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maintain+itself/la

  • 1 teneō

        teneō tenuī, —, ēre    [2 TA-], to hold, keep, have, grasp, hold fast: flabellulum, T.: facem, V. telum, L.: cruentum gladium: manu Fragmina, O.: Dextra tenet ferrum, O.: ore cibum, Ph.: Hanc teneo sinu, O.; cf. cum res non coniecturā, sed oculis ac manibus teneretur, i. e. was palpable. —Fig., to hold in mind, take in, understand, conceive, comprehend, know: rem tenes, you understand the situation, T.: teneo, I understand, T.: quae a Romanis auguribus ignorantur, a Cilicibus tenentur: quo pacto cuncta tenerem, H.—Implying possession or control, to hold, possess, be master of, control, occupy: multa hereditatibus tenebantur sine iniuriā: quae tenuit dives Achaemenes, H.: loca, L.: colles praesidiis, Cs.: terras, H.: alterum cornu, command, N.: provincias aliaque omnia, S.: rem p. opes paucorum tenere coeperunt, to control public affairs: ut res p. vi tribuniciā teneretur, should be mastered, cf. qui tenent (sc. rem p.), qui potiuntur, i. e. who are in supreme power: me Galatea tenebat, i. e. held my affections, V.: teneone te? i. e. are you restored to me? T.—Implying persistence, to hold fast, keep, occupy, watch, guard, defend, maintain, retain: legio locum non tenuit, Cs.: Capitolia celsa, V.: in manicis te sub custode, H.: Athenae tuae sempiternam in arce oleam tenere potuerunt.—Of a way or course, to hold, keep, maintain, follow up: secundissimo vento cursum, to hold one's course: vento intermisso cursum, Cs.: Quove tenetis iter? V.: tenuit tamen vestigia Bucar, L.: Aeneam... ab Siciliā classe ad Laurentem agrum tenuisse (sc. cursum), sailed, L.: medio tutissimus ibis... Inter utrumque tene, O.; cf. hic ventus adversum tenet Athenis proficiscentibus, blows the wrong way, N.—Fig., to hold fast, guard, preserve, uphold, keep, insist on: consuetudinem meam: non tenebat ornatum suum civitas: ius suum: haec duo in amicitiā, etc.: imperium in suos: silentium, L. — To hold fast, maintain, support, defend, uphold, insist: illud arcte tenent, voluptatem esse summum bonum: propositum, maintain, Cs.: suas leges: quo causae teste tenentur, H.: plebs tenuit, ne consules in proximum annum crearentur, L.: tenuere patres, ut Fabius consul crearetur, L.— Of the memory, to hold, keep: tui memoriam cum summā benevolentiā, preserve a recollection of: memoriā tenetis, res esse, etc., you remember numeros memini, si verba tenerem, recollect, V.: dicta tenere, H.—Of disposition or desire, to possess, occupy, control: quae te tanta pravitas mentis tenuerit, ut, etc., has had possession of you: magna me spes tenet: nisi forte quem perniciosa libido tenet, S.: neque irā neque gratiā teneri, to be controlled: pompā, ludis, to be fascinated: ab <*>ratore iam obsessus est ac tenetur.— To hold position, maintain oneself, stay, be posted: quā abscisae rupes erant, statio paucorum armatorum tenebat, L.: tenent Danai, quā deficit ignis, V.— To hold out, hold on, last, endure, continue, maintain itself, prevail: imber per noctem totam tenuit, L.: tenet fama, lupam, etc, L.: fama tenuit, haud plus fuisse modio, L.—Implying attainment, to reach, arrive at, attain, occupy: montes Sabini petebant et pauci tenuere, L.: portum, L.: Hesperiam, O.—Fig., to reach, gain, acquire, obtain, attain: per cursum rectum regnum tenere: virtute regnum, L.: teneri res aliter non potest: causam, O.—Implying restraint, to hold fast, hold back, hinder, restrain, detain, check, control, stay: naves, quae vento tenebantur, Cs.: classem ibi tenebat, L.: si id te non tenet, advola: Marcellum ab gerundis rebus: ne diutius teneam: tene linguam, O.: pecus omne tenendum, V.: manum, H.: quo me decet usque teneri? V.: lacrimas in morte miserā: exercitum in stativis, L.—With pron reflex., to keep back, remain, stay: castris sese, Cs.: castris se pavidus tenebat, L.: a conventu se remotum domi, N.: me ab accusando, refrain.— Fig., to hold, hold back, repress, restrain, bind, fetter: iracundiam: risum: iram, Cu.: ea, quae occurrunt, keep to themselves: Sed te, ne faceres, tenuit reverentia famae, O.—Implying constraint, to bind, hold, obligate, be binding on, control: quamquam leges eum non tenent: interdicto non teneri: ut plebi scita omnes Quirites tenerent, L.: teneri alienis foederibus, L.: poenā teneri, to be liable: testibus in re perspicuā teneri, to be convicted.— Implying comprehension, to take in, comprise, comprehend, include: haec magnos formula reges tenet. H.: ut homines deorum agnatione et gente teneantur: id quod (genus officiorum) teneatur hominum societate.
    * * *
    tenere, tenui, tentus V
    hold, keep; comprehend; possess; master; preserve; represent; support

