more+heated

1) (the amount of hotness (of something), especially of things which are very hot: Test the heat of the water before you bath the baby.) température

2) (the warmth from something which is hot: The heat from the fire will dry your coat; the effect of heat on metal; the heat of the sun.) chaleur

3) (the hottest time: the heat of the day.) au plus chaud de

4) (anger or excitement: He didn't mean to be rude - he just said that in the heat of the moment.) dans le feu (de l'action)

5) (in a sports competition etc, one of two or more contests from which the winners go on to take part in later stages of the competition: Having won his heat he is going through to the final.) épreuve éliminatoire

- heated

- hot

1) (the sticky, fatty substance of which bees make their cells; beeswax.) cire

2) (the sticky, yellowish substance formed in the ears.) cire

3) (a manufactured, fatty substance used in polishing, to give a good shine: furniture wax.) cire

4) (( also adjective) (also candle-wax) (of) a substance made from paraffin, used in making candles, models etc, that melts when heated: a wax model.) (en/de) cire

5) (sealing-wax.) cire à cacheter

- waxed

1) ((of the moon) to appear to grow in size as more of it becomes visible.) croître

2) (an old word for to grow or increase.) croître

1) (the amount of hotness (of something), especially of things which are very hot: Test the heat of the water before you bath the baby.) quentura

2) (the warmth from something which is hot: The heat from the fire will dry your coat; the effect of heat on metal; the heat of the sun.) calor

3) (the hottest time: the heat of the day.) calor

4) (anger or excitement: He didn't mean to be rude - he just said that in the heat of the moment.) calor, excitação

5) (in a sports competition etc, one of two or more contests from which the winners go on to take part in later stages of the competition: Having won his heat he is going through to the final.) prova eliminatória

- heated

- hot

1) (the sticky, fatty substance of which bees make their cells; beeswax.) cera

2) (the sticky, yellowish substance formed in the ears.) cera

3) (a manufactured, fatty substance used in polishing, to give a good shine: furniture wax.) cera

4) (( also adjective) (also candle-wax) (of) a substance made from paraffin, used in making candles, models etc, that melts when heated: a wax model.) cera

5) (sealing-wax.) lacre

- waxed

1) ((of the moon) to appear to grow in size as more of it becomes visible.) crescer

2) (an old word for to grow or increase.) crescer

〈 het〉

1  high

♦voorbeelden:

1   bij hoog en laag zweren • swear by all that is holy

¶   bij hoog en laag volhouden/blijven beweren • stand firm, stick to one's guns/opinion

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〈 bijvoeglijk naamwoord, bijwoord〉

1 [niet laag] high ⇒ tall

2 [zover reikend als in de bepaling genoemd wordt] high

3 [vergevorderd in een rang-/volgorde] high

4 [boven een bepaalde norm/maat] high ⇒ 〈muziek; te hoog〉 sharp

♦voorbeelden:

1   een hoge bal • a high ball; 〈 golf〉 chip (shot) 〈 korte, hoge slag〉

     een hoge C • a high/top C

     hoge gebouwen • high/tall buildings

     de hoogste verdieping • the top floor

     dat paard staat hoog op de benen • that horse has (got) long legs/is tall

     het water staat hoog • the water is high; 〈 het is vloed〉 it's high tide

     wij zitten hier hoog en droog • 〈 figuurlijk〉 we're high and dry here

     hoog in de lucht/bergen • high up in the air/mountains

2   de honderd meter hoge toren • the hundred-metre high tower

     een stapel van drie voet hoog • a three-foot high pile

     hij woont drie hoog • he lives on the ^Bthird/ ^Asecond floor

3   de hoge adel • the leading aristocracy; the high nobility 〈 graven en hertogen, maar niet baronnen〉

     een hoge ambtenaar • a senior official

     naar een hogere klas overgaan • move up/be moved up to a higher class

     een hoge waarde hebben • have a high value, be (very) valuable

4   zij had een hoge kleur • she had a high colour, her face flushed

     Shell aandelen waren 10 punten hoger • Shell shares were 10 points higher/gained 10 points

     een hoog stemmetje/geluid • a high-pitched voice/sound

     iemand hoog aanslaan • 〈 figuurlijk〉 have a high opinion of/think highly of someone

     hoger gaan dan duizend gulden • go above/beyond a thousand guilders; 〈 bieden ook〉 bid more than a thousand guilders

