system+development+process

SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics

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Ives trained as a printer in Ithaca, New York, and became official photographer at Cornell University at the age of 18. His research into photomechanical processes led in 1886 to methods of making halftone reproduction of photographs using crossline screens. In 1881 he was the first to make a three-colour print from relief halftone blocks. He made significant contributions to the early development of colour photography, and from 1888 he published and marketed a number of systems for the production of additive colour photographs. He designed a beam-splitting camera in which a single lens exposed three negatives through red, green and blue filters. Black and white transparencies from these negatives were viewed in a device fitted with internal reflectors and filters, which combined the three colour separations into one full-colour image. This device was marketed in 1895 under the name Kromskop; sets of Kromograms were available commercially, and special cameras, or adaptors for conventional cameras, were available for photographers who wished to take their own colour pictures. A Lantern Kromskop was available for the projection of Kromskop pictures. Ives's system enjoyed a few years of commercial success before simpler methods of making colour photographs rendered it obsolete. Ives continued research into colour photography; his later achievements included the design, in 1915, of the Hicro process, in which a simple camera produced sets of separation negatives that could be printed as dyed transparencies in complementary colours and assembled in register on paper to produce colour prints. Later, in 1932, he introduced Polychrome, a simpler, two-colour process in which a bipack of two thin negative plates or films could be exposed in conventional cameras. Ives's interest extended into other fields, notably stereoscopy. He developed a successful parallax stereogram process in 1903, in which a three-dimensional image could be seen directly, without the use of viewing devices. In his lifetime he received many honours, and was a recipient of the Royal Photographic Society's Progress Medal in 1903 for his work in colour photography.

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SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building, Automotive engineering, Electricity, Electronics and information technology, Metallurgy, Photography, film and optics, Public utilities, Recording, Telecommunications

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He was the son of Samuel Edison, who was in the timber business. His schooling was delayed due to scarlet fever until 1855, when he was 8½ years old, but he was an avid reader. By the age of 14 he had a job as a newsboy on the railway from Port Huron to Detroit, a distance of sixty-three miles (101 km). He worked a fourteen-hour day with a stopover of five hours, which he spent in the Detroit Free Library. He also sold sweets on the train and, later, fruit and vegetables, and was soon making a profit of $20 a week. He then started two stores in Port Huron and used a spare freight car as a laboratory. He added a hand-printing press to produce 400 copies weekly of The Grand Trunk Herald, most of which he compiled and edited himself. He set himself to learn telegraphy from the station agent at Mount Clements, whose son he had saved from being run over by a freight car.

At the age of 16 he became a telegraphist at Port Huron. In 1863 he became railway telegraphist at the busy Stratford Junction of the Grand Trunk Railroad, arranging a clock with a notched wheel to give the hourly signal which was to prove that he was awake and at his post! He left hurriedly after failing to hold a train which was nearly involved in a head-on collision. He usually worked the night shift, allowing himself time for experiments during the day. His first invention was an arrangement of two Morse registers so that a high-speed input could be decoded at a slower speed. Moving from place to place he held many positions as a telegraphist. In Boston he invented an automatic vote recorder for Congress and patented it, but the idea was rejected. This was the first of a total of 1180 patents that he was to take out during his lifetime. After six years he resigned from the Western Union Company to devote all his time to invention, his next idea being an improved ticker-tape machine for stockbrokers. He developed a duplex telegraphy system, but this was turned down by the Western Union Company. He then moved to New York.

Edison found accommodation in the battery room of Law's Gold Reporting Company, sleeping in the cellar, and there his repair of a broken transmitter marked him as someone of special talents. His superior soon resigned, and he was promoted with a salary of $300 a month. Western Union paid him $40,000 for the sole rights on future improvements on the duplex telegraph, and he moved to Ward Street, Newark, New Jersey, where he employed a gathering of specialist engineers. Within a year, he married one of his employees, Mary Stilwell, when she was only 16: a daughter, Marion, was born in 1872, and two sons, Thomas and William, in 1876 and 1879, respectively.