    Latin-English dictionary > teneō

  • 2 obtineo

    ob-tĭnĕo ( opt-), tĭnŭi, tentum, 2 (old perf. OPTENVI, fifth Epit. of the Scipios; inf. pass. obtinerier, Plaut. Am. 3, 2, 19; id. Most. 3, 2, 154), v. a. and n. [teneo].
    I.
    Act. *
    A.
    To take hold of, hold:

    obtine aures, amabo,

    Plaut. Cas. 3, 5, 16.—
    B.
    To hold, have, occupy, possess; to preserve, keep, maintain, etc. (class.).
    1.
    In gen.: sancte Apollo, qui umbilicum certum terrarum obtines, Poët. ap. Cic. Div. 2, 56, 115 (Trag. Rel. p. 201 Rib.):

    suam quisque domum tum obtinebat,

    Cic. Phil. 2, 19, 48:

    armis Galliam atque Italiam,

    Liv. 30, 19:

    cum imperio Hispaniam citeriorem,

    to have as his province, to be governor in it, Cic. Fam. 1, 9, 2:

    Galliam et Italiam,

    Liv. 30, 19:

    Africam,

    Nep. Timol. 2, 4; cf.:

    ex quā insulā nummus nullus, me obtinente, erogabitur,

    during my administration, Cic. Att. 5, 21, 7: QVEI AERARIVM PROVINCIAM OBTINEBIT, who will have the administration of the public treasure, Lex Thor. § 20 Rudorff. p. 168;

    Lex de Scribis ap. Haubold, p. 85: necessitudinem cum publicanis,

    Cic. Q. Fr. 1, 1, 12, § 35:

    vitam et famam,

    to preserve, id. Rosc. Am. 17, 49:

    auctoritatem suam,

    to maintain, id. ib. 48, 139:

    principatum,

    Caes. B. G. 1, 3:

    regnum,

    id. ib. 1, 7:

    jus,

    to assert, maintain, Tac. A. 1, 32:

    causam,

    Caes. B. G. 7, 37, 4:

    noctem insequentem eadem caligo obtinuit,

    occupied, took up, prevailed during, Liv. 29, 27:

    quae (fama) plerosque obtinet,

    Sall. J. 17, 7:

    proverbii locum obtinet,

    i. e. is become proverbial, Cic. Tusc. 4, 16, 36:

    parentis gravitatem,

    id. Sull. 6, 19:

    numerum deorum,

    to be numbered among, id. N. D. 3, 20, 51; so,

    aliquem numerum,

    id. Brut. 47, 175; cf. id. Off. 2, 12, 43: summam opinionem [p. 1247] m scholis, Quint. 10, 5, 18:

    admirationem,

    to be admired, Plin. 34, 2, 2, § 2:

    patriae nomen,

    id. 15, 18, 19, § 69:

    firmitudinem animi,

    i. e. exhibited, Plaut. As. 2, 2, 54:

    pontem,

    would not yield, Liv. 2, 10:

    silentiam,

    to maintain, id. 1, 16.—With inf., to persist in:

    earumque artem et disciplinam obtineat colere,

    Plaut. Mil. 2, 2, 30.—
    2.
    In partic., of speech, to assert, maintain, i. e. to show, prove, demonstrate:

    possumus hoc teste... quod dicimus, obtinere?

    Cic. Verr. 2, 3, 71, § 168:

    duas contrarias sententias,

    id. Fin. 4, 28, 78:

    diu pugnare in iis, quae obtinere non possis,

    Quint. 6, 4, 15:

    recta apud turpes,

    id. 3, 8, 38:

    quaedam (leges) an obtineri possint,

    id. 2, 4, 39; 6, 1, 7:

    quod orator praecipue sibi obtinendum intellegit,

    id. 3, 6, 9 Spald. N. cr. (al. proponendum); cf. id. 12, 10, 53:

    si defecerint omnia, tum videndum erit, an obtineri possit, ne illud quidem recte factum,

    id. 5, 13, 24; 2, 5, 18.—
    C.
    To get possession of; to gain, acquire, obtain something (syn.: assequor, adipiscor, impetro;

    class.): quanta instrumenta habeat (homo) ad obtinendam adipiscendamque sapientiam,

    Cic. Leg. 1, 22, 59:

    impetrare et obtinere,

    Gell. 12, 14, 6; Cic. Fam. 1, 8, 5:

    malas causas semper obtinuit, in optimā concidit,

    gained, id. Att. 7, 25, 1; cf. id. Rosc. Com. 4, 10:

    jus suum contra aliquem,

    id. Quint. 9, 34:

    Romani si rem obtinuerint,

    if they gained the victory, Caes. B. G. 7, 85: voluimus quaedam;

    obtenta non sunt,

    Cic. Balb. 27, 61:

    apud eum causam obtinuit,

    Caes. B. G. 7, 37:

    aditu regis obtento,

    Just. 21, 6, 5.—Hence, to conquer, overcome (eccl. Lat.):

    melius est ut pugnemus contra eos in campestribus, et obtinebimus eos,

    Vulg. 3 Reg. 20, 23; 20, 25; id. Judith, 1, 5.—
    II.
    Neutr. (cf. teneo, II.), to maintain itself; to hold, prevail, last, stand, continue, obtain (not in Cic.):

    quod et plures tradidere auctores et fama obtinuit,

    Liv. 21, 46, 10; cf. with a subject-clause: pro vero antea obtinebat, regna atque imperia Fortunam dono dare, Sall. Rep. Ordin. init.:

    non ipsos quoque fuisse pastores obtinebit, quod? etc.,

    Varr. R. R. 2, 1, 9:

    si dissentirent, sententia plurium obtineret,

    would prevail, Dig. 42, 1, 36:

    quod merito obtinuit,

    ib. 2, 4, 4.— Absol.:

    obtinuit (sc. consuetudo),

    Dig. 1, 13, 1.—With de: quia de intercalando non obtinuerat, Cael. ap. Cic. Fam. 8, 6, 5.—With ut or ne:

    his obtinuit, ut praeferretur candidato,

    Liv. 35, 10; Suet. Claud. 41:

    obtinuit, ne reus fieret,

    id. Caes. 23.—With quin, Suet. Tib. 31.