     〈 figuurlijk〉 te hoog grijpen • aim too high

     iets hoog houden • honour something; keep up something 〈 voornamelijk traditie〉

     de twist liep hoog op • the quarrel became heated

     hoog opgeven van iemand • praise someone

     iets hoog opnemen • take something seriously

     de verwarming staat hoog • the heating is on high

     het zit hem hoog • it rankles him

     10 % hoger dan vorig jaar • 10 % higher than/up on last year

     de temperatuur mag niet hoger zijn dan 60° • the temperature must not go above/exceed 60°

     de prijzen zijn 1000 gulden en hoger • prices start at 1000 guilders

¶   hij was gezien bij hoog en laag • he was liked by everyone

     je kunt hoog of laag springen maar ik doe het toch niet • I'm not going to do it whatever you do/say

exchange [ɪks'tʃeɪndʒ]

1 transitive verb

échanger;

∎ to exchange glances échanger des regards;

∎ to exchange views échanger des vues;

∎ we didn't exchange more than a couple of words all evening nous n'avons pas échangé plus de quelques mots de toute la soirée;

∎ euphemism to exchange words (quarrel) se disputer;

∎ shots were exchanged il y a eu un échange de coups de feu;

∎ to exchange sth with sb échanger qch avec qn;

∎ to exchange places with sb changer de place avec qn;

∎ we exchanged places (with each other) nous avons échangé nos places;

∎ would you like to exchange places? voulez-vous changer de place avec moi?;

∎ we exchanged addresses nous avons échangé nos adresses;

∎ to exchange sth for sth échanger qch contre qch;

∎ to exchange sterling for dollars changer des livres contre des dollars;

∎ I would not exchange my happiness for anything je n'échangerais ou ne donnerais mon bonheur contre rien au monde

2 noun

(a) (swap) échange m;

∎ his old car for my new one didn't seem a fair exchange échanger sa vieille voiture contre ma neuve ne me semblait pas équitable;

∎ exchange of contracts échange m de contrats à la signature;

∎ British proverb fair exchange is no robbery = donnant donnant;

∎ Press Exchange and Mart = hebdomadaire britannique de petites annonces

(b) (discussion) échange m;

∎ we had a heated exchange nous avons eu des mots

(c) (cultural, educational) échange m;

∎ as part of an exchange dans le cadre d'un échange;

∎ he took part in an exchange with a school in France il a participé à un échange avec une école française;

∎ the Spanish students are here on an exchange visit les étudiants espagnols sont en visite ici dans le cadre d'un échange

(d) Finance (of currency) change m; (of goods, shares, commodities) échange m

(e) Telecommunications central m téléphonique

(f) Commerce bourse f

3 exchanges plural noun

American Finance (bills) lettres fpl de change, traites fpl

4 in exchange adverb

en échange

5 in exchange for preposition

en échange de;

∎ in exchange for helping with the housework she was given food and lodging elle aidait aux travaux ménagers et en échange ou en contrepartie elle était nourrie et logée

►► Finance exchange broker cambiste mf, agent m de change, courtier(ère) m,f de change;

British Finance exchange control contrôle m des changes;

Finance exchange cross rate taux m de change entre devises tierces;

Finance exchange dealer cambiste mf, agent m de change, courtier(ère) m,f de change;

Finance exchange equalization account fonds m de stabilisation des changes;

Finance exchange gain gain m de change;

Finance exchange index indice m boursier;

Finance exchange loss perte f de change;

Finance exchange market marché m des changes;

Finance exchange offer offre f publique d'échange;

Finance exchange premium prime f de change;

School & University exchange programme programme m d'échange;

Finance exchange rate taux m de change, cours m de change;

∎ at the current exchange rate au cours du jour;

formerly Finance Exchange Rate Mechanism mécanisme m (des taux) de change (du SME);

exchange rate parity parité f du change;

exchange rate stability stabilité f des changes;

Finance exchange reserves réserves fpl en devises (étrangères);

Finance exchange restrictions contrôle m des changes;

School & University exchange student = étudiant qui participe à un échange;

Finance exchange transaction opération f de change;

Finance exchange value contre-valeur f, valeur f d'échange;

School exchange visit échange m

SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy

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Brinell graduated as an engineer from Boräs Technical School, and his interest in metallurgy began to develop in 1875 when he became an engineer at the ironworks of Lesjöfors and came under the influence of Gustaf Ekman. In 1882 he was appointed Chief Engineer at the Fagersta Ironworks, where he became one of Sweden's leading experts in the manufacture and heat treatment of tool steels.

His reputation in this field was established in 1885 when he published a paper on the structural changes which occurred in steels when they were heated and cooled, and he was among the first to recognize and define the critical points of steel and their importance in heat treatment. Some of these preliminary findings were first exhibited at Stockholm in 1897. His exhibit at the World Exhibition at Paris in 1900 was far more detailed and there he displayed for the first time his method of hardness determination using a steel-ball indenter. For these contributions he was awarded the French Grand Prix and also the Polhem Prize of the Swedish Technical Society.

He was later concerned with evaluating and developing the iron-ore deposits of north Sweden and was one of the pioneers of the electric blast-furnace. In 1903 he became Chief Engineer of the Jernkontoret and remained there until 1914. In this capacity and as Editor of the Jernkontorets Annaler he made significant contributions to Swedish metallurgy. His pioneer work on abrasion resistance, undertaken long before the term tribology had been invented, gained him the Rinman Medal, awarded by the Jernkontoret in 1920.

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SUBJECT AREA: Railways and locomotives

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Brotan, who was Chief Engineer of the main workshops of the Royal Austrian State Railways at Gmund, found that locomotive inner fireboxes of the usual type were both expensive, because the copper from which they were made had to be imported, and short-lived, because of corrosion resulting from the use of coal with high sulphur content. He designed a firebox of which the side and rear walls comprised rows of vertical watertubes, expanded at their lower ends into a tubular foundation ring and at the top into a longitudinal water/steam drum. This projected forward above the boiler barrel (which was of the usual firetube type, though of small diameter), to which it was connected. Copper plates were eliminated, as were firebox stays.

The first boiler to incorporate a Brotan firebox was built at Gmund under the inventor's supervision and replaced the earlier boiler of a 0−6−0 in 1901. The increased radiantly heated surface was found to produce a boiler with very good steaming qualities, while the working pressure too could be increased, with consequent fuel economies. Further locomotives in Austria and, experimentally, elsewhere were equipped with Brotan boilers.

Disadvantages of the boiler were the necessity of keeping the tubes clear of scale, and a degree of structural weakness. The Swiss engineer E. Deffner improved the latter aspect by eliminating the forward extension of the water/steam drum, replacing it with a large-diameter boiler barrel with the rear section of tapered wagon-top type so that the front of the water/steam drum could be joined directly to the rear tubeplate. The first locomotives to be fitted with this Brotan-Deffner boiler were two 4−6−0s for the Swiss Federal Railways in 1908 and showed very favourable results. However, steam locomotive development ceased in Switzerland a few years later in favour of electrification, but boilers of the Brotan-Deffner type and further developments of it were used in many other European countries, notably Hungary, where more than 1,000 were built. They were also used experimentally in the USA: for instance, Samuel Vauclain, as President of Baldwin Locomotive Works, sent his senior design engineer to study Hungarian experience and then had a high-powered 4−8−0 built with a watertube firebox. On stationary test this produced the very high figure of 4,515 ihp (3,370 kW), but further development work was frustrated by the trade depression commencing in 1929. In France, Gaston du Bousquet had obtained good results from experimental installations of Brotan-Deffner-type boilers, and incorporated one into one of his high-powered 4−6−4s of 1910. Experiments were terminated suddenly by his death, followed by the First World War, but thirty-five years later André Chapelon proposed using a watertube firebox to obtain the high pressure needed for a triple-expansion, high-powered, steam locomotive, development of which was overtaken by electrification.

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SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing

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Fourdrinier's father was a paper manufacturer and stationer of London, from a family of French Protestant origin. Henry took up the same trade and, with his brother Sealy (d. 1847), devoted many years to developing the papermaking machine. Their first patent was taken out in 1801, but success was still far off. A machine for making paper had been invented a few years previously by Nicolas Robert at the Didot's mill at Essonnes, south of Paris. Robert quarrelled with the Didots, who then contacted their brother-in-law in England, John Gamble, in an attempt to raise capital for a larger machine. Gamble and the Fourdriniers called in the engineer Bryan Donkin, and between them they patented a much improved machine in 1807. In the new machine, the paper pulp flowed on to a moving continuous woven wire screen and was then squeezed between rollers to remove much of the water. The paper thus formed was transferred to a felt blanket and passed through a second press to remove more water, before being wound while still wet on to a drum. For the first time, a continuous sheet of paper could be made. Other inventors soon made further improvements: in 1817 John Dickinson obtained a patent for sizing baths to improve the surface of the paper; while in 1820 Thomas Crompton patented a steam-heated drum round which the paper was passed to speed up the drying process. The development cost of £60,000 bankrupted the brothers. Although Parliament extended the patent for fourteen years, and the machine was widely adopted, they never reaped much profit from it. Tsar Alexander of Russia became interested in the papermaking machine while on a visit to England in 1814 and promised Henry Fourdrinier £700 per year for ten years for super-intending the erection of two machines in Russia; Henry carried out the work, but he received no payment. At the age of 72 he travelled to St Petersburg to seek recompense from the Tsar's successor Nicholas I, but to no avail. Eventually, on a motion in the House of Commons, the British Government awarded Fourdrinier a payment of £7,000. The paper trade, sensing the inadequacy of this sum, augmented it with a further sum which they subscribed so that an annuity could be purchased for Henry, then the only surviving brother, and his two daughters, to enable them to live in modest comfort. From its invention in ancient China (see Cai Lun), its appearance in the Middle Ages in Europe and through the first three and a half centuries of printing, every sheet of paper had to made by hand. The daily output of a hand-made paper mill was only 60–100 lb (27–45 kg), whereas the new machine increased that tenfold. Even higher speeds were achieved, with corresponding reductions in cost; the old mills could not possibly have kept pace with the new mechanical printing presses. The Fourdrinier machine was thus an essential element in the technological developments that brought about the revolution in the production of reading matter of all kinds during the nineteenth century. The high-speed, giant paper-making machines of the late twentieth century work on the same principle as the Fourdrinier of 1807.

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SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building, Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Photography, film and optics, Steam and internal combustion engines

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Nothing is known of Hero, or Heron, apart from what can be gleaned from the books he wrote. Their scope and style suggest that he was a teacher at the museum or the university of Alexandria, writing textbooks for his students. The longest book, and the one with the greatest technological interest, is Pneumatics. Some of its material is derived from the works of the earlier writers Ctesibius of Alexandria and Philo of Byzantium, but many of the devices described were invented by Hero himself. The introduction recognizes that the air is a body and demonstrates the effects of air pressure, as when air must be allowed to escape from a closed vessel before water can enter. There follow clear descriptions of a variety of mechanical contrivances depending on the effects of either air pressure or heated gases. Most of the devices seem trivial, but such toys or gadgets were popular at the time and Hero is concerned to show how they work. Inventions with a more serious purpose are a fire pump and a water organ. One celebrated gadget is a sphere that is set spinning by jets of steam—an early illustration of the reaction principle on which modern jet propulsion depends.

M echanics, known only in an Arabic version, is a textbook expounding the theory and practical skills required by the architect. It deals with a variety of questions of mechanics, such as the statics of a horizontal beam resting on vertical posts, the theory of the centre of gravity and equilibrium, largely derived from Archimedes, and the five ways of applying a relatively small force to exert a much larger one: the lever, winch, pulley, wedge and screw. Practical devices described include sledges for transporting heavy loads, cranes and a screw cutter.

Hero's Dioptra describes instruments used in surveying, together with an odometer or device to indicate the distance travelled by a wheeled vehicle. Catoptrics, known only in Latin, deals with the principles of mirrors, plane and curved, enunciating that the angle of incidence is equal to that of reflection. Automata describes two forms of puppet theatre, operated by strings and drums driven by a falling lead weight attached to a rope wound round an axle. Hero's mathematical work lies in the tradition of practical mathematics stretching from the Babylonians through Islam to Renaissance Europe. It is seen most clearly in his Metrica, a treatise on mensuration.

Of all his works, Pneumatics was the best known and most influential. It was one of the works of Greek science and technology assimilated by the Arabs, notably Banu Musa ibn Shakir, and was transmitted to medieval Western Europe.

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SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

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William Kelly, a Larnack clockmaker, was Manager of David Dale's New Lanark cotton-spinning mills. He was writing to Boulton \& Watt in 1796 about the different ways in which he heated the mills and the New Institution. He must also have been responsible for supervising the millwrights' and mechanics' shops where much of the spinning machinery for the mills was constructed. At one time there were eighty-seven men employed in these shops alone. He devised a better method of connecting the water wheel to the line shafting which he reckoned would save a quarter of the water power required. Kelly may have been the first to apply power to the mule, for in 1790 he drove the spinning sequence from the line shafting, which operated the gear mechanism to turn the rollers and spindles as well as draw out the carriage. The winding on of the newly spun yarn still had to be done by hand. Then in 1792 he applied for a patent for a self-acting mule in which all the operations would be carried out by power. However, winding the yarn on in a conical form was a problem; he tried various ways of doing this, but abandoned his attempts because the mechanism was cumbersome and brought no economic advantage as only a comparatively small number of spindles could be operated. Even so, his semi-automatic mule became quite popular and was exported to America in 1803. Kelly was replaced as Manager at New Lanark by Robert Owen in 1800.

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SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy

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After leaving school before the age of 14 Neilson followed his father in tending colliery-steam engines. He continued in this line while apprenticed to his elder brother and afterwards rose to engine-wright at Irvine colliery. That failed and Neilson obtained work as Foreman at the first gasworks to be set up in Glasgow. After five years he became Manager and Engineer to the works, remaining there for thirty years. He introduced a number of improvements into gas manufacture, such as the use of clay retorts, iron sulphate as a purifier and the swallow-tail burner. He had meanwhile benefited from studying physics and chemistry at the Andersonian University in Glasgow.

Neilson is best known for introducing hot blast into ironmaking. At that time, ironmasters believed that cold blast produced the best results, since furnaces seemed to make more and better iron in the winter than the summer. Neilson found that by leading the air blast through an iron chamber heated by a coal fire beneath it, much less fuel was needed to convert the iron ore to iron. He secured a patent in 1828 and managed to persuade Clyde Ironworks in Glasgow to try out the device. The results were immediately favourable, and the use of hot blast spread rapidly throughout the country and abroad. The equipment was improved, raising the blast temperature to around 300°C (572°F), reducing the amount of coal, which was converted into coke, required to produce a tonne of iron from 10 tonnes to about 3. Neilson entered into a partnership with Charles Macintosh and others to patent and promote the process. Successive, and successful, lawsuits against those who infringed the patent demonstrates the general eagerness to adopt hot blast. Beneficial though it was, the process did not become really satisfactory until the introduction of hot-blast stoves by E.A. Cowper in 1857.

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SUBJECT AREA: Automotive engineering, Land transport

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He began his working life in 1885 as a bookkeeper in his father's machine shop in Lansing, Michigan, where he became a partner soon after. Encouraged by his success in making a small steam engine, heated by an ordinary gasoline stove burner, he built a three-wheeled, self-propelled vehicle in 1887. Increasingly interested in the internal combustion engine, he adopted it for a further vehicle which he completed in 1896. The following year he founded the Olds Motor Vehicle Company and, to take the place of the family machine shop, the Olds Gasoline Machine Works. In 1899 the assets of the motorvehicle company were diverted into a new company, the Olds Motor Works, and operations were transferred to Detroit. In 1904 he resigned and founded the Reo M Car Company (an acronym of his initials) and organized several subsidiary companies as suppliers of components. After 1915 he tended to drop out to give more time to other interests such as the Ideal Power Lawn Mower Company, set up to manufacture a mower he had invented, the Capital National Bank and R.E.Olds and Co., an investment company.

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SUBJECT AREA: Steam and internal combustion engines

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Giambattista della Porta spent most of his life in Naples, where some time before 1580 he established the Accademia dei Segreti, which met at his house. In 1611 he was enrolled among the Oziosi in Naples, then the most renowned literary academy. He was examined by the Inquisition, which, although he had become a lay brother of the Jesuits by 1585, banned all further publication of his books between 1592 and 1598.

His first book, the Magiae Naturalis, which covered the secrets of nature, was published in 1558. He had been collecting material for it since the age of 15 and he saw that science should not merely represent theory and contemplation but must arrive at practical and experimental expression. In this work he described the hardening of files and pieces of armour on quite a large scale, and it included the best sixteenth-century description of heat treatment for hardening steel. In the 1589 edition of this work he covered ways of improving vision at a distance with concave and convex lenses; although he may have constructed a compound microscope, the history of this instrument effectively begins with Galileo. His theoretical and practical work on lenses paved the way for the telescope and he also explored the properties of parabolic mirrors.

In 1563 he published a treatise on cryptography, De Furtivis Liter arum Notis, which he followed in 1566 with another on memory and mnemonic devices, Arte del Ricordare. In 1584 and 1585 he published treatises on horticulture and agriculture based on careful study and practice; in 1586 he published De Humana Physiognomonia, on human physiognomy, and in 1588 a treatise on the physiognomy of plants. In 1593 he published his De Refractione but, probably because of the ban by the Inquisition, no more were produced until the Spiritali in 1601 and his translation of Ptolemy's Almagest in 1605. In 1608 two new works appeared: a short treatise on military fortifications; and the De Distillatione. There was an important work on meteorology in 1610. In 1601 he described a device similar to Hero's mechanisms which opened temple doors, only Porta used steam pressure instead of air to force the water out of its box or container, up a pipe to where it emptied out into a higher container. Under the lower box there was a small steam boiler heated by a fire. He may also have been the first person to realize that condensed steam would form a vacuum, for there is a description of another piece of apparatus where water is drawn up into a container at the top of a long pipe. The container was first filled with steam so that, when cooled, a vacuum would be formed and water drawn up into it. These are the principles on which Thomas Savery's later steam-engine worked.

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