He continued to work on the automatic telegraph, a device to send out messages faster than they could be tapped out by hand: that is, over fifty words per minute or so. An earlier machine by Alexander Bain worked at up to 400 words per minute, but was not good over long distances. Edison agreed to work on improving this feature of Bain's machine for the Automatic Telegraph Company (ATC) for $40,000. He improved it to a working speed of 500 words per minute and ran a test between Washington and New York. Hoping to sell their equipment to the Post Office in Britain, ATC sent Edison to England in 1873 to negotiate. A 500-word message was to be sent from Liverpool to London every half-hour for six hours, followed by tests on 2,200 miles (3,540 km) of cable at Greenwich. Only confused results were obtained due to induction in the cable, which lay coiled in a water tank. Edison returned to New York, where he worked on his quadruplex telegraph system, tests of which proved a success between New York and Albany in December 1874. Unfortunately, simultaneous negotiation with Western Union and ATC resulted in a lawsuit.

Alexander Graham Bell was granted a patent for a telephone in March 1876 while Edison was still working on the same idea. His improvements allowed the device to operate over a distance of hundreds of miles instead of only a few miles. Tests were carried out over the 106 miles (170 km) between New York and Philadelphia. Edison applied for a patent on the carbon-button transmitter in April 1877, Western Union agreeing to pay him $6,000 a year for the seventeen-year duration of the patent. In these years he was also working on the development of the electric lamp and on a duplicating machine which would make up to 3,000 copies from a stencil. In 1876–7 he moved from Newark to Menlo Park, twenty-four miles (39 km) from New York on the Pennsylvania Railway, near Elizabeth. He had bought a house there around which he built the premises that would become his "inventions factory". It was there that he began the use of his 200- page pocket notebooks, each of which lasted him about two weeks, so prolific were his ideas. When he died he left 3,400 of them filled with notes and sketches.

Late in 1877 he applied for a patent for a phonograph which was granted on 19 February 1878, and by the end of the year he had formed a company to manufacture this totally new product. At the time, Edison saw the device primarily as a business aid rather than for entertainment, rather as a dictating machine. In August 1878 he was granted a British patent. In July 1878 he tried to measure the heat from the solar corona at a solar eclipse viewed from Rawlins, Wyoming, but his "tasimeter" was too sensitive.

Probably his greatest achievement was "The Subdivision of the Electric Light" or the "glow bulb". He tried many materials for the filament before settling on carbon. He gave a demonstration of electric light by lighting up Menlo Park and inviting the public. Edison was, of course, faced with the problem of inventing and producing all the ancillaries which go to make up the electrical system of generation and distribution-meters, fuses, insulation, switches, cabling—even generators had to be designed and built; everything was new. He started a number of manufacturing companies to produce the various components needed.

In 1881 he built the world's largest generator, which weighed 27 tons, to light 1,200 lamps at the Paris Exhibition. It was later moved to England to be used in the world's first central power station with steam engine drive at Holborn Viaduct, London. In September 1882 he started up his Pearl Street Generating Station in New York, which led to a worldwide increase in the application of electric power, particularly for lighting. At the same time as these developments, he built a 1,300yd (1,190m) electric railway at Menlo Park.

On 9 August 1884 his wife died of typhoid. Using his telegraphic skills, he proposed to 19-year-old Mina Miller in Morse code while in the company of others on a train. He married her in February 1885 before buying a new house and estate at West Orange, New Jersey, building a new laboratory not far away in the Orange Valley.

Edison used direct current which was limited to around 250 volts. Alternating current was largely developed by George Westinghouse and Nicola Tesla, using transformers to step up the current to a higher voltage for long-distance transmission. The use of AC gradually overtook the Edison DC system.

In autumn 1888 he patented a form of cinephotography, the kinetoscope, obtaining film-stock from George Eastman. In 1893 he set up the first film studio, which was pivoted so as to catch the sun, with a hinged roof which could be raised. In 1894 kinetoscope parlours with "peep shows" were starting up in cities all over America. Competition came from the Latham Brothers with a screen-projection machine, which Edison answered with his "Vitascope", shown in New York in 1896. This showed pictures with accompanying sound, but there was some difficulty with synchronization. Edison also experimented with captions at this early date.

In 1880 he filed a patent for a magnetic ore separator, the first of nearly sixty. He bought up deposits of low-grade iron ore which had been developed in the north of New Jersey. The process was a commercial success until the discovery of iron-rich ore in Minnesota rendered it uneconomic and uncompetitive. In 1898 cement rock was discovered in New Village, west of West Orange. Edison bought the land and started cement manufacture, using kilns twice the normal length and using half as much fuel to heat them as the normal type of kiln. In 1893 he met Henry Ford, who was building his second car, at an Edison convention. This started him on the development of a battery for an electric car on which he made over 9,000 experiments. In 1903 he sold his patent for wireless telegraphy "for a song" to Guglielmo Marconi.

In 1910 Edison designed a prefabricated concrete house. In December 1914 fire destroyed three-quarters of the West Orange plant, but it was at once rebuilt, and with the threat of war Edison started to set up his own plants for making all the chemicals that he had previously been buying from Europe, such as carbolic acid, phenol, benzol, aniline dyes, etc. He was appointed President of the Navy Consulting Board, for whom, he said, he made some forty-five inventions, "but they were pigeonholed, every one of them". Thus did Edison find that the Navy did not take kindly to civilian interference.

In 1927 he started the Edison Botanic Research Company, founded with similar investment from Ford and Firestone with the object of finding a substitute for overseas-produced rubber. In the first year he tested no fewer than 3,327 possible plants, in the second year, over 1,400, eventually developing a variety of Golden Rod which grew to 14 ft (4.3 m) in height. However, all this effort and money was wasted, due to the discovery of synthetic rubber.

In October 1929 he was present at Henry Ford's opening of his Dearborn Museum to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the incandescent lamp, including a replica of the Menlo Park laboratory. He was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal and was elected to the American Academy of Sciences. He died in 1931 at his home, Glenmont; throughout the USA, lights were dimmed temporarily on the day of his funeral.

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SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics

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Educated at Harrow, where he first showed an interest in science, and at Cambridge, Talbot was an outstanding scholar and a formidable mathematician. He published over fifty scientific papers and took out twelve English patents. His interests outside the field of science were also wide and included Assyriology, etymology and the classics. He was briefly a Member of Parliament, but did not pursue a parliamentary career.

Talbot's invention of photography arose out of his frustrating attempts to produce acceptable pencil sketches using popular artist's aids, the camera discura and camera lucida. From his experiments with the former he conceived the idea of placing on the screen a paper coated with silver salts so that the image would be captured chemically. During the spring of 1834 he made outline images of subjects such as leaves and flowers by placing them on sheets of sensitized paper and exposing them to sunlight. No camera was involved and the first images produced using an optical system were made with a solar microscope. It was only when he had devised a more sensitive paper that Talbot was able to make camera pictures; the earliest surviving camera negative dates from August 1835. From the beginning, Talbot noticed that the lights and shades of his images were reversed. During 1834 or 1835 he discovered that by placing this reversed image on another sheet of sensitized paper and again exposing it to sunlight, a picture was produced with lights and shades in the correct disposition. Talbot had discovered the basis of modern photography, the photographic negative, from which could be produced an unlimited number of positives. He did little further work until the announcement of Daguerre's process in 1839 prompted him to publish an account of his negative-positive process. Aware that his photogenic drawing process had many imperfections, Talbot plunged into further experiments and in September 1840, using a mixture incorporating a solution of gallic acid, discovered an invisible latent image that could be made visible by development. This improved calotype process dramatically shortened exposure times and allowed Talbot to take portraits. In 1841 he patented the process, an exercise that was later to cause controversy, and between 1844 and 1846 produced The Pencil of Nature, the world's first commercial photographically illustrated book.

Concerned that some of his photographs were prone to fading, Talbot later began experiments to combine photography with printing and engraving. Using bichromated gelatine, he devised the first practicable method of photo engraving, which was patented as Photoglyphic engraving in October 1852. He later went on to use screens of gauze, muslin and finely powdered gum to break up the image into lines and dots, thus anticipating modern photomechanical processes.

Talbot was described by contemporaries as the "Father of Photography" primarily in recognition of his discovery of the negative-positive process, but he also produced the first photomicrographs, took the first high-speed photographs with the aid of a spark from a Leyden jar, and is credited with proposing infra-red photography. He was a shy man and his misguided attempts to enforce his calotype patent made him many enemies. It was perhaps for this reason that he never received the formal recognition from the British nation that his family felt he deserved.

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1) Компьютерная техника: Active Data Page

2) Биология: АДФ

3) Авиация: Aircraft Distribution Panel (распределительная панель летательного аппарата)

4) Морской термин: automatic dynamic positioning (сокр.) (автоматическое динамическое позиционирование), acoustic data processor (процессор (гидро)акустических данных), Albatross Dynamic Positioning System (система динамического позиционирования Albatross || Производство фирмы Simrad, Норвегия)

5) Медицина: аденозин трифосфат АДФ

6) Спорт: Average Draft Position, аденозиндифосфат

7) Военный термин: Advanced Development Program, Aerospace And Defense Products, Airborne Data Processing, Allied Defense Publication, Armor Door Plates, Assistant Director of Personnel, Automatic Data Processor, acceptance data package, advanced decoy payload, advanced development plan, air defense position, armament delivery point, automatic data plotter, automatic destruct program

8) Техника: ammonium dihydrophosphate, ammonium-dihydrogen phosphate crystal

9) Экономика: Average Deferral Percentage

10) Бухгалтерия: Average Deferral Percent

11) Музыка: Asian Dance Party

12) Сокращение: Accelerated Demining Programme, Accountable Paper Depository, Adenosine Di-Phosphate, Advanced Development Project, Advanced Ducted Propulsor (USA), Andorran Peseta, Arab Democratic Party, Association of Database Producers, Automatic / Advanced Data Processing, ammonium dihydrogen phosphate crystal, Administrative Data Processing, Advanced Data Processing, Academy of Denture Prosthetics (Академия зубного протезирования (США)), Airport Development Program (Программа строительства и усовершенствования аэропортов (США)), AOLserver Dynamic Pages

13) Вычислительная техника: Answerer Detection Pattern, airborne data processor, application development platform, автоматизированная обработка данных, применение компьютера, Automatic Data Processing (ADP), автоматический графопостроитель

14) Нефть: average daily production, Уточнённый ( изменённый) План Освоения

15) Генетика: АДФ (нуклеотид, состоящий из аденина, рибозы и двух остатков фосфорной кислоты, обычно в комплексе с ионами магния, образуется в результате фосфорилирования АМФ или дефосфорилирования АТФ)

16) Иммунология: Androgenic Dermal Patch, Area Development Program

17) Космонавтика: Attitude Data Processor

18) Транспорт: Accident Damage Protection

19) СМИ: Audience Discussion Program

20) Деловая лексика: Alternative Delivery Procedure

21) Бурение: АБТ, алюминиевая бурильная труба, алюминиевая буровая труба, сплаво-алюминиевая бурильная труба, aluminium drill pipe, aluminium drill-pipe, aluminium drillpipe, aluminum drill pipe, aluminum drill-pipe, aluminum drillpipe

22) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: amended development plan, Annual Delivery Program (Marketing, SEIC)

23) Сетевые технологии: automatic data processing

24) Полимеры: adenosine diphosphate, ammonium dihydrogen phosphate

25) Сахалин Р: Amendment to Development Plan

26) Химическое оружие: Agent destruction process

27) Расширение файла: Astound Dynamite file, Setup file for fax modem interaction (FaxWorks)

28) Нефть и газ: процедура изменений условий поставки (предусмотренных фьючерсом, на иные, оговариваемые покупателем и продавцом - alternative delivery procedure), ADCP, acoustic Doppler current profiler, акустический доплеровский профиломер течений, АПДТ, акустический доплеровский профилометр течений, акустический допплеровский профиломер течений, акустический профиломер Доплера, акустический профилометр Доплера, акустический профилометр Доплера для измерения течений, доплеровский профилометр течений, допплеровский профилометр течений, акустический доплеровский профилограф

29) Военно-политический термин: Automated Data Processing

30) Должность: Approved Degree Plan

31) NYSE. Allied Products Corporation of Delaware

32) Базы данных: Access Data Project

1) Общая лексика: Динамический выделенный сервер (Dynamic Dedicated Server)

2) Компьютерная техника: Data Description Specifications, Dataphone Digital Service, Dcp Data Service, Dead Data Script, Decision Support System, Digital Dmb Source, Digital Dong System

3) Авиация: Down Drive Shaft

4) Медицина: доктор стоматологических наук, Denys-Drash syndrome

5) Американизм: Disability Determination Services

6) Военный термин: Dark Deadly Snipers, Deep Dive System, Defense Dissemination System, Deputy Defense Secretary, Deputy Director of Science, Director of Dental Services, Directorate of Information Services, Display And Debriefing System, Distributed Database System, Dry Deck Shelter, Dutch Delta Squad, Dutch Demolition Squad, data display system, data distribution system, design data sheet, digital data system, display and debriefing subsystem, dynamic diagnostic system, Dual Driver Service (courier)

7) Техника: Doppler detection station, Doppler detection system, data dialog system, data distribution subsystem, data fax digital scanner, data phone digital service, development data sheet, digital display scope, digital drafting system, direct detection system, documentation distribution system, dose detection system, double dark slide

8) Шутливое выражение: Dead Divx Society, Dino Death Squad

9) Грубое выражение: Dental Dumb Shit

10) Металлургия: dedusting system, система газоочистки

11) Оптика: doped deposited silica (Corning process)

12) Радио: цифровой синтезатор с прямым синтезом частот (Direct Digital Synthesizer)

13) Телекоммуникации: Digital Data Service, DATAPHONE Digital Service (AT&T specific), Dataphone Digital Service (registered trademark of AT&T Company)

14) Сокращение: Defense Dissemination System (View the logo for Defense Dissemination System), Department of Defense Support (USA), Deployable Defense System, Digital Data Set (Canada), Direct Digital Synthesis, Direct Digital Synthesizer, Display & Debriefing System, Doctor of Dental Science, Dry Deck Shelter (swimmer), Dry Dock Shelters

15) Электроника: Digital Spectrum Stabilizer, Direct Digital Signal, Discrete Dynamic System

16) Вычислительная техника: Digital Data Service / System, Doctor of Dental Surgery, dedicated digital line, Dataphone Digital Service (AT&T), Direct Digital Sampling (CD-RW, SCSI), Distributed Directory Service (DCE), Digital Data Storage (Sony, HP, DAT, ISO, ANSI, ECMA, Streamer)

17) Нефть: deep seismic sounding

18) Биохимия: Distillers Dried Solubles

19) Связь: службы Описаний устройств

20) Биотехнология: (Drug D) система доставки лекарств (Drug Delivery System)

21) Фирменный знак: Direct Draw Surface, Discount Dance Supply, Discount Department Stores

22) СМИ: Dark Duel Stories, Digital Dynamic Sound, Dolby Digital Sound

23) Деловая лексика: Deadline Driven Scheduler

24) Сетевые технологии: DISTRIBUTED DOMAIN Server, Data-phone Digital Service, Direct Digital Service, служба передачи цифровых данных

25) Полимеры: diamino diphenyl sulfone, dioxidiphenyl sulfon

26) Автоматика: data dispatching system, document delivery service, dynamic data system

27) Пластмассы: Diaminodiphenyl Sulfone (Epoxy Cure Agent)

28) Хроматография: dilute degradation solution

29) Расширение файла: Data Description Specification, Digital Data Storage, Distributed Database Services, Digital Dataphone Service (AT&T)

30) Должность: Doctor of Dental Surgery (Dentist)

31) Чат: Deep Dark Secrets

32) Базы данных: Data Definition Specifications, Data Description Structure

1) Компьютерная техника: Active Data Page

2) Биология: АДФ

3) Авиация: Aircraft Distribution Panel (распределительная панель летательного аппарата)

4) Морской термин: automatic dynamic positioning (сокр.) (автоматическое динамическое позиционирование), acoustic data processor (процессор (гидро)акустических данных), Albatross Dynamic Positioning System (система динамического позиционирования Albatross || Производство фирмы Simrad, Норвегия)

5) Медицина: аденозин трифосфат АДФ

6) Спорт: Average Draft Position, аденозиндифосфат

7) Военный термин: Advanced Development Program, Aerospace And Defense Products, Airborne Data Processing, Allied Defense Publication, Armor Door Plates, Assistant Director of Personnel, Automatic Data Processor, acceptance data package, advanced decoy payload, advanced development plan, air defense position, armament delivery point, automatic data plotter, automatic destruct program

8) Техника: ammonium dihydrophosphate, ammonium-dihydrogen phosphate crystal

9) Экономика: Average Deferral Percentage

10) Бухгалтерия: Average Deferral Percent

11) Музыка: Asian Dance Party

12) Сокращение: Accelerated Demining Programme, Accountable Paper Depository, Adenosine Di-Phosphate, Advanced Development Project, Advanced Ducted Propulsor (USA), Andorran Peseta, Arab Democratic Party, Association of Database Producers, Automatic / Advanced Data Processing, ammonium dihydrogen phosphate crystal, Administrative Data Processing, Advanced Data Processing, Academy of Denture Prosthetics (Академия зубного протезирования (США)), Airport Development Program (Программа строительства и усовершенствования аэропортов (США)), AOLserver Dynamic Pages

13) Вычислительная техника: Answerer Detection Pattern, airborne data processor, application development platform, автоматизированная обработка данных, применение компьютера, Automatic Data Processing (ADP), автоматический графопостроитель

14) Нефть: average daily production, Уточнённый ( изменённый) План Освоения

15) Генетика: АДФ (нуклеотид, состоящий из аденина, рибозы и двух остатков фосфорной кислоты, обычно в комплексе с ионами магния, образуется в результате фосфорилирования АМФ или дефосфорилирования АТФ)

16) Иммунология: Androgenic Dermal Patch, Area Development Program

17) Космонавтика: Attitude Data Processor

18) Транспорт: Accident Damage Protection

19) СМИ: Audience Discussion Program

20) Деловая лексика: Alternative Delivery Procedure

21) Бурение: АБТ, алюминиевая бурильная труба, алюминиевая буровая труба, сплаво-алюминиевая бурильная труба, aluminium drill pipe, aluminium drill-pipe, aluminium drillpipe, aluminum drill pipe, aluminum drill-pipe, aluminum drillpipe

22) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: amended development plan, Annual Delivery Program (Marketing, SEIC)

23) Сетевые технологии: automatic data processing

24) Полимеры: adenosine diphosphate, ammonium dihydrogen phosphate

25) Сахалин Р: Amendment to Development Plan

26) Химическое оружие: Agent destruction process

27) Расширение файла: Astound Dynamite file, Setup file for fax modem interaction (FaxWorks)

28) Нефть и газ: процедура изменений условий поставки (предусмотренных фьючерсом, на иные, оговариваемые покупателем и продавцом - alternative delivery procedure), ADCP, acoustic Doppler current profiler, акустический доплеровский профиломер течений, АПДТ, акустический доплеровский профилометр течений, акустический допплеровский профиломер течений, акустический профиломер Доплера, акустический профилометр Доплера, акустический профилометр Доплера для измерения течений, доплеровский профилометр течений, допплеровский профилометр течений, акустический доплеровский профилограф

29) Военно-политический термин: Automated Data Processing

30) Должность: Approved Degree Plan

31) NYSE. Allied Products Corporation of Delaware

32) Базы данных: Access Data Project

1) Общая лексика: Динамический выделенный сервер (Dynamic Dedicated Server)

2) Компьютерная техника: Data Description Specifications, Dataphone Digital Service, Dcp Data Service, Dead Data Script, Decision Support System, Digital Dmb Source, Digital Dong System

3) Авиация: Down Drive Shaft

4) Медицина: доктор стоматологических наук, Denys-Drash syndrome

5) Американизм: Disability Determination Services

6) Военный термин: Dark Deadly Snipers, Deep Dive System, Defense Dissemination System, Deputy Defense Secretary, Deputy Director of Science, Director of Dental Services, Directorate of Information Services, Display And Debriefing System, Distributed Database System, Dry Deck Shelter, Dutch Delta Squad, Dutch Demolition Squad, data display system, data distribution system, design data sheet, digital data system, display and debriefing subsystem, dynamic diagnostic system, Dual Driver Service (courier)

7) Техника: Doppler detection station, Doppler detection system, data dialog system, data distribution subsystem, data fax digital scanner, data phone digital service, development data sheet, digital display scope, digital drafting system, direct detection system, documentation distribution system, dose detection system, double dark slide

8) Шутливое выражение: Dead Divx Society, Dino Death Squad

9) Грубое выражение: Dental Dumb Shit

10) Металлургия: dedusting system, система газоочистки

11) Оптика: doped deposited silica (Corning process)

12) Радио: цифровой синтезатор с прямым синтезом частот (Direct Digital Synthesizer)

13) Телекоммуникации: Digital Data Service, DATAPHONE Digital Service (AT&T specific), Dataphone Digital Service (registered trademark of AT&T Company)

14) Сокращение: Defense Dissemination System (View the logo for Defense Dissemination System), Department of Defense Support (USA), Deployable Defense System, Digital Data Set (Canada), Direct Digital Synthesis, Direct Digital Synthesizer, Display & Debriefing System, Doctor of Dental Science, Dry Deck Shelter (swimmer), Dry Dock Shelters

15) Электроника: Digital Spectrum Stabilizer, Direct Digital Signal, Discrete Dynamic System

16) Вычислительная техника: Digital Data Service / System, Doctor of Dental Surgery, dedicated digital line, Dataphone Digital Service (AT&T), Direct Digital Sampling (CD-RW, SCSI), Distributed Directory Service (DCE), Digital Data Storage (Sony, HP, DAT, ISO, ANSI, ECMA, Streamer)

17) Нефть: deep seismic sounding

18) Биохимия: Distillers Dried Solubles

19) Связь: службы Описаний устройств

20) Биотехнология: (Drug D) система доставки лекарств (Drug Delivery System)

21) Фирменный знак: Direct Draw Surface, Discount Dance Supply, Discount Department Stores

22) СМИ: Dark Duel Stories, Digital Dynamic Sound, Dolby Digital Sound

23) Деловая лексика: Deadline Driven Scheduler

24) Сетевые технологии: DISTRIBUTED DOMAIN Server, Data-phone Digital Service, Direct Digital Service, служба передачи цифровых данных

25) Полимеры: diamino diphenyl sulfone, dioxidiphenyl sulfon

26) Автоматика: data dispatching system, document delivery service, dynamic data system

27) Пластмассы: Diaminodiphenyl Sulfone (Epoxy Cure Agent)

28) Хроматография: dilute degradation solution

29) Расширение файла: Data Description Specification, Digital Data Storage, Distributed Database Services, Digital Dataphone Service (AT&T)

30) Должность: Doctor of Dental Surgery (Dentist)

31) Чат: Deep Dark Secrets

32) Базы данных: Data Definition Specifications, Data Description Structure

◊ trabajar con sistema to work systematically o methodically

◊ sistema nervioso nervous system;

◊ entrar en el/salir del sistema to log on/off

1) инструмент; орудие, орудие производства

2) резец; инструмент, режущий инструмент; черновой резец ( зубострогального станка)

3) приспособление; оснастка

4) pl инструментарий; средства; совокупность инструментов

5) обрабатывать инструментом

6) налаживать ( станок)

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- 2D modeling tools

- ACC/DEC processing time

SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy

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Soon after graduating from the Ecole des Mines at St-Etienne in 1910, Chevenard joined the Société de Commentry Fourchambault et Decazeville at their steelworks at Imphy, where he remained for the whole of his career. Imphy had for some years specialized in the production of nickel steels. From this venture emerged the first austenitic nickel-chromium steel, containing 6 per cent chromium and 22–4 per cent nickel and produced commercially in 1895. Most of the alloys required by Guillaume in his search for the low-expansion alloy Invar were made at Imphy. At the Imphy Research Laboratory, established in 1911, Chevenard conducted research into the development of specialized nickel-based alloys. His first success followed from an observation that some of the ferro-nickels were free from the low-temperature brittleness exhibited by conventional steels. To satisfy the technical requirements of Georges Claude, the French cryogenic pioneer, Chevenard was then able in 1912 to develop an alloy containing 55–60 per cent nickel, 1–3 per cent manganese and 0.2–0.4 per cent carbon. This was ductile down to −190°C, at which temperature carbon steel was very brittle.

By 1916 Elinvar, a nickel-iron-chromium alloy with an elastic modulus that did not vary appreciably with changes in ambient temperature, had been identified. This found extensive use in horology and instrument manufacture, and even for the production of high-quality tuning forks. Another very popular alloy was Platinite, which had the same coefficient of thermal expansion as platinum and soda glass. It was used in considerable quantities by incandescent-lamp manufacturers for lead-in wires. Other materials developed by Chevenard at this stage to satisfy the requirements of the electrical industry included resistance alloys, base-metal thermocouple combinations, magnetically soft high-permeability alloys, and nickel-aluminium permanent magnet steels of very high coercivity which greatly improved the power and reliability of car magnetos. Thermostatic bimetals of all varieties soon became an important branch of manufacture at Imphy.

During the remainder of his career at Imphy, Chevenard brilliantly elaborated the work on nickel-chromium-tungsten alloys to make stronger pressure vessels for the Haber and other chemical processes. Another famous alloy that he developed, ATV, contained 35 per cent nickel and 11 per cent chromium and was free from the problem of stress-induced cracking in steam that had hitherto inhibited the development of high-power steam turbines. Between 1912 and 1917, Chevenard recognized the harmful effects of traces of carbon on this type of alloy, and in the immediate postwar years he found efficient methods of scavenging the residual carbon by controlled additions of reactive metals. This led to the development of a range of stabilized austenitic stainless steels which were free from the problems of intercrystalline corrosion and weld decay that then caused so much difficulty to the manufacturers of chemical plant.

Chevenard soon concluded that only the nickel-chromium system could provide a satisfactory basis for the subsequent development of high-temperature alloys. The first published reference to the strengthening of such materials by additions of aluminium and/or titanium occurs in his UK patent of 1929. This strengthening approach was adopted in the later wartime development in Britain of the Nimonic series of alloys, all of which depended for their high-temperature strength upon the precipitated compound Ni3Al.

In 1936 he was studying the effect of what is now known as "thermal fatigue", which contributes to the eventual failure of both gas and steam turbines. He then published details of equipment for assessing the susceptibility of nickel-chromium alloys to this type of breakdown by a process of repeated quenching. Around this time he began to make systematic use of the thermo-gravimetrie balance for high-temperature oxidation studies.

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- overhead way machine