    Lewis & Short latin dictionary > obtineo

  • 3 optineo

    ob-tĭnĕo ( opt-), tĭnŭi, tentum, 2 (old perf. OPTENVI, fifth Epit. of the Scipios; inf. pass. obtinerier, Plaut. Am. 3, 2, 19; id. Most. 3, 2, 154), v. a. and n. [teneo].
    I.
    Act. *
    A.
    To take hold of, hold:

    obtine aures, amabo,

    Plaut. Cas. 3, 5, 16.—
    B.
    To hold, have, occupy, possess; to preserve, keep, maintain, etc. (class.).
    1.
    In gen.: sancte Apollo, qui umbilicum certum terrarum obtines, Poët. ap. Cic. Div. 2, 56, 115 (Trag. Rel. p. 201 Rib.):

    suam quisque domum tum obtinebat,

    Cic. Phil. 2, 19, 48:

    armis Galliam atque Italiam,

    Liv. 30, 19:

    cum imperio Hispaniam citeriorem,

    to have as his province, to be governor in it, Cic. Fam. 1, 9, 2:

    Galliam et Italiam,

    Liv. 30, 19:

    Africam,

    Nep. Timol. 2, 4; cf.:

    ex quā insulā nummus nullus, me obtinente, erogabitur,

    during my administration, Cic. Att. 5, 21, 7: QVEI AERARIVM PROVINCIAM OBTINEBIT, who will have the administration of the public treasure, Lex Thor. § 20 Rudorff. p. 168;

    Lex de Scribis ap. Haubold, p. 85: necessitudinem cum publicanis,

    Cic. Q. Fr. 1, 1, 12, § 35:

    vitam et famam,

    to preserve, id. Rosc. Am. 17, 49:

    auctoritatem suam,

    to maintain, id. ib. 48, 139:

    principatum,

    Caes. B. G. 1, 3:

    regnum,

    id. ib. 1, 7:

    jus,

    to assert, maintain, Tac. A. 1, 32:

    causam,

    Caes. B. G. 7, 37, 4:

    noctem insequentem eadem caligo obtinuit,

    occupied, took up, prevailed during, Liv. 29, 27:

    quae (fama) plerosque obtinet,

    Sall. J. 17, 7:

    proverbii locum obtinet,

    i. e. is become proverbial, Cic. Tusc. 4, 16, 36:

    parentis gravitatem,

    id. Sull. 6, 19:

    numerum deorum,

    to be numbered among, id. N. D. 3, 20, 51; so,

    aliquem numerum,

    id. Brut. 47, 175; cf. id. Off. 2, 12, 43: summam opinionem [p. 1247] m scholis, Quint. 10, 5, 18:

    admirationem,

    to be admired, Plin. 34, 2, 2, § 2:

    patriae nomen,

    id. 15, 18, 19, § 69:

    firmitudinem animi,

    i. e. exhibited, Plaut. As. 2, 2, 54:

    pontem,

    would not yield, Liv. 2, 10:

    silentiam,

    to maintain, id. 1, 16.—With inf., to persist in:

    earumque artem et disciplinam obtineat colere,

    Plaut. Mil. 2, 2, 30.—
    2.
    In partic., of speech, to assert, maintain, i. e. to show, prove, demonstrate:

    possumus hoc teste... quod dicimus, obtinere?

    Cic. Verr. 2, 3, 71, § 168:

    duas contrarias sententias,

    id. Fin. 4, 28, 78:

    diu pugnare in iis, quae obtinere non possis,

    Quint. 6, 4, 15:

    recta apud turpes,

    id. 3, 8, 38:

    quaedam (leges) an obtineri possint,

    id. 2, 4, 39; 6, 1, 7:

    quod orator praecipue sibi obtinendum intellegit,

    id. 3, 6, 9 Spald. N. cr. (al. proponendum); cf. id. 12, 10, 53:

    si defecerint omnia, tum videndum erit, an obtineri possit, ne illud quidem recte factum,

    id. 5, 13, 24; 2, 5, 18.—
    C.
    To get possession of; to gain, acquire, obtain something (syn.: assequor, adipiscor, impetro;

    class.): quanta instrumenta habeat (homo) ad obtinendam adipiscendamque sapientiam,

    Cic. Leg. 1, 22, 59:

    impetrare et obtinere,

    Gell. 12, 14, 6; Cic. Fam. 1, 8, 5:

    malas causas semper obtinuit, in optimā concidit,

    gained, id. Att. 7, 25, 1; cf. id. Rosc. Com. 4, 10:

    jus suum contra aliquem,

    id. Quint. 9, 34:

    Romani si rem obtinuerint,

    if they gained the victory, Caes. B. G. 7, 85: voluimus quaedam;

    obtenta non sunt,

    Cic. Balb. 27, 61:

    apud eum causam obtinuit,

    Caes. B. G. 7, 37:

    aditu regis obtento,

    Just. 21, 6, 5.—Hence, to conquer, overcome (eccl. Lat.):

    melius est ut pugnemus contra eos in campestribus, et obtinebimus eos,

    Vulg. 3 Reg. 20, 23; 20, 25; id. Judith, 1, 5.—
    II.
    Neutr. (cf. teneo, II.), to maintain itself; to hold, prevail, last, stand, continue, obtain (not in Cic.):

    quod et plures tradidere auctores et fama obtinuit,

    Liv. 21, 46, 10; cf. with a subject-clause: pro vero antea obtinebat, regna atque imperia Fortunam dono dare, Sall. Rep. Ordin. init.:

    non ipsos quoque fuisse pastores obtinebit, quod? etc.,

    Varr. R. R. 2, 1, 9:

    si dissentirent, sententia plurium obtineret,

    would prevail, Dig. 42, 1, 36:

    quod merito obtinuit,

    ib. 2, 4, 4.— Absol.:

    obtinuit (sc. consuetudo),

    Dig. 1, 13, 1.—With de: quia de intercalando non obtinuerat, Cael. ap. Cic. Fam. 8, 6, 5.—With ut or ne:

    his obtinuit, ut praeferretur candidato,

    Liv. 35, 10; Suet. Claud. 41:

    obtinuit, ne reus fieret,

    id. Caes. 23.—With quin, Suet. Tib. 31.

    Lewis & Short latin dictionary > optineo

  • 4 teneo

    tĕnĕo, tĕnŭi, tentum, 2 ( perf. subj. tetinerim, Pac. ap. Non. 178, 15:

    tetinerit,

    Att. ib. 178, 12:

    tetinisse,

    Pac. ib. 178, 11; fut. perf. tetinero, acc. to Fest. p. 252 Müll. Another collat. form of the perf. tenivi, acc. to Charis. p. 220 P.; Diom. pp. 363 and 369 ib.), v. a. and n. [root ten-, tan-; Gr. tanumai, teinô; Sanscr. tanomi, to stretch, spread; this root appears in many derived meanings; cf. Lat.: tendo, tenuis, tener, tenor, tenus].
    I.
    Act., to hold, keep, have in the hand, in the mouth, etc.
    A.
    Lit.
    1.
    In gen.: Eu. Porrige bracchium, prehende: jam tenes? Cha. Teneo. Eu. Tene, Plaut. Merc. 5, 2, 42; cf.

    argentum,

    id. Pers. 3, 3, 9:

    cum pyxidem teneret in manu,

    Cic. Cael. 26, 63;

    for which: aliquid manu,

    Quint. 10, 7, 31; Ov. M. 11, 560; id. A. A. 1, 320; Hor. Ep. 1, 19, 34:

    aliquid dextrā,

    Ov. F. 1, 99:

    digitis,

    id. ib. 2, 102; id. M. 9, 86; 9, 522:

    lacertis,

    id. ib. 2, 100 al.:

    radicem ore,

    Cic. Div. 2, 68, 141:

    cibum ore,

    Phaedr. 1, 4, 6;

    for which: decoctum diu in ore,

    Plin. 25, 13, 105, § 166:

    aliquem in sinu,

    Ov. H. 3, 114;

    for which: aliquem sinu,

    id. ib. 13, 157:

    flabellulum,

    Ter. Eun. 3, 5, 50:

    facem,

    Verg. A. 6, 224:

    telum,

    Liv. 2, 19. — Prov.: manu tenere aliquid, to seize, grasp, or comprehend a thing which is palpable or evident: aliter leges, aliter philosophi tollunt astutias: leges, quātenus manu tenere possunt;

    philosophi, quātenus ratione et intellegentiā,

    Cic. Off. 3, 17, 68; cf.:

    cum res non conjecturā, sed oculis ac manibus teneretur,

    id. Clu. 7, 20. —
    2.
    In partic.
    a.
    With the accessory idea of possession, to hold, i. e. to be master of, have in one ' s power, possess, etc. (syn.:

    possideo, habeo): multa hereditatibus, multa emptionibus, multa dotibus tenebantur sine injuriā,

    Cic. Off. 2, 23, 81:

    quae tenuit dives Achaemenes,

    Hor. C. 2, 12, 21:

    Evander qui multis ante tempestatibus tenuerat loca,

    Liv. 1, 5:

    provinciam a praedonibus liberam,

    Cic. Imp. Pomp. 11, 32:

    colles praesidiis,

    Caes. B. C. 3, 43:

    Formiarum moenia et Lirim,

    Hor. C. 3, 17, 8:

    tenente Caesare terras,

    id. ib. 3, 14, 15:

    rem publicam,

    Cic. Mur. 39, 83; id. Sest. 19, 44:

    summam imperii,

    Caes. B. G. 3, 22:

    equitum centurias,

    Cic. Fam. 11, 16, 3:

    alterum cornu,

    to command, Nep. Pelop. 4, 3:

    provincias aliaque omnia,

    Sall. C. 39, 2: scenam, to have sole possession of. [p. 1854] rule over, Suet. Tit. 7. —

    Of the possession of the object of affection: te tenet,

    Tib. 1, 6, 35; 2, 6, 52; Verg. E. 1, 32; Ov. H. 2, 103 Ruhnk.; 15, 88; id. Am. 3, 7, 3; Phaedr. 2, 2, 4.—In colloq. lang., teneo te, I have you once more, of again seeing the beloved person:

    teneone te, Antiphila, maxime animo exoptata meo?

    Ter. Heaut. 2, 4, 27 Ruhnk.; Sen. Ben. 7, 4; Ov. H. 18, 183; cf.:

    et comitem Aenean juxta natumque tenebat Ingrediens,

    Verg. A. 8, 308.—Also like our I have you (fast, bound, etc.):

    teneo te, inquam, nam ista Academiae est propria sententia,

    Cic. Ac. 2, 48, 148; id. Quint. 20, 63.— Absol.: qui tenent (sc. rem publicam), who are in possession of the State, of public affairs:

    qui tenent, qui potiuntur,

    Cic. Att. 7, 12, 3; 2, 18, 1. —
    b.
    With the accessory idea of firmness, persistence, to hold fast, occupy; to watch, guard, defend; to maintain, retain a thing:

    legio locum non tenuit atque in proximum collem se recepit,

    Caes. B. C. 1, 44:

    montes teneri,

    id. B. G. 3, 2:

    haec noctu firmis praesidiis tenebantur,

    id. ib. 7, 69:

    Capitolia celsa tenebat,

    Verg. A. 8, 653:

    quo teneam Protea nodo?

    Hor. Ep. 1, 1, 90:

    te neque intra Claustra tenebo,

    id. C. 3, 11, 44; cf.:

    in manicis et Compedibus saevo te sub custode tenebo,

    id. Ep. 1, 16, 77: laqueis (se) sensit teneri... fugam frustra tentabat;

    at illam Lenta tenet radix exsultantemque coërcet,

    Ov. M. 11, 74 sq.; 1, 535:

    Athenae tuae sempiternam in arce oleam tenere potuerunt,

    Cic. Leg. 1, 1, 2:

    agri qui diu aquam tenent,

    Pall. Apr. 2, 4:

    classem ibi tenebat,

    Liv. 31, 46, 8: secundissimo vento cursum tenere, to hold or keep one ' s course, Cic. N. D. 3, 34, 83; cf.:

    vento intermisso cursum non tenuit,

    Caes. B. G. 5, 8; 4, 28; so,

    cursum,

    Cic. Planc. 21, 52; id. Rep. 1, 2, 3 fin.; Quint. 4, 3, 13:

    quo iter,

    Verg. A. 1, 370; Plin. Ep. 6, 16, 10:

    (lunam) fingunt cursus viam sub sole tenere,

    Lucr. 5, 714:

    tenuit tamen vestigia Bucar,

    Liv. 29, 32, 6.—
    c.
    With the accessory idea of reaching the object aimed at, to reach, attain a place:

    montes effuso cursu Sabini petebant et pauci tenuere,

    Liv. 1, 37, 4:

    regionem,

    id. 30, 25, 11:

    Tenum,

    id. 36, 21, 1:

    terram,

    id. 37, 16, 4; 37, 11, 5; 37, 13, 4;

    26, 29, 4: Hesperiam,

    Ov. F. 1, 498:

    portus,

    id. H. 18, 198; Tac. Agr. 38 fin.:

    cum quibus (navibus) Cythnum insulam tenuit,

    id. H. 2, 9.—
    d.
    With the accessory idea of movement impeded, to hold fast, hold back, hinder, restrain, detain, check, control, stay, etc.:

    naves, quae vento tenebantur,

    Caes. B. G. 4, 22:

    quid hic agatur, scire poteris ex eo, qui litteras attulit, quem diutius tenui, quia, etc.,

    Cic. Att. 11, 3, 1:

    si id te non tenet, advola,

    id. Fam. 16, 19:

    septimum jam diem Corcyrae tenebamur,

    id. ib. 16, 7 init.:

    Marcellum ab gerundis rebus valetudo adversa Nolae tenuit,

    Liv. 24, 20, 7:

    non tenebo te pluribus,

    Cic. Fam. 11, 16, 3; cf. absol.:

    ne diutius teneam,

    id. Verr. 2, 1, 13, § 34: solutum (corpus) tenere, Cels. praef. med.; cf.

    ventrem,

    id. 4, 19 med.:

    tene linguam,

    Ov. F. 2, 602:

    pecus omne tenendum,

    Verg. G. 2, 371:

    vix a te videor posse tenere manus,

    Ov. Am. 1, 4, 10; so,

    manus,

    id. M. 13, 203; cf.:

    manum stomachumque teneto,

    Hor. S. 2, 7, 44:

    saeva tene cum Berecyntio Cornu tympana,

    id. C. 1, 18, 13:

    et Phoebi tenuere viam,

    i. e. impeded, closed up, Luc. 5, 136:

    quo me decet usque teneri?

    Verg. A. 5, 384:

    lacrimas,

    Caes. B. G. 1, 39; so,

    lacrimas in morte miserā non tenebamus,

    Cic. Verr. 2, 5, 67, § 172:

    dictator exercitum in stativis tenebat,

    Liv. 6, 14, 1. —
    (β).
    Esp.: se tenere, to keep back, remain, stay:

    Sabinus castris sese tenebat,

    Caes. B. G. 3, 17; 1, 40; Liv. 2, 45, 2:

    nullā clade acceptā castris se pavidus tenebat,

    id. 3, 26, 3:

    Hasdrubal procul ab hoste intervallo tenebat se,

    id. 23, 26, 2:

    se domi a conventu remotum tenere,

    Nep. Dion, 9, 1:

    ego tamen teneo ab accusando vix me hercule: sed tamen teneo,

    restrain myself, refrain, Cic. Q. Fr. 3, 2, 2:

    nec se tenuit, quin, etc.,

    id. Ac. 2, 4, 12; cf.

    mid.: teneri non potui, quin tibi apertius illud idem his litteris declararem,

    id. Att. 15, 14, 2; Just. 6, 7, 10; cf.:

    se intra silentium tenuit,

    Plin. Ep. 4, 17, 8:

    multum me intra silentium tenui,

    id. ib. 7, 6, 6.—
    B.
    Trop.
    1.
    In gen., to hold, contain in the mind, to conceive, comprehend, know (syn.:

    percipio, intellego): nunc ego teneo, nunc scio, Quid sit hoc negotii,

    Plaut. Capt. 3, 5, 39: tenes Quorsum haec tendant quae loquor, id. Ps. 1, 2, 81:

    tenes, quid dicam?

    Ter. Heaut. 4, 3, 22:

    teneo,

    I understand, id. And. 1, 1, 59:

    teneo quid erret,

    id. 3, 2, 18; Cic. Rep. 1, 23, 37; cf.: quibus capiatur Caesar, tenes, Caecin. ap. Cic. Fam. 6, 7, 5:

    quae a Romanis auguribus ignorantur, a Cilicibus... Lyciis tenentur,

    Cic. Div. 1, 15, 25:

    quoniam ea, quae tenebatis ipsi, etiam ex me audire voluistis,

    id. Rep. 1, 46, 70:

    alicujus reconditos sensus,

    id. Sest. 10, 22:

    quo pacto cuncta tenerem,

    Hor. S. 2, 4, 8:

    et teneo melius ista,

    Mart. 4, 37, 7.—With inf.:

    nullus frugi esse homo potest, nisi qui et bene facere et male tenet,

    Plaut. Bacch. 4, 4, 10; Lucr. 3, 647.—
    2.
    In partic.
    a.
    To have possession of, have the mastery of, to control any thing:

    cum rem publicam opes paucorum non virtutes tenere coeperunt,

    Cic. Rep. 1, 34, 51.—
    b.
    To hold fast, guard, preserve, uphold, keep, insist (syn. servo):

    sin consuetudinem meam, quam in re publicā semper habui, tenuero,

    Cic. Phil. 1, 11, 27:

    ordinem,

    id. ib. 5, 13, 35:

    portum,

    id. Fam. 1, 9, 21:

    statum,

    id. Rep. 1, 28, 44:

    non tenebat ornatum suum civitas,

    id. ib. 1, 27, 43:

    si jus suum populi teneant,

    id. ib. 1, 32, 48:

    nec diutius umquam tenetur idem rei publicae modus,

    id. ib. 1, 44, 68:

    est boni viri, haec duo tenere in amicitiā, etc.,

    id. Lael. 18, 65:

    morem,

    id. Off. 3, 10, 44; so id. Fl. 7, 15; Verg. A. 3, 408:

    foedus,

    Cic. Balb. 15, 34:

    tenebat non modo auctoritatem, sed etiam imperium in suos,

    id. Sen. 11, 37:

    silentium,

    Liv. 1, 28, 8.—
    c.
    To hold fast, maintain, support, defend, uphold, insist:

    illud arcte tenent accurateque defendunt, voluptatem esse summum bonum,

    hold fast, maintain, Cic. Par. 1, 3, 14; cf.:

    illud, quod multos annos tenuisset,

    id. Ac. 2, 22, 71; and:

    quod idem Peripatetici non tenent,

    id. Fin. 3, 13, 44:

    propositum tenere,

    to maintain, Caes. B. C. 3, 42, 1:

    suas leges,

    Cic. Verr. 1, 4, 13:

    causam apud centumviros,

    id. Caecin. 24, 67:

    quo causae teste tenentur,

    Hor. Ep. 1, 16, 43:

    locum quendam cum aliquo,

    Cic. Brut. 21, 81.— With ne:

    plebs tenuit, ne consules in proximum annum crearentur,

    Liv. 4, 30, 16:

    ne quid ferretur ad populum, patres tenuere,

    id. 3, 29, 8; 24, 19, 7. — With ut:

    tenuere patres, ut Fabius consul crearetur,

    Liv. 2, 42, 2 Weissenb. ad loc.:

    scripseram tenuisse Varenum ut sibi evocare testes liceret,

    Plin. Ep. 6, 5, 1.—
    d.
    Of memory:

    alicujus memoriam cum summā benevolentiā tenere,

    to recollect, preserve a recollection of, Cic. Fam. 6, 2, 1.—Esp.:

    memoriā tenere: memoriā tenetis, compluris in Capitolio res de caelo esse percussas,

    you remember, Cic. Cat. 3, 8, 19; id. Fam. 1, 9, 12; Caes. B. G. 1, 14; cf.:

    memoriā teneo, C. Sulpicium Gallum, etc.,

    id. Rep. 1, 14, 21; v. memoria; so without memoria, to bear in mind, remember, recollect:

    satin' haec meministi et tenes?

    Plaut. Pers. 2, 2, 1:

    numeros memini, si verba tenerem,

    Verg. E. 9, 45:

    dicta tenere,

    Hor. A. P. 336; id. S. 2, 4, 8:

    quem (Cyrum) omnia militum tenuisse creditum est nomina,

    Quint. 11, 2, 50; 11, 2, 45.—
    e.
    To reach an object striven after, to gain, acquire, obtain, attain (syn. assequor):

    per cursum rectum regnum tenere,

    Cic. Agr. 2, 17, 44:

    Servium Tullium post hunc captivā natum, ingenio virtute regnum tenuisse,

    Liv. 4, 3, 12:

    teneri res aliter non potest,

    Cic. Fam. 1, 1, 3:

    multa tenuisse,

    Liv. 42, 11, 8:

    causam,

    Ov. M. 13, 190.—
    f.
    To hold, hold back, repress, restrain, bind, fetter, etc. (syn.:

    refreno, retineo): iracundiam teneat, avaritiam coërceat,

    Cic. Par. 5, 1, 33:

    dolorem,

    id. Att. 12, 38, 2:

    cupiditates,

    id. Verr. 2, 3, 1, § 3:

    somnum,

    id. Brut. 80, 278:

    risum,

    id. Vatin. 8, 20; Hor. A. P. 5:

    iram,

    Curt. 4, 2, 5:

    ea, quae occurrant, tenere,

    to hold back, keep to themselves, Cic. de Or. 2, 54, 221.—
    g.
    Of laws, etc., to bind, hold, obligate, be binding on, control, etc.:

    quamquam leges eum non tenent,

    Cic. Phil. 11, 5, 11; cf.:

    interdicto non teneri,

    id. Caecin. 14, 41:

    voto quodam et promisso teneri,

    id. Att. 12, 18, 1:

    ut plebi scita omnes Quirites tenerent,

    Liv. 8, 12, 14; cf.:

    olim patricii dicebant se plebi scitis non teneri,

    Gai. Inst. 1, 3:

    cum velut in controverso jure esset, tenerenturne patres plebi scitis, legem tulere, ut quod tributim plebis jussisset, populum teneret,

    Liv. 3, 55, 3:

    teneri alienis foederibus,

    id. 24, 29, 11: poenā teneri, to be subject or liable to, Cic. Q. Fr. 2, 3, 5:

    testibus in re perspicuā teneri,

    to be convicted, id. Caecin. 2, 4; cf.: nemo ita in manifesto peccatu tenebatur, ut, etc., id. Verr. 2, 2, 78, § 191:

    caedis teneri,

    Quint. 5, 14, 11:

    teneri repetundarum,

    Tac. A. 11, 7 fin.:

    furti,

    Dig. 6, 1, 4:

    injuriarum,

    ib. 47, 10, 11:

    mandati,

    ib. 17, 1, 10.— Transf.:

    nisi illi ipsi, qui eas (libidines) frangere deberent, cupiditatis ejusdem tenerentur,

    Cic. Leg. 3, 13, 31 Mos. and Orell. N. cr. —
    h.
    Of dispositions, desires, etc., to possess, occupy, control:

    quae te tanta pravitas mentis tenuerit, ut, etc.,

    has had possession of you, Cic. Vatin. 6, 14:

    summum me eorum (librorum) studium tenet,

    id. Att. 1, 11, 3:

    magna me spes tenet,

    id. Tusc. 1, 41, 97:

    de triumpho nulla me cupiditas umquam tenuit,

    id. Att. 7, 2, 6:

    si consilio pulso libidines iracundiaeve tenerent omnia,

    id. Rep. 1, 38, 60:

    nisi forte quem inhonesta et perniciosa libido tenet,

    Sall. J. 3, 4: neque irā neque gratiā teneri, to be controlled or influenced, Cic. N. D. 1, 17, 45; so,

    teneri desiderio,

    id. Sen. 10, 33:

    studio philosophiae,

    id. Ac. 1, 2, 4:

    magno amore,

    Verg. A. 1, 675:

    pompā, ludis atque ejusmodi spectaculis teneri,

    to be enchained, fascinated, Cic. Fin. 5, 18, 48; cf.:

    ut oculi picturā teneantur, aures cantibus,

    id. Ac. 2, 7, 20:

    is qui audit, ab oratore jam obsessus est ac tenetur,

    id. Or. 62, 210.—With ne, Ov. M. 7, 146. —
    k.
    To take in, comprise, comprehend, include:

    haec magnos formula reges, Excepto sapiente, tenet,

    Hor. S. 2, 3, 46.—More freq. pass.: teneri aliquā re, to be contained, comprised, grounded, to consist in a thing:

    ut homines deorum agnatione et gente teneantur,

    Cic. Leg. 1, 7, 23:

    id quod (genus officiorum) teneatur hominum societate,

    id. Off. 1, 45, 160:

    quae (causae) familiaritate et consuetudine tenentur,

    id. Fam. 13, 29, 1:

    dixi jam antea, ipsam rationem arandi spe magis et jucunditate quadam quam fructu atque emolumento teneri,

    id. Verr. 2, 3, 98, § 227.
    II.
    Neutr. (freq. after the Aug. per.; perh. not in Cic.).
    A.
    Lit.
    1.
    To hold a position anywhere, maintain one ' s self:

    quā abscisae rupes erant, statio paucorum armatorum tenebat,

    Liv. 32, 5, 12:

    duo extra ordinem milia tenuere,

    id. 3, 62, 7:

    tenent Danai, quā deficit ignis,

    Verg. A. 2, 505.—
    2.
    For cursum tenere, to hold or take one ' s way, to sail, steer in any direction:

    Aeneam... ab Siciliā classe ad Laurentem agrum tenuisse,

    Liv. 1, 1, 4:

    Cassandream petentes, primo ad Mendin tenuere,

    Liv. 31, 45, 14:

    ad Mendaeum,

    id. 21, 49, 2:

    Diam,

    Ov. M. 3, 690:

    Creten,

    id. ib. 13, 706:

    Hesperiam,

    id. F. 1, 498:

    Ausoniam,

    id. ib. 4, 290 al.:

    medio tutissimus ibis... Inter utrumque tene,

    Ov. M. 2, 140.—
    B.
    Trop., with the accessory idea of continuance (cf. I. A. 2. b. and B. 2. b. supra), to hold out, hold on, last, endure, continue, maintain itself, prevail, etc. (cf. obtineo):

    imber per noctem totam tenuit,

    Liv. 23, 44, 6; cf.:

    incendium per duas noctes ac diem unum tenuit,

    id. 24, 47, 15:

    per aliquot dies ea consultatio tenuit,

    id. 2, 3, 5; 3, 47, 6:

    tenet fama, lupam, etc.,

    id. 1, 4, 6:

    quod nunc quoque tenet nomen,

    id. 1, 17, 6:

    fama tenuit, haud plus fuisse modio,

    id. 23, 12, 2; 21, 46, 10:

    tenuit consuetudo, quae cottidie magis invalescit, ut, etc.,

    Quint. 2, 1, 1 Spald.; so,

    consuetudo, ut, etc.,

    id. 8, 5, 2:

    nomen illud tenet,

    id. 9, 4, 47 Spald.; cf. Ov. M. 1, 712.

    Lewis & Short latin dictionary > teneo

  • 5 вырабатывать тепло

    •

    The reaction generates enough heat to maintain itself.

    Русско-английский научно-технический словарь переводчика > вырабатывать тепло

  • 6 вырабатывать тепло

    •

    The reaction generates enough heat to maintain itself.

    Русско-английский научно-технический словарь переводчика > вырабатывать тепло

  • 7 cohaereō

        cohaereō haesī, haesus, ēre    [com- + haereo], to cling together, be united, cohere: mundus apte cohaeret. — To consist of, be composed of: alia quibus cohaererent homines. — In thought, to be consistent, agree together: Non cohaerent, T.: haec naturā cohaerentia: sermo non cohaerebit, will have no consistent meaning.—To hold together, remain, exist, maintain itself: qui ruunt nec cohaerere possunt: virtutes sine vitā beatā cohaerere non possunt. — To cling closely, adhere, be connected with, cleave to, be in contact with: dextera ligno cohaesit, O.: scopuloque adfixa cohaesit, O. —Fig., to be closely connected with, be in harmony with, be consistent with: cohaerens cum omni corpore membrum.
    * * *
    cohaerere, cohaesi, cohaesus V INTRANS
    stick/cling/hold/grow together, adhere; embrace; touch, adjoin, be in contact; be consistent/coherent; be connected/bound/joined/tied together; be in harmony

    Latin-English dictionary > cohaereō

  • 8 cohaerens

    cŏ-haerĕo, haesi, haesum, 2, v. n., to cling together, to be united, either of that whose parts cling together, to cohere, or of that which cleaves to something else, to adhere.
    I.
    Of a whole as composed of parts, or of the parts of a whole, to cling together, be united, to cohere, press or crowd together.
    A.
    Lit.
    1.
    In gen.:

    mundus ita apte cohaeret, ut dissolvi nullo modo queat, nisi ab eodem a quo est colligatus,

    Cic. Univ. 5:

    omnia autem duo ad cohaerendum tertium aliquid anquirunt et quasi nodum vinculumque desiderant,

    id. ib. 4:

    neque enim materiam ipsam cohaerere potuisse, si nullā vi contineretur,

    id. Ac. 1, 6, 24:

    omni naturā cohaerente et continuatā,

    id. ib. 1, 7, 28:

    nec res ulla magis primoribus ex elementis Indupedita suis arte conexa cohaeret Quam validi ferri natura,

    Lucr. 6, 1010:

    solidā primordia... Quae minimis stipata cohaerent partibus arte,

    id. 1, 610; 2, 67:

    inter se juga velut serie cohaerentia,

    continuous, Curt. 7, 3, 21.—Of persons in a throng, etc.:

    alii extremo complexu suorum cohaerentes,

    Quint. 8, 3, 68;

    so of soldiers in line of battle: conferti et quasi cohaerentes tela vibrare non poterant,

    Curt. 3, 11, 4;

    and of two contending armies: duae quippe acies ita cohaerebant, ut armis arma pulsarent,

    id. 3, 11, 5;

    of ships: binas quadriremes Macedones inter se ita junxerant, ut prorae cohaererent,

    id. 4, 3, 14: conexis et cohaerentibus aedificiis, * Tac. G. 16.—
    2.
    Pregn., to consist in or of, be composed of; with abl. (rare):

    cum alia quibus cohaererent homines e mortali genere sumpserint, quae fragilia essent et caduca, animum esse ingeneratum a deo,

    Cic. Leg. 1, 8, 24; cf.: mundus omnibus partibus inter se congruentibus cohaeret et nititur, etc., Cic. Leg. ap. Lact. 5, 8, 10.—
    B.
    Trop.
    1.
    Of persons united by kindred, friendship, etc., to be near, close, united:

    turpes ac perniciosos, etiamsi nobis sanguine cohaereant, amputandos,

    Quint. 8, 3, 75:

    est enim mihi perjucundum quod viri optimi mihique amicissimi adeo cohaesistis ut invicem vos obligari putetis,

    Plin. Ep. 7, 7, 1.—
    2.
    Of things.
    a.
    In discourse, to belong together, be closely connected:

    quae... si suis quaeque temporibus reddere voluero, interrumpendae sunt res Asiae, quas... sicut inter se cohaerent, ita opere ipso conjungi aptius videri potest,

    Curt. 5, 1, 2.—
    b.
    In thought, to be consistent, agree together:

    em, Paululum obsoni, ipsus tristis, de inproviso nuptiae—Non cohaerent,

    i.e. cannot all be here at once, Ter. And. 2, 2, 24:

    tam eras excors, ut... non modo non cohaerentia inter se diceres, sed maxime dijuncta atque contraria,

    Cic. Phil. 2, 8, 18:

    dubitandum non est quin numquam possit utilitas cum honestate contendere. Itaque accepimus Socratem exsecrari solitum eos qui primum haec naