;
изобразительный;
pictorial art живопись ~ иллюстрированное периодическое издание ~ иллюстрированный ~ вчт. наглядный ~ яркий, живой (о стиле и т. п.) pictorial живописный;
изобразительный;
pictorial art живописьБольшой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > pictorial
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100 trajectory
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acquisition trajectory
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aeroassisted trajectory
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aerocapture trajectory
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ascent trajectory
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coplanar trajectory
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depressed trajectory
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descent trajectory
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direct trajectory
-
Earth gravity-assisted trajectory
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guided trajectory
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impulse trajectory
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JGA trajectory
- joint space trajectory -
Jupiter gravity assist trajectory
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lofted trajectory
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minimum fuel trajectory
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minimum-energy trajectory
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multiburn trajectory
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normal trajectory
-
optimal trajectory
-
orbital plane change trajectory
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periodic trajectory
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phase trajectory
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phase-plane trajectory
-
reference trajectory
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robot's trajectory
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stereotyped trajectory
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straight-line trajectory
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taught trajectory
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trajectory of dynamic system
-
unguided trajectory
См. также в других словарях:
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