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81 likely

likely [ˈlaɪklɪ]

1. adjective

   a. [result, consequences] probable

• it is likely that... il est probable que... + subj

• it is not likely that... il est peu probable que... + subj

• it's hardly likely that... il est peu probable que... + subj

   b. he is likely to... il est bien possible qu'il... + subj

• to be likely to win/succeed [person] avoir de fortes chances de gagner/réussir

• she is not likely to come il est peu probable qu'elle vienne

• this trend is likely to continue cette tendance va probablement se poursuivre

• he is not likely to succeed il a peu de chances de réussir

• the man most likely to succeed l'homme qui a le plus de chances de réussir

• that is not likely to happen cela a peu de chances de se produire

• they were not likely to forget it ils n'étaient pas près de l'oublier

━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━

► When likely to refers to an unwelcome prospect, risquer may be used.

━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━

• to be likely to fail/refuse [person] risquer d'échouer/de refuser

• she is likely to arrive at any time elle va probablement arriver d'une minute à l'autre ; (unwelcome) elle risque d'arriver d'une minute à l'autre

• this incident is likely to cause trouble cet incident risque de créer des problèmes

   c. ( = plausible) plausible

• a likely story! elle est bonne, celle-là !

   d. ( = promising) he's a likely candidate c'est un candidat qui promet

• he glanced round for a likely-looking person to help him il chercha des yeux une personne susceptible de l'aider

• a likely place for him to be hiding un endroit où il pouvait être caché

2. adverb

   a. (US) ( = probably) probablement

• some prisoners will likely be released soon certains prisonniers seront probablement bientôt libérés

   b. very or most likely très probablement

• it will very or most likely rain il va sûrement pleuvoir

► as likely as not sans doute

   c. (British) (inf) not likely! sûrement pas ! (inf)

• are you going? -- not likely! tu y vas ? -- sûrement pas !

* * *
['laɪklɪ] 1.
adjective

1) ( probable) probable; [explanation] plausible

to be likely to fail — risquer d'échouer

to be likely to become president — avoir de fortes chances de devenir président

the man most likely to win — l'homme qui a le plus de chances de gagner

it is ou seems likely that — il est probable que

it is not ou hardly likely that — il y a peu de chances que (+ subj)

he looks likely to fail — il échouera probablement

a likely story! — iron à d'autres! (colloq)

2) ( promising) [person, candidate] prometteur/-euse

3) ( potential) [client, candidate] potentiel/-ielle
2.
adverb ( probably) probablement

as likely as not — probablement

not likely! — (colloq) GB que tu crois! (colloq)

English-French dictionary > likely
82 likely

1. a обыкн. вероятный, возможный

where are you likely to be this evening? — где вы предполагаете быть сегодня вечером?, где вы скорее всего будете сегодня вечером?

it is quite likely — весьма вероятно

I am likely to be in London next week — я, вероятно, буду в Лондоне на следующей неделе

most likely time — наиболее вероятная оценка времени

most likely estimation — наиболее вероятная оценка

as likely as not — весьма вероятно

likely outcome — вероятный исход

very likely — весьма вероятно

2. a правдоподобный; заслуживающий доверия

a likely story — правдоподобная история

3. a подходящий, удовлетворительный

he seems a likely young fellow for the job — он, по-видимому, подходящий молодой человек для этой работы

4. a подходящий, удобный

likely place — подходящее место

5. a подающий надежды

a likely subject — многообещающая тема

6. a амер. красивый; с располагающей внешностью

a likely child — милое дитя

7. adv вероятно

I shall very likely see you again — я скорее всего ещё увижусь с вами

Синонимический ряд:

1. believable (adj.) believable; credible; plausible

2. doubtless (adj.) doubtless; presumably; probably

3. hopeful (adj.) cheering; couleur de rose; encouraging; heartening; hopeful; promiseful; promising; roseate; rose-colored; rosy

4. probable (adj.) appropriate; apt; conceivable; disposed; earthly; given; imaginable; inclined; liable; mortal; possible; presumable; presumptive; probable; prone; suitable; susceptible

5. presumably (other) assumably; doubtless; possibly; presumably; presumptively

6. probably (other) as likely as not (colloquial); in all likelihood; like as not (colloquial); probably; well

Антонимический ряд:

improbable; insuperable; insurmountable; unattainable; unlikely; unobtainable

English-Russian base dictionary > likely
83 likely

['laɪklɪ] 1.
aggettivo

1) (probable) probabile; [ explanation] verosimile

to be likely to fail — rischiare di fallire

to be likely to pass one's exams — avere buone probabilità di passare gli esami

the man most likely to win — l'uomo che ha più probabilità di vincere

it is o seems likely that è probabile che; it is not likely that o it is hardly likely that è improbabile che; a likely story! iron. questa è bella! a likely excuse! — iron. bella scusa!

2) (promising) [ candidate] promettente

3) (potential) [client, candidate] potenziale
2.
avverbio (probably) probabilmente

as likely as not — probabilmente

not likely! — BE colloq. nemmeno per sogno! neanche per idea!

* * *

adjective

1) (probable: the likely result; It's likely that she'll succeed.) probabile

2) (looking etc as if it might be good, useful, suitable etc: a likely spot for a picnic; She's the most likely person for the job.) adatto

* * *
['laɪklɪ] 1.
aggettivo

1) (probable) probabile; [ explanation] verosimile

to be likely to fail — rischiare di fallire

to be likely to pass one's exams — avere buone probabilità di passare gli esami

the man most likely to win — l'uomo che ha più probabilità di vincere

it is o seems likely that è probabile che; it is not likely that o it is hardly likely that è improbabile che; a likely story! iron. questa è bella! a likely excuse! — iron. bella scusa!

2) (promising) [ candidate] promettente

3) (potential) [client, candidate] potenziale
2.
avverbio (probably) probabilmente

as likely as not — probabilmente

not likely! — BE colloq. nemmeno per sogno! neanche per idea!

English-Italian dictionary > likely
84 Theophilus Presbyter

SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy, Paper and printing

[br]

fl. late eleventh/early twelfth century

[br]

German author of the most detailed medieval treatise relating to technology.

[br]

The little that is known of Theophilus is what can be inferred from his great work, De diversis artibus. He was a Benedictine monk and priest living in north-west Germany, probably near an important art centre. He was an educated man, conversant with scholastic philosophy and at the same time a skilled, practising craftsman. Even his identity is obscure: Theophilus is a pseudonym, possibly for Roger of Helmarshausen, for the little that is known of both is in agreement.

Evidence in De diversis suggests that it was probably composed during 1110 to 1140. White (see Further Reading) goes on to suggest late 1122 or early 1123, on the grounds that Theophilus only learned of St Bernard of Clairvaulx's diatribe against lavish church ornamentation during the writing of the work, for it is only in the preface to Book 3 that Theophilus seeks to justify his craft. St Bernard's Apologia can be dated late 1122. No other medieval work on art combines the comprehensive range, orderly presentation and attention to detail as does De diversis. It has been described as an encyclopedia of medieval skills and crafts. It also offers the best and often the only description of medieval technology, including the first direct reference to papermaking in the West, the earliest medieval account of bell-founding and the most complete account of organ building. Many metallurgical techniques are described in detail, such as the making of a crucible furnace and bloomery hearth.

The treatise is divided into three books, the first on the materials and art of painting, the second on glassmaking, including stained glass, glass vessels and the blown-cylinder method for flat glass, and the final and longest book on metalwork, including working in iron, copper, gold and silver for church use, such as chalices and censers. The main texts are no mere compilations, but reveal the firsthand knowledge that can only be gained by a skilled craftsman. The prefaces to each book present perhaps the only medieval expression of an artist's ideals and how he sees his art in relation to the general scheme of things. For Theophilus, his art is a gift from God and every skill an act of praise and piety. Theophilus is thus an indispensable source for medieval crafts and technology, but there are indications that the work was also well known at the time of its composition and afterwards.

[br]

Bibliography

The Wolfenbuttel and Vienna manuscripts of De diversis are the earliest, both dating from the first half of the twelfth century, while the British Library copy, in an early thirteenth-century hand, is the most complete. Two incomplete copies from the thirteenth century held at Cambridge and Leipzig offer help in arriving at a definitive edition.

There are several references to De diversis in sixteenth-century printed works, such as Cornelius Agrippa (1530) and Josias Simmler (1585). The earliest printed edition of

De diversis was prepared by G.H.Lessing in 1781 with the title, much used since, Diversarium artium schedula.

There are two good recent editions: Theophilus: De diversis artibus. The Various Arts, 1964, trans. with introd. by C.R.Dodwell, London: Thomas Nelson, and On Diverse Arts. The Treatise of Theophilus, 1963, trans. with introd. and notes by J.G.Harthorne and C.S.Smith, Chicago University Press.

Further Reading

Lynn White, 1962, "Theophilus redivivus", Technology and Culture 5:224–33 (a comparative review of Theophilus (op. cit.) and On Diverse Arts (op. cit.)).

LRD

Biographical history of technology > Theophilus Presbyter
85 likely

adjective

1) (probable: the likely result; It's likely that she'll succeed.) probable

2) (looking etc as if it might be good, useful, suitable etc: a likely spot for a picnic; She's the most likely person for the job.) propicio, conveniente

likely adj

1. probable

in July it's likely to be hot en julio es probable que haga calor

2. que tiene posibilidades

who is most likely to win the election? ¿quién tiene más posibilidades de ganar las elecciones?

El comparativo de likely se escribe likelier; el superlativo se escribe likeliest

likely

tr['laɪklɪ]

adjective

1 probable

■ he's likely to leave late es probable que salga tarde

adverb

1 probablemente

■ I'll most likely come by bus lo más probable es que venga en autobús

\

SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL

as likely as not familiar lo más seguro

not bloody likely! familiar ¡ni hablar!, ¡y un jamón!

that's a likely story! familiar ironic ¡anda ya!

likely ['laɪkli] adv

: probablemente

most likely he's sick: lo más probable es que esté enfermo

they're likely to come: es probable que vengan

likely adj, - lier ; - est

1) probable: probable

to be likely to: ser muy probable que

2) suitable: apropiado, adecuado

3) believable: verosímil, creíble

4) promising: prometedor

likely

adj.

• abonado, -a adj.

• fácil adj.

• indicado, -a adj.

• probable adj.

• prometedor adj.

• verosímil adj.

adv.

• probablemente adv.

I 'laɪkli
adjective -lier, -liest

a) ( probable) <outcome/winner> probable

rain is likely — es posible or probable que llueva

it's more than likely that she's out — lo más seguro es que no esté

a likely story! — (iro) cuéntame otra! (iró), no me digas! (iró)

to be likely to + INF: it is likely to be a tough match lo más probable es que sea un partido difícil; are you likely to be in tomorrow? — ¿estarás en casa mañana?

b) ( promising)

she's the most likely applicant — es la candidata con más posibilidades

this is a likely place to find a telephone — aquí tiene que haber un teléfono

II

adverb

most likely she'll forget — lo más probable es que se olvide

as likely as not it'll be closed — lo más probable es que esté cerrado

['laɪklɪ]
1. ADJ
(compar likelier) (superl likeliest)
1) (=probable) [outcome, consequences] probable

what kind of changes are likely? — ¿qué tipo de cambios son probables?

snow is likely on high ground — es probable que nieve en zonas altas

it is likely that — es probable que + subjun

it is likely to rain later on — es probable que llueva más tarde

they are not likely to come — no es probable que vengan

he's likely to do anything — puede hacer cualquier cosa

he's the man most likely to win — es el que más probabilidades tiene de ganar

• a likely story or tale! — iro ¡menudo cuento!, ¡y yo que me lo creo! iro

2) (=suitable)

this seems a likely spot for a picnic — este parece un buen sitio para hacer un picnic

she's the most likely candidate — es la candidata que parece más idónea

here comes a likely-looking character — aquí viene un tipo que parece adecuado or que bien puede servir

2.

ADV (=probably)

she will very or most likely arrive late — lo más probable es que llegue tarde

some prisoners will likely be released soon — (US) es probable que pronto se deje en libertad a algunos prisioneros

• (as) likely as not he'll arrive early — lo más probable es que llegue pronto, seguramente llegará pronto

• this is more than likely true — lo más probable or seguro es que sea cierto

"I expect she'll be re-elected" - "yes, more than likely" — -me imagino que la volverán a elegir -si, seguramente

• not likely! * — ¡ni hablar! *

* * *

I ['laɪkli]
adjective -lier, -liest

a) ( probable) <outcome/winner> probable

rain is likely — es posible or probable que llueva

it's more than likely that she's out — lo más seguro es que no esté

a likely story! — (iro) cuéntame otra! (iró), no me digas! (iró)

to be likely to + INF: it is likely to be a tough match lo más probable es que sea un partido difícil; are you likely to be in tomorrow? — ¿estarás en casa mañana?

b) ( promising)

she's the most likely applicant — es la candidata con más posibilidades

this is a likely place to find a telephone — aquí tiene que haber un teléfono

II

adverb

most likely she'll forget — lo más probable es que se olvide

as likely as not it'll be closed — lo más probable es que esté cerrado

English-spanish dictionary > likely
86 must

1. auxiliary verb, only in pres. and past
must, neg. (coll.) mustn't

1) (have to) müssen; with negative dürfen

you must not/never do that — das darfst du nicht/nie tun

you must remember... — du darfst nicht vergessen,...; du musst daran denken,...

you must listen to me! — hör mir zu!

you mustn't do that again! — tu das [ja] nie wieder!

I must get back to the office — ich muss wieder ins Büro

must I? — muss das sein?

I must have a new dress — ich brauche ein neues Kleid

if you must know — wenn du es unbedingt wissen willst

2) (ought to) müssen; with negative dürfen

you must think about it — du solltest [unbedingt] darüber nachdenken

I must not sit here drinking coffee — ich sollte od. dürfte eigentlich nicht hier sitzen und Kaffee trinken

3) (be certain to) müssen

you must be tired — du musst müde sein; du bist bestimmt müde

you must be crazy — du bist wohl wahnsinnig!

it must be about 3 o'clock — es wird wohl od. dürfte od. müsste etwa 3 Uhr sein

it must have stopped raining by now — es dürfte od. müsste inzwischen aufgehört haben zu regnen

there must have been forty of them — (forty) es müssen vierzig gewesen sein; (probably about forty) es dürften etwa vierzig gewesen sein

4) (expr. indignation or annoyance)

he must come just when... — er muss/musste natürlich od. ausgerechnet kommen, wenn/als...
2. noun
(coll.) Muß, das

be a must for somebody/something — ein Muß für jemanden/unerlässlich für etwas sein

* * *
1. negative short form - mustn't; verb
1) (used with another verb to express need: We must go to the shops to get milk.) müssen

2) (used, usually with another verb, to suggest a probability: They must be finding it very difficult to live in such a small house.) müssen (Konjunktiv)

3) (used, usually with another verb, to express duty, an order, rule etc: You must come home before midnight; All competitors must be under 15 years of age.) müssen
2. noun
(something necessary, essential, or not to be missed: This new tent is a must for the serious camper.) das Muß

- academic.ru/117467/must_have">must have

* * *

must

[mʌst]

I. aux vb

1. (be obliged) müssen

all handbags \must be left at the cloakroom for security reasons lassen Sie bitte aus Sicherheitsgründen alle Handtaschen in der Garderobe

▪ \must not [or \mustn't] nicht dürfen

you \mustn't say anything to anyone about this matter darüber darfst du mit niemandem sprechen

2. (be required) müssen

you \must take these pills every day Sie müssen diese Tabletten täglich einnehmen

\must you leave so soon? müssen Sie schon so früh gehen?

3. (should) ich sollte/du solltest/er/sie/es sollten/wir sollten/ihr solltet/sie sollten

you really \must read this book dieses Buch sollten Sie wirklich einmal lesen

you \must come and visit us Sie sollten uns bald einmal besuchen kommen

4. (be likely) müssen

it \must be true das muss wohl stimmen

you \must be very tired ihr seid bestimmt sehr müde

there \must be something wrong es muss ein Problem geben [o etwas vorgefallen sein

5. (be certain to) müssen

I \must seem very rude when I say things like that ich wirke bestimmt sehr grob, wenn ich so etwas sage

she \must be wondering where I've got to sie wird sich bestimmt fragen, wo ich abgeblieben bin

you \must really like her du musst sie wirklich sehr mögen

you \must be joking! du machst wohl Witze!

you \must be out of your mind! du hast wohl den Verstand verloren! fam

6. (be necessary) müssen

I \must ask you not to smoke in my house ich muss Sie bitten, in meinem Haus nicht zu rauchen

you \mustn't worry too much about it jetzt mach dir deswegen nicht so viele Sorgen

7. (show irritation) müssen

\must you always have the last word? musst du immer das letzte Wort haben?

smoke if you \must then dann rauche, wenn es [denn] unbedingt sein muss

8. (intend to) müssen

I \mustn't forget to put the bins out tonight ich darf nicht vergessen, heute Abend den Abfall rauszubringen

II. n no pl Muss nt kein pl

▪ to be a \must ein Muss nt sein

if you live in the country a car is a \must wenn man auf dem Land lebt, ist ein Wagen unerlässlich

this book is a \must! dieses Buch muss man gelesen haben!

III. in compounds

this film is a \must-see diesen Film muss man einfach gesehen haben

* * *
I [mʌst]
1. vb aux present tense only

1) müssen

you must ( go and) see this church — Sie müssen sich (dat) diese Kirche unbedingt ansehen

do it if you must — tu, was du nicht lassen kannst

if you must know — wenn du es unbedingt wissen willst

we must away (old) — wir müssen fort

2) (in neg sentences) dürfen

I mustn't forget that — ich darf das nicht vergessen

3)

(= be certain to) he must be there by now — er ist wohl inzwischen da

he ( surely) must be there by now — er MUSS doch inzwischen da sein

I must have lost it — ich habe es wohl verloren, ich muss es wohl verloren haben; (with stress on must) ich muss es verloren haben

you must have heard of him — Sie haben bestimmt schon von ihm gehört; (with stress on must) Sie müssen doch schon von ihm gehört haben

there must have been five of them — es müssen fünf gewesen sein; (about five) es waren wohl etwa fünf; (at least five) es waren bestimmt fünf

he must be older than that — er muss älter sein

there must be a reason for it — es gibt bestimmt eine Erklärung dafür; (with stress on must) es muss doch eine Erklärung dafür geben

it must be about 3 o'clock — es wird wohl (so) etwa 3 Uhr sein, es muss so gegen 3 Uhr sein

I must have been dreaming —

I must have been mad — ich muss (wohl) wahnsinnig gewesen sein

you must be crazy! — du bist ja or wohl wahnsinnig!

4) (showing annoyance) müssen

he must come just now — natürlich muss er gerade jetzt kommen

2. n (inf)
Muss nt
/an umbrella is a must — man braucht unbedingt Humor/einen Schirm, Humor/ein Schirm ist unerlässlich

tighter security is a must — bessere Sicherheitskontrollen sind unerlässlich

this novel/film is a must for everyone — diesen Roman/diesen Film muss man einfach or unbedingt gelesen/gesehen haben
II
n
(= mustiness) Muffigkeit f III
n (WINEMAKING)
Most m
* * *

must¹ [mʌst]

A v/aux 3. sg präs must, prät must, inf und Partizipien fehlen

1. ich, er, sie, es muss, du musst, wir, sie, Sie müssen, ihr müsst:

all men must die alle Menschen müssen sterben;

I must go now ich muss jetzt gehen;

must he do that? muss er das tun?;

he must be over eighty er muss über achtzig (Jahre alt) sein;

it must look strange es muss (notwendigerweise) merkwürdig aussehen;

you must have heard it du musst es gehört haben

2. (mit Negationen) er, sie, es darf, du darfst, wir, sie, Sie dürfen, ihr dürft:

you must not smoke here du darfst hier nicht rauchen

3. (als prät) er, sie, es musste, du musstest, wir, sie, Sie mussten, ihr musstet:

it was too late now, he must go on es war bereits zu spät, er musste weitergehen;

just as I was busiest, he must come gerade als ich am meisten zu tun hatte, musste er kommen

4. (als prät mit Negationen) er, sie, es durfte, du durftest, wir, sie, Sie durften, ihr durftet

B adj unerlässlich, unbedingt zu erledigen(d) (etc), absolut notwendig:

a must book, bes US a must read book ein Buch, das man (unbedingt) lesen oder gelesen haben muss;

a must see play bes US ein Stück, das man unbedingt sehen oder gesehen haben muss

C s Muss n, Unerlässlichkeit f, absolute Notwendigkeit:

it is a(n absolute) must es ist unerlässlich oder unbedingt erforderlich;

this place is a must for tourists diesen Ort muss man (als Tourist) gesehen haben

must² [mʌst] s Most m

must³ [mʌst] s

1. Moder m, Schimmel m

2. Dumpfigkeit f, Modrigkeit f

must⁴ [mʌst]

A s Brunst f, Wut f (männlicher Elefanten oder Kamele)

B adj brünstig, wütend

* * *
1. auxiliary verb, only in pres. and past
must, neg. (coll.) mustn't

1) (have to) müssen; with negative dürfen

you must not/never do that — das darfst du nicht/nie tun

you must remember... — du darfst nicht vergessen,...; du musst daran denken,...

you must listen to me! — hör mir zu!

you mustn't do that again! — tu das [ja] nie wieder!

I must get back to the office — ich muss wieder ins Büro

must I? — muss das sein?

I must have a new dress — ich brauche ein neues Kleid

if you must know — wenn du es unbedingt wissen willst

2) (ought to) müssen; with negative dürfen

you must think about it — du solltest [unbedingt] darüber nachdenken

I must not sit here drinking coffee — ich sollte od. dürfte eigentlich nicht hier sitzen und Kaffee trinken

3) (be certain to) müssen

you must be tired — du musst müde sein; du bist bestimmt müde

you must be crazy — du bist wohl wahnsinnig!

it must be about 3 o'clock — es wird wohl od. dürfte od. müsste etwa 3 Uhr sein

it must have stopped raining by now — es dürfte od. müsste inzwischen aufgehört haben zu regnen

there must have been forty of them — (forty) es müssen vierzig gewesen sein; (probably about forty) es dürften etwa vierzig gewesen sein

4) (expr. indignation or annoyance)

he must come just when... — er muss/musste natürlich od. ausgerechnet kommen, wenn/als...
2. noun
(coll.) Muß, das

be a must for somebody/something — ein Muß für jemanden/unerlässlich für etwas sein

* * *

aux.

muss aux.

musst aux. modal

müssen aux.

English-german dictionary > must
87 Neri, Antonio Ludovico

SUBJECT AREA: Chemical technology, Photography, film and optics

[br]

b. 29 February 1576 Florence, Italy

d. 1614 Florence, Italy

[br]

Italian glassmaker.

[br]

Neri entered the Church and by 1601 was a priest in the household of Alamanno Bertolini in Florence. There he met the Portuguese Sir Emanuel Ximenes, with whom he shared an interest in chemistry. The two later corresponded and the twenty-seven letters extant from Ximenes, who was living in Antwerp, are the main source of information about Neri's life. At the same time, Neri was working as a craftsman in the Medici glasshouse in Florence and then in their works at Pisa. These glasshouses had been flourishing since the fifteenth century with the help of Muranese glassmakers imported from Venice. Ximenes persuaded Neri to spend some time with the glassmakers in Antwerp, probably from 1603/4, for the correspondence breaks off at that point. A final letter in March 1611 refers to Neri's recent return to Florence. In the following year, Neri published the work by which he is known, the L'arte vetraria, the first general treatise on glassmaking. Neri's plan for a further book describing his chemical and medical experiments was thwarted by his early death. L'arte belongs to the medieval tradition of manuscript recipe books. It is divided into seven books, the first being the most interesting, dealing with the materials of glassmaking and their mixing and melting to form crystal and other colourless glasses. Other sections deal with coloured glasses and the making of enamels for goldsmiths' use. Although it was noted by Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), the book made little impression for half a century, the second edition not appearing until 1661. The first Venice edition came out two years later, with a second in 1678. Due to a decline in scientific activity in Italy at this time, L'arte had more influence elsewhere in Europe, especially England, Holland and France. It began to make a real impact with the appearance in 1662 of the English translation by Christopher Merrett (1614–95), physician, naturalist and founder member of the Royal Society. This edition included Merrett's annotations, descriptions of the tools used by English glassmakers and a translation of Agricola's short account of glassmaking in his De re metallica of 1556. Later translations were based on the Merrett translation rather than the Italian original. Ravenscroft probably used Neri's account of lead glass as a starting point for his own researches in the 1670s.

[br]

Bibliography

1612, L'arte vetraria, 7 vols; reprinted 1980, ed. R.Barovier, Milan: Edizioni Polifilo (the introd., in Italian, England and French, contains the most detailed account of Neri's life and work).

LRD

Biographical history of technology > Neri, Antonio Ludovico
88 Savery, Thomas

SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering

[br]

b. c. 1650 probably Shilston, near Modbury, Devonshire, England

d. c. 15 May 1715 London, England

[br]

English inventor of a partially successful steam-driven pump for raising water.

[br]

Little is known of the early years of Savery's life and no trace has been found that he served in the Army, so the title "Captain" is thought to refer to some mining appointment, probably in the West of England. He may have been involved in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, for later he was well known to William of Orange. From 1705 to 1714 he was Treasurer for Sick and Wounded Seamen, and in 1714 he was appointed Surveyor of the Water Works at Hampton Court, a post he held until his death the following year. He was interested in mechanical devices; amongst his early contrivances was a clock.

He was the most prolific inventor of his day, applying for seven patents, including one in 1649, for polishing plate glass which may have been used. His idea for 1697 for propelling ships with paddle-wheels driven by a capstan was a failure, although regarded highly by the King, and was published in his first book, Navigation Improved (1698). He tried to patent a new type of floating mill in 1707, and an idea in 1710 for baking sea coal or other fuel in an oven to make it clean and pure.

His most famous invention, however, was the one patented in 1698 "for raising water by the impellent force of fire" that Savery said would drain mines or low-lying land, raise water to supply towns or houses, and provide a source of water for turning mills through a water-wheel. Basically it consisted of a receiver which was first filled with steam and then cooled to create a vacuum by having water poured over the outside. The water to be pumped was drawn into the receiver from a lower sump, and then high-pressure steam was readmitted to force the water up a pipe to a higher level. It was demonstrated to the King and the Royal Society and achieved some success, for a few were installed in the London area and a manufactory set up at Salisbury Court in London. He published a book, The Miner's Friend, about his engine in 1702, but although he made considerable improvements, due to excessive fuel consumption and materials which could not withstand the steam pressures involved, no engines were installed in mines as Savery had hoped. His patent was extended in 1699 until 1733 so that it covered the atmospheric engine of Thomas Newcomen who was forced to join Savery and his other partners to construct this much more practical engine.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

FRS 1706.

Bibliography

1698, Navigation Improved.

1702, The Miner's Friend.

Further Reading

The entry in the Dictionary of National Biography (1897, Vol. L, London: Smith Elder \& Co.) has been partially superseded by more recent research. The Transactions of the Newcomen Society contain various papers; for example, Rhys Jenkins, 1922–3, "Savery, Newcomen and the early history of the steam engine", Vol. 3; A.Stowers, 1961–2, "Thomas Newcomen's first steam engine 250 years ago and the initial development of steam power", Vol. 34; A.Smith, 1977–8, "Steam and the city: the committee of proprietors of the invention for raising water by fire", 1715–1735, Vol. 49; and J.S.P.Buckland, 1977–8, "Thomas Savery, his steam engine workshop of 1702", Vol. 49. Brief accounts may be found in H.W. Dickinson, 1938, A Short History of the Steam Engine, Cambridge University Press, and R.L. Hills, 1989, Power from Steam. A History of the Stationary Steam Engine, Cambridge University Press. There is another biography in T.I. Williams (ed.), 1969, A Biographical Dictionary of Scientists, London: A. \& C.Black.

RLH

Biographical history of technology > Savery, Thomas
89 Artificial Intelligence

   1) Programs and the Complexity of Human Mental Processes

   In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)

   2) Artificial Intelligence Is an Engineering Discipline

   Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)

   3) A Sceptical View of Artificial Intelligence

   Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inﬂated predictions....

   When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)

   4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually

   Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)

   5) Problems in Machine Intelligence Arise Because Things Obvious to Any Person Are Not Represented in the Program

   Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)

   6) The Meaning of a Symbolic Description

   What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)

   7) The Principle of Artificial Intelligence

   [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)

   8) Artificial Intelligence Recognizes the Need for Knowledge in Its Systems

   The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)

   9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form

   The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)

    10) There Are Many Types of Reasoning

   There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:

    Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins ﬂy? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can ﬂy, so robins probably can ﬂy."

    Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)

    11) Programs Are Beginning to Do Things That Critics Have Asserted to Be Impossible

   Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)

    12) The Synthesis of Man and Machine

   Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)

    13) The Thesis of Good Old-Fashioned Artificial Intelligence (GOFAI)

   The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)

    14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation

   It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)

    15) Four Kinds of Artificial Intelligence

   We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.

   ♦ Nonpsychological AI

   Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.

   ♦ Weak Psychological AI

   Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.

   ♦ Strong Psychological AI

... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)

   ♦ Suprapsychological AI

   Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)

    16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts

   Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)

    17) Form and Content Are Not Fundamentally Different

   Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)

    18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System

   Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)

    19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence

   The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.

   The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)

    20) Mathematical Logic Provides the Basis for Theory in AI

   The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....

   AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)

    21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions

   In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)

    22) Definitions of Artificial Intelligence

   Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)

    23) The Computer Can Not Be a Model of the Mind

   Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)

    24) Computers Will Not Always Be Inferior to Human Brains

   The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence
90 Lee, Revd William

SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

[br]

d. c. 1615

[br]

English inventor of the first knitting machine, called the stocking frame.

[br]

It would seem that most of the stories about Lee's invention of the stocking frame cannot be verified by any contemporary evidence, and the first written accounts do not appear until the second half of the seventeenth century. The claim that he was Master of Arts from St John's College, Cambridge, was first made in 1607 but cannot be checked because the records have not survived. The date for the invention of the knitting machine as being 1589 was made at the same time, but again there is no supporting evidence. There is no evidence that Lee was Vicar of Calverton, nor that he was in Holy Orders at all. Likewise there is no evidence for the existence of the woman, whether she was girlfriend, fiancée or wife, who is said to have inspired the invention, and claims regarding the involvement of Queen Elizabeth I and her refusal to grant a patent because the stockings were wool and not silk are also without contemporary foundation. Yet the first known reference shows that Lee was the inventor of the knitting machine, for the partnership agreement between him and George Brooke dated 6 June 1600 states that "William Lee hath invented a very speedy manner of making works usually wrought by knitting needles as stockings, waistcoats and such like". This agreement was to last for twenty-two years, but terminated prematurely when Brooke was executed for high treason in 1603. Lee continued to try and exploit his invention, for in 1605 he described himself as "Master of Arts" when he petitioned the Court of Aldermen of the City of London as the first inventor of an engine to make silk stockings. In 1609 the Weavers' Company of London recorded Lee as "a weaver of silk stockings by engine". These petitions suggest that he was having difficulty in establishing his invention, which may be why in 1612 there is a record of him in Rouen, France, where he hoped to have better fortune. If he had been invited there by Henry IV, his hopes were dashed by the assassination of the king soon afterwards. He was to supply four knitting machines, and there is further evidence that he was in France in 1615, but it is thought that he died in that country soon afterwards.

The machine Lee invented was probably the most complex of its day, partly because the need to use silk meant that the needles were very fine. Henson (1970) in 1831 took five pages in his book to describe knitting on a stocking frame which had over 2,066 pieces. To knit a row of stitches took eleven separate stages, and great care and watchfulness were required to ensure that all the loops were equal and regular. This shows how complex the machines were and points to Lee's great achievement in actually making one. The basic principles of its operation remained unaltered throughout its extraordinarily long life, and a few still remained in use commercially in the early 1990s.

[br]

Further Reading

J.T.Millington and S.D.Chapman (eds), 1989, Four Centuries of Machine Knitting, Commemorating William Lee's Invention of the Stocking Frame in 1589, Leicester (N.Harte examines the surviving evidence for the life of William Lee and this must be considered as the most up-to-date biographical information).

Dictionary of National Biography (this contains only the old stories).

Earlier important books covering Lee's life and invention are G.Henson, 1970, History of the Framework Knitters, reprint, Newton Abbot (orig. pub. 1831); and W.Felkin, 1967, History of the Machine-wrought Hosiery and Lace Manufactures, reprint, Newton Abbot (orig. pub. 1867).

M.Palmer, 1984, Framework Knitting, Aylesbury (a simple account of the mechanism of the stocking frame).

R.L.Hills, "William Lee and his knitting machine", Journal of the Textile Institute 80(2) (a more detailed account).

M.Grass and A.Grass, 1967, Stockings for a Queen. The Life of William Lee, the Elizabethan Inventor, London.

RLH

Biographical history of technology > Lee, Revd William
91 наверно

1. нареч.;
вводн. (по всей вероятности) probably, most likely
2. нареч.;
уст. (несомненно) for sure, certainly, exactly, definitely;
without fail разг. (наверняка)

ad. probably

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > наверно
92 небось

вводн.;
разг. I) (вероятно) I suppose;
most likely( that) ;
probably;
I dare say
2) (выражает уверенность) sure, no fear небось, не замерзнешь! ≈ don't worry, you won't get frostbite

разг. probably, surely, I dare say.

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > небось
93 easily

adverb

1) leicht

2) (without doubt) zweifelsohne

it is easily a hundred metres deep — es ist gut und gerne 100 m tief

* * *

adverb

1) (without difficulty: She won the race easily.) mühelos

2) (by far: This is easily the best book I've read this year.) bei weitem

3) (very probably: It may easily rain tomorrow.) glatt

* * *

easi·ly

[ˈi:zɪli]

adv

1. (without difficulty) leicht; (effortlessly also) mühelos

she passed her exam \easily sie bestand ihr Examen mit Leichtigkeit

to be \easily impressed/shaken leicht zu beeindrucken/erschüttern sein

to win \easily spielend gewinnen

2. (quickly) schnell

to tan \easily schnell bräunen [o braun werden

3. (by far)

▪ to be \easily the... + superl ganz klar [o bei Weitem] der/die/das... sein

Venice is \easily the most beautiful city in Europe Venedig ist zweifellos die schönste Stadt Europas

4. (probably) [sehr] leicht

his guess could \easily be wrong seine Vermutung könnte genauso gut falsch sein

\easily possible gut möglich

5. (at least) gut und gern[e] fam, locker sl

* * *
['iːzIlɪ]
adv

1) (= without difficulty) leicht

easily accessible (place) —

they now have easily available travel — sie können jetzt ohne Schwierigkeiten reisen

he learnt to swim easily — er lernte mühelos schwimmen

2) (= possibly) can, may leicht; could, might gut

dishwashers can easily ruin hand-painted china — Spülmaschinen können handbemaltes Porzellan leicht ruinieren

she might/could easily decide to cancel — es könnte gut sein, dass sie sich entscheidet abzusagen

it could just as easily happen here — es könnte genauso gut hier passieren

3) (= unquestionably with figures) gut und gerne; (+ superl) eindeutig, mit Abstand

it's easily 25 miles — es sind gut und gerne 25 Meilen

they are easily the best — sie sind eindeutig or mit Abstand die Besten

4) (= in a relaxed manner) talk, breathe ganz entspannt

* * *

easily [ˈiːzılı] adv

1. leicht, mühelos, mit Leichtigkeit, bequem, glatt:

easily digestible leicht verdaulich

2. a) ohne Zweifel:

that may easily be the case das kann durchaus passieren

b) mit Abstand, bei Weitem

c) ohne Weiteres:

he could easily be her father er könnte leicht ihr Vater sein

* * *

adverb

1) leicht

2) (without doubt) zweifelsohne

it is easily a hundred metres deep — es ist gut und gerne 100 m tief

* * *

adv.

bei weitem adv.

leicht adv.

sicher adv.

English-german dictionary > easily
94 Hedley, William

SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Mining and extraction technology, Railways and locomotives

[br]

b. 13 July 1779 Newburn, Northumberland, England

d. 9 January 1843 Lanchester, Co. Durham, England

[br]

English coal-mine manager, pioneer in the construction and use of steam locomotives.

[br]

The Wylam wagonway passed Newburn, and Hedley, who went to school at Wylam, must have been familiar with this wagonway from childhood. It had been built c.1748 to carry coal from Wylam Colliery to the navigable limit of the Tyne at Lemington. In 1805 Hedley was appointed viewer, or manager, of Wylam Colliery by Christopher Blackett, who had inherited the colliery and wagonway in 1800. Unlike most Tyneside wagonways, the gradient of the Wylam line was insufficient for loaded wagons to run down by gravity and they had to be hauled by horses. Blackett had a locomotive, of the type designed by Richard Trevithick, built at Gateshead as early as 1804 but did not take delivery, probably because his wooden track was not strong enough. In 1808 Blackett and Hedley relaid the wagonway with plate rails of the type promoted by Benjamin Outram, and in 1812, following successful introduction of locomotives at Middleton by John Blenkinsop, Blackett asked Hedley to investigate the feasibility of locomotives at Wylam. The expense of re-laying with rack rails was unwelcome, and Hedley experimented to find out the relationship between the weight of a locomotive and the load it could move relying on its adhesion weight alone. He used first a model test carriage, which survives at the Science Museum, London, and then used a full-sized test carriage laden with weights in varying quantities and propelled by men turning handles. Having apparently satisfied himself on this point, he had a locomotive incorporating the frames and wheels of the test carriage built. The work was done at Wylam by Thomas Waters, who was familiar with the 1804 locomotive, Timothy Hackworth, foreman smith, and Jonathan Forster, enginewright. This locomotive, with cast-iron boiler and single cylinder, was unsatisfactory: Hackworth and Forster then built another locomotive to Hedley's design, with a wrought-iron return-tube boiler, two vertical external cylinders and drive via overhead beams through pinions to the two axles. This locomotive probably came into use in the spring of 1814: it performed well and further examples of the type were built. Their axle loading, however, was too great for the track and from about 1815 each locomotive was mounted on two four-wheeled bogies, the bogie having recently been invented by William Chapman. Hedley eventually left Wylam in 1827 to devote himself to other colliery interests. He supported the construction of the Clarence Railway, opened in 1833, and sent his coal over it in trains hauled by his own locomotives. Two of his Wylam locomotives survive— Puffing Billy at the Science Museum, London, and Wylam Dilly at the Royal Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh—though how much of these is original and how much dates from the period 1827–32, when the Wylam line was re-laid with edge rails and the locomotives reverted to four wheels (with flanges), is a matter of mild controversy.

[br]

Further Reading

P.R.B.Brooks, 1980, William Hedley Locomotive Pioneer, Newcastle upon Tyne: Tyne \& Wear Industrial Monuments Trust (a good recent short biography of Hedley, with bibliography).

R.Young, 1975, Timothy Hackworth and the Locomotive, Shildon: Shildon "Stockton \& Darlington Railway" Silver Jubilee Committee; orig. pub. 1923, London.

C.R.Warn, 1976, Waggonways and Early Railways of Northumberland, Newcastle upon Tyne: Frank Graham.

See also: Stephenson, George

PJGR

Biographical history of technology > Hedley, William
95 Houldsworth, Henry

SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

[br]

b. 1797 Manchester (?), England

d. 1868 Manchester (?), England

[br]

English cotton spinner who introduced the differential gear to roving frames in Britain.

[br]

There are two claimants for the person who originated the differential gear as applied to roving frames: one is J.Green, a tinsmith of Mansfield, in his patent of 1823; the other is Arnold, who had applied it in America and patented it in early 1823. This latter was the source for Houldsworth's patent in 1826. It seems that Arnold's gearing was secretly communicated to Houldsworth by Charles Richmond, possibly when Houldsworth visited the United States in 1822–3, but more probably in 1825 when Richmond went to England. In return, Richmond received information about parts of a cylinder printing machine from Houldsworth. In the working of the roving frame, as the rovings were wound onto their bobbins and the diameter of the bobbins increased, the bobbin speed had to be reduced to keep the winding on at the same speed while the flyers and drawing rollers had to maintain their initial speed. Although this could be achieved by moving the driving belt along coned pulleys, this method did not provide enough power and slippage occurred. The differential gear combined the direct drive from the main shaft of the roving frame with that from the cone drive, so that only the latter provided the dif-ference between flyer and bobbin speeds, i.e. the winding speeds, thus taking away most of the power from that belt. Henry Houldsworth Senior (1774–1853) was living in Manchester when his son Henry was born, but by 1800 had moved to Glasgow. He built several mills, including a massive one at Anderston, Scotland, in which a Boulton \& Watt steam engine was installed. Henry Houldsworth Junior was probably back in Manchester by 1826, where he was to become an influential cotton spinner as chief partner in his mills, which he moved out to Reddish in 1863–5. He was also a prominent landowner in Cheetham. When William Fairbairn was considering establishing the Association for the Prevention of Steam Boiler Explosions in 1854, he wanted to find an influential manufacturer and mill-owner and he made a happy choice when he turned to Henry Houldsworth for assistance.

[br]

Bibliography

1826, British patent no. 5,316 (differential gear for roving frames).

Further Reading

Details about Henry Houldsworth Junior are very sparse. The best account of his acquisition of the differential gear is given by D.J.Jeremy, 1981, Transatlantic Industrial Revolution. The Diffusion of Textile Technologies Between Britain and America, 1790–1830, Oxford.

W.English, 1969, The Textile Industry, London (an explanation of the mechanisms of the roving frame).

W.Pole, 1877, The Life of Sir William Fairbairn, Bart., London (provides an account of the beginning of the Manchester Steam Users' Association for the Prevention of Steam-boiler Explosions).

RLH

Biographical history of technology > Houldsworth, Henry
96 Kay (of Bury), John

SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

[br]

b. 16 July 1704 Walmersley, near Bury, Lancashire, England

d. 1779 France

[br]

English inventor of the flying shuttle.

[br]

John Kay was the youngest of five sons of a yeoman farmer of Walmersley, near Bury, Lancashire, who died before his birth. John was apprenticed to a reedmaker, and just before he was 21 he married a daughter of John Hall of Bury and carried on his trade in that town until 1733. It is possible that his first patent, taken out in 1730, was connected with this business because it was for an engine that made mohair thread for tailors and twisted and dressed thread; such thread could have been used to bind up the reeds used in looms. He also improved the reeds by making them from metal instead of cane strips so they lasted much longer and could be made to be much finer. His next patent in 1733, was a double one. One part of it was for a batting machine to remove dust from wool by beating it with sticks, but the patent is better known for its description of the flying shuttle. Kay placed boxes to receive the shuttle at either end of the reed or sley. Across the open top of these boxes was a metal rod along which a picking peg could slide and drive the shuttle out across the loom. The pegs at each end were connected by strings to a stick that was held in the right hand of the weaver and which jerked the shuttle out of the box. The shuttle had wheels to make it "fly" across the warp more easily, and ran on a shuttle race to support and guide it. Not only was weaving speeded up, but the weaver could produce broader cloth without any aid from a second person. This invention was later adapted for the power loom. Kay moved to Colchester and entered into partnership with a baymaker named Solomon Smith and a year later was joined by William Carter of Ballingdon, Essex. His shuttle was received with considerable hostility in both Lancashire and Essex, but it was probably more his charge of 15 shillings a year for its use that roused the antagonism. From 1737 he was much involved with lawsuits to try and protect his patent, particularly the part that specified the method of winding the thread onto a fixed bobbin in the shuttle. In 1738 Kay patented a windmill for working pumps and an improved chain pump, but neither of these seems to have been successful. In 1745, with Joseph Stell of Keighley, he patented a narrow fabric loom that could be worked by power; this type may have been employed by Gartside in Manchester soon afterwards. It was probably through failure to protect his patent rights that Kay moved to France, where he arrived penniless in 1747. He went to the Dutch firm of Daniel Scalongne, woollen manufacturers, in Abbeville. The company helped him to apply for a French patent for his shuttle, but Kay wanted the exorbitant sum of £10,000. There was much discussion and eventually Kay set up a workshop in Paris, where he received a pension of 2,500 livres. However, he was to face the same problems as in England with weavers copying his shuttle without permission. In 1754 he produced two machines for making card clothing: one pierced holes in the leather, while the other cut and sharpened the wires. These were later improved by his son, Robert Kay. Kay returned to England briefly, but was back in France in 1758. He was involved with machines to card both cotton and wool and tried again to obtain support from the French Government. He was still involved with developing textile machines in 1779, when he was 75, but he must have died soon afterwards. As an inventor Kay was a genius of the first rank, but he was vain, obstinate and suspicious and was destitute of business qualities.

[br]

Bibliography

1730, British patent no. 515 (machine for making mohair thread). 1733, British patent no. 542 (batting machine and flying shuttle). 1738, British patent no. 561 (pump windmill and chain pump). 1745, with Joseph Stell, British patent no. 612 (power loom).

Further Reading

B.Woodcroft, 1863, Brief Biographies of Inventors or Machines for the Manufacture of Textile Fabrics, London.

J.Lord, 1903, Memoir of John Kay, (a more accurate account).

Descriptions of his inventions may be found in A.Barlow, 1878, The History and Principles of Weaving by Hand and by Power, London; R.L. Hills, 1970, Power in the

Industrial Revolution, Manchester; and C.Singer (ed.), 1957, A History of

Technology, Vol. III, Oxford: Clarendon Press. The most important record, however, is in A.P.Wadsworth and J. de L. Mann, 1931, The Cotton Trade and Industrial

Lancashire, Manchester.

RLH

Biographical history of technology > Kay (of Bury), John
97 Lombe, John

SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

[br]

b. c. 1693 probably Norwich, England

d. 20 November 1722 Derby, England

[br]

English creator of the first successful powered textile mill in Britain.

[br]

John Lombe's father, Henry Lombe, was a worsted weaver who married twice. John was the second son of the second marriage and was still a baby when his father died in 1695. John, a native of the Eastern Counties, was apprenticed to a trade and employed by Thomas Cotchett in the erection of Cotchett's silk mill at Derby, which soon failed however. Lombe went to Italy, or was sent there by his elder half-brother, Thomas, to discover the secrets of their throwing machinery while employed in a silk mill in Piedmont. He returned to England in 1716 or 1717, bringing with him two expert Italian workmen.

Thomas Lombe was a prosperous London merchant who financed the construction of a new water-powered silk mill at Derby which is said to have cost over £30,000. John arranged with the town Corporation for the lease of the island in the River Derwent, where Cotchett had erected his mill. During the four years of its construction, John first set up the throwing machines in other parts of the town. The machines were driven manually there, and their product helped to defray the costs of the mill. The silk-throwing machine was very complex. The water wheel powered a horizontal shaft that was under the floor and on which were placed gearwheels to drive vertical shafts upwards through the different floors. The throwing machines were circular, with the vertical shafts running through the middle. The doubled silk threads had previously been wound on bobbins which were placed on spindles with wire flyers at intervals around the outer circumference of the machine. The bobbins were free to rotate on the spindles while the spindles and flyers were driven by the periphery of a horizontal wheel fixed to the vertical shaft. Another horizontal wheel set a little above the first turned the starwheels, to which were attached reels for winding the silk off the bobbins below. Three or four sets of these spindles and reels were placed above each other on the same driving shaft. The machine was very complicated for the time and must have been expensive to build and maintain.

John lived just long enough to see the mill in operation, for he died in 1722 after a painful illness said to have been the result of poison administered by an Italian woman in revenge for his having stolen the invention and for the injury he was causing the Italian trade. The funeral was said to have been the most superb ever known in Derby.

[br]

Further Reading

Samuel Smiles, 1890, Men of Invention and Industry, London (probably the only biography of John Lombe).

Rhys Jenkins, 1933–4, "Historical notes on some Derbyshire industries", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 14 (provides an acount of John Lombe and his part in the enterprise at Derby).

R.L.Hills, 1970, Power in the Industrial Revolution, Manchester (briefly covers the development of early silk-throwing mills).

W.English, 1969, The Textile Industry, London (includes a chapter on "Lombe's Silk Machine").

P.Barlow, 1836, Treatise of Manufactures and Machinery of Great Britain, London (describes Lombe's mill and machinery, but it is not known how accurate the account may be).

RLH

Biographical history of technology > Lombe, John
98 Emotion

    The Absence of Emotion and Feeling May Damage Our Human Rationality

.. propose that reason may not be as pure as most of us think it is or wish it were, that emotions and feelings may not be intruders in the bastion of reason at all: they may be enmeshed in its networks, for worse and for better.

   The strategies of human reason probably did not develop, in either evolution or any single individual, without the guiding force of the mechanisms of biological regulation, of which emotion and feeling are notable expressions. Moreover, even after reasoning strategies become established in the formative years, their effective deployment probably depends, to a considerable extent, on a continued ability to experience feelings.

   This is not to deny that emotions and feelings can cause havoc in the processes of reasoning under certain circumstances. Traditional wisdom has told us that they can, and recent investigations of the normal reasoning process also reveal the potentially harmful inﬂuence of emotional biases. It is thus even more surprising and novel that the absence of emotion and feeling is no less damaging, no less capable of compromising the rationality that makes us distinctly human and allows us to decide in consonance with a sense of personal future, social convention, and moral principle. (Damasio, 1994, p. xii)

Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Emotion
99 commala

SK, DT 5, Calla диал.

КОММАЛА ( одно из наиболее широко-употребляемых слов в Калье)

In standard American English, the word with the most gradations of meaning is probably run. The Random House unabridged dictionary offers one hundred and seventy-eight options, beginning with “to go quickly by moving the legs more rapidly than at a walk” and ending with “melted or liquefied.” In the Crescent-Callas of the borderlands between Mid-World and Thunderclap, the blue ribbon for most meanings would have gone to commala. — В стандартном американском английском слово с наибольшим количеством значений, должно быть, run. Полный словарь английского языка издательства “Рандом хауз” предлагает сто семьдесят восемь значений этого слова, начиная с “двигаться стремительно, переставляя ноги более быстро, чем при ходьбе” и заканчивая “таять или переходить в жидкое состояние”. На Дуге, в Пограничье между Срединным миром и Тандерклепом, синяя лента слова – рекордсмена по значениям перешла к каммале. (ТБ 5)

••

I. сущ.

1) коммала

а) распевы, стансы (в Калье, фольклорные песенные куплеты, увековечивающие историю леди Орис)

“Come-come-commala,” Roland said. At least that was what Eddie heard. – Tian and Zalia brightened with surprise and recognition. The Slightmans exchanged a glance and grinned. “Where did you hear The Rice Song?” the Elder asked. “When?” — Кам-кам-каммала, – произнес Роланд. Во всяком случае так послышалось Эдди. … Тиан и Залия просияли. Слайтманы переглянулись и заулыбались. – Где ты слышал Рисовую песню? – спросил старший. – Когда? (ТБ 5)

б) коммала, танец риса ( в Калье)

Syn.: rice-dance

“Never seen no one dance a better commala than he did!” a man called from one of the aisles, and there were murmurs of assent. — Никогда не видел, чтобы кто-то танцевал каммалу лучше, чем он, – крикнул мужчина из одного из проходов, и остальные одобрительно загудели.

Eisenhart sighed, considered, then turned to Roland. “Ye danced the rice-dance,” he said, “so ye know Lady Oriza.” — Эйзенхарт вздохнул, задумался, потом повернулся к Роланду. – Ты станцевал танец риса, значит, знаешь о леди Орисе.

в) котильон в Ночь Первого Сева в Гилеаде

см. Sowing Night Cotillion

2) разновидность или сорт риса; рис

If the word were listed in the Random House unabridged, the first definition (assuming they were assigned, as is common, in order of widest usage), would have been “a variety of rice grown at the furthermost eastern edge of All-World.” — Если бы каммала попала в вышеуказанный словарь издательства “Рэндом хауз”, первым значением (при условии, что значения ранжировали, как принято, по частоте использования) стало бы “сорт риса, растущий на восточной оконечности Срединного мира”. (ТБ 5)

3) сленг

а) траханье, совокупление, половой акт

The second one, however would have been “sexual intercourse.”

б) оргазм

The third would have been “sexual orgasm,” as in Did’ee come commala? (The hoped-for reply being Aye, say thankya, commala big-big.) — Третьим, скорее всего, “сексуальный оргазм”, в контексте: “Ты получила каммалу? – с тем, чтобы услышать в ответ: “Да, да, я говорю, спасибо тебе, большую каммалу”. (ТБ 5)

4) идиом. как прил.

а) арройо ( сухое русло реки)

б) лощины коммалы – ( commala draws)

The sexual connotations of the word are clear, but why should the rocky arroyos north of town be known as the commala draws? — Сексуальные значения этого слова понятны, но почему гористая территория с сухими руслами рек к северу от города известна, как? (ТБ 5)

5) вилка

For that matter, why is a fork sometimes a commala, but never a spoon or a knife? — Или почему вилку иногда называют каммалой, а ложку или нож – никогда? (ТБ 5)

6) начало застолья, пира

Commala is the commencement of some big and joyful meal, like a family feast (not the meal itself, do ya, but the moment of beginning to eat). — Каммала – это начало большого и веселого семейного пира (не сам пир, а именно его начало). (ТБ 5)

II. идиом.

1.

эмоц.-усил. груб.

в сочетании с ругательствами используется как усилитель, может не переводиться

“Fuck-commala!” she cried, then clapped her hands to her mouth and looked at Callahan, who was sitting on the back steps. That fellow only smiled and waved cheerfully, affecting deafness. — Фак-каммала! – воскликнула она, тут же зажала рот руками, посмотрела на Каллагэна, который сидел на ступеньках крыльца. Тот лишь улыбнулся и помахал ей рукой, словно ничего и не слышал. (DT 5)

2.
- Fresh Commala
- green commala
- red commala
- soft commala
- dry commala
- easy as commala
- wet the commala
- coming commala
- damp commala
- stand commala
- come townsfolk commala

English-Russian dictionary of neologisms from a series of books by Stephen King "Dark Tower" > commala
100 traction

•• * Интересное слово. Не знаю, можно ли говорить о новом его значении или речь идет о метафорическом словоупотреблении, связанном с его известными значениями (тяга, сила сцепления, притягательная сила), но во всех нижеследующих примерах (из нескольких номеров Washington Post) двуязычные словари (я смотрел Новый БАРС и ABBYY Lingvo) не очень помогут переводчику:

•• 1. With his plan to lower the cost of health care for most Americans, “Gephardt has hit on a real Achilles’ heel, and he will get traction on it if he becomes the nominee,” said Rep. Ray LaHood. (R-Ill.) 2. One of the biggest temptations for lawmakers will be to lend the money rather than spend it outright. This approach has particular traction in the Senate, where a number of Republicans are endorsing it. 3. The message from Annan’s demoralized staff to the Bush administration was summed up by a senior U.N. official speaking to the Financial Times: “We wish you well, we hope you succeed, but we want to maintain our own integrity in case you don’t.” In other words, abandon ship. Not surprisingly, the resolution did not gain traction in this atmosphere. 4. “ People like Mikulski in Maryland,” said Matthew Crenson, a political science professor at Johns Hopkins University. “It’s illustrative of how difficult it is for Republicans to gain traction in this state that they had to cast about for a candidate for so long.”
•• В принципе в переводе всех этих примеров подойдет слово поддержка (или сторонники). Это удачный контекстуальный перевод, но он, конечно, не описывает значения. Для его описания больше подойдут слова шансы на успех, перспективы, привлекательность.
•• Пример того, как вошедшее в моду слово приобретает эластичность, по сути не меняя своего значения, а просто за счет расширения метафоры, т.е. ее распространения на новые сферы:
•• The euro’s rise to a record high this week, driven by a skidding dollar, comes at a sensitive time for a European economic recovery that finally seems to be gaining a bit of traction. (International Herald Tribune)
•• Для переводчика это может создавать проблемы – ведь, например, в данном случае метафора «трения», «сцепления» в русском языке не работает. Видимо, надо менять метафору. Может быть, так: <...> экономичеcкая активность в Европе начинает, как кажется, потихоньку набирать обороты.
•• Следующий довольно трудный для перевода пример:
•• The minority in this country which is opposed to the U.N. is far more intense than the majority that seems to favor the U.N., so that the minority view has far more traction. (Atlantic)
•• Здесь – изрядно смазанная, но все-таки метафора, и ее придется заменить на другую (Я.И. Рецкер называл такой прием «адекватной заменой»). Думаю, можно попробовать, например, резонанс:
•• Меньшинство, настроенное против ООН, гораздо напористее, чем большинство, которое вроде бы поддерживает ООН, и поэтому мнение меньшинства имеет гораздо больший резонанс.
•• The Bush administration’s grand plan to reform the Middle East may be gaining traction even though most governments in the region remain deeply suspicious of the U.S. president and his proactive agenda. (Newsweek)
•• В переводе – еще одно контекстуальное соответствие:
•• Возможно, амбициозный план администрации по реформированию Ближнего Востока начинает работать/давать плоды, хотя большинство государств региона сохраняют глубоко подозрительное отношение к президенту США и его наступательной стратегии.
•• Здесь, конечно, интересны также слова proactive и agenda. Оба включены в «Мой несистематический словарь», и добавить здесь можно лишь то, что в русское словоупотребление понемногу входит слово проактивный, но мне оно не очень нравится по уже отмеченной причине – в слове активный (в отличие от английского active) это значение и так есть.
•• (В скобках замечу, что у слова traction есть специализированное медицинское значение – вытяжение. Англо-французский словарь дает to be in traction – être en extension. По-русски – лежать на вытяжке.)
•• Помимо to gain traction нередко встречается to gain purchase:
•• We are fast approaching the fifty year anniversary of Harry S. Truman’s inaugural presidential address in which the idea of ‘underdeveloped areas’ first gained purchase in the universe of public discourse. - <...> инаугурационная речь президента Трумэна, в которой впервые прозвучали слова, впоследствии получившие широкое распространение в политической речи, - « слаборазвитые районы».
•• Then the format shrank even more as cassette tapes gained purchase over eight-tracks, finally eclipsing them in the era just prior to compact discs.
•• В данном случае подойдет антонимический перевод:
•• <...> этот формат начал уступать позиции кассетам. To gain purchase over - возможно и вытеснить.
•• Интересно все-таки, что при наличии, казалось бы, полностью синонимичных to gain ground и to gain momentum языку понадобилось и to gain traction. Как и всякая языковая мода, это не всем нравится. Один канадский профессор охарактеризовал как some of the worst examples of writing and thinking I have seen in my entire career следующую фразу: It took the first album about half a year to gain traction among the American youth. Что тут возразить? Нравится слово traction или нет – дело вкуса. Как сказала одна моя коллега в ООН, traction is not a word I would use. Но оно есть, и по «закону языковой моды» чем чаще оно употребляется, тем эластичнее становится его значение. Можно, пожалуй, студентам давать как упражнение на лексическую изобретательность в переводе.
•• Вот еще пара примеров:
•• The government’s policies are gaining traction. South Africa’s corporations are investing and many white South Africans are returning home. (Newsweek)
•• Здесь, конечно, напрашивается <...> политика правительства начинает давать результаты. В рамках того же значения – совершенно не «словарный», контекстуальный вариант перевода:
•• While America’s ambitions in the “greater Middle East” <...> will probably still make its debut at three international summits next month, it’s unlikely to generate much traction any time soon. (Washington Post) – <...> существенного продвижения вперед в обозримом будущем достичь вряд ли удастся.
•• Напоследок: это слово, пожалуй, неплохо подойдет при переводе известного процесс пошел – the process has gained/is gaining traction.

English-Russian nonsystematic dictionary > traction

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См. также в других словарях:

most probably — very likely, almost certainly … English contemporary dictionary
most certainly — most probably, very likely … English contemporary dictionary
probably — prob|a|bly W1S1 [ˈprɔbəbli US ˈpra: ] adv used to say that something is likely to happen, likely to be true etc ▪ It will probably take about a week. ▪ This would probably be a good time to take a break. ▪ It s probably the best movie I have ever … Dictionary of contemporary English
probably — adverb (sentence adverb) used to say that something is likely to happen, likely to be true etc: I probably still have my old army pictures. | Probably the best way to learn Spanish is by actually going to live in Spain. | “Do you think you ll… … Longman dictionary of contemporary English
most — 1 adverb (+ adj/adv) 1 used for forming the superlative of most adjectives and adverbs with more than two syllables, and many that only have two: the most boring book I ve ever read | She s one of the most experienced teachers in the district. |… … Longman dictionary of contemporary English
probably — [adv] likely to happen apparently, as likely as not, assumably, as the case may be, believably, dollars to doughnuts*, doubtless, expediently, feasibly, imaginably, in all likelihood, in all probability, like enough, maybe, most likely, no doubt … New thesaurus
most likely — probably, almost certainly … English contemporary dictionary
Probably approximately correct learning — In computational learning theory, probably approximately correct learning (PAC learning) is a framework for mathematical analysis of machine learning. It was proposed in 1984 by Leslie Valiant.[1] In this framework, the learner receives samples… … Wikipedia
probably — prob|a|bly [ prabəbli ] adverb *** used for saying that you think something is likely: You ll probably be gone by the time I get back. It s probably the most important game either team has faced for a long time. I ll cook a meal, probably lasagna … Usage of the words and phrases in modern English
probably */*/*/ — UK [ˈprɒbəblɪ] / US [ˈprɑbəblɪ] adverb used for saying that you think something is likely You ll probably be gone by the time I get back. It s probably the most important match either team has faced for a long time. I ll cook a meal, probably a… … English dictionary
most — most1 W1S1 [məust US moust] adv 1.) [used before an adjective or adverb to form the superlative] having the greatest amount of a particular quality ≠ ↑least ▪ She s one of the most experienced teachers in the district. ▪ The most important thing… … Dictionary of contemporary English

Словари и энциклопедии на Академике

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most+probably

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Словари и энциклопедии на Академике

Перевод: с английского на все языки

most+probably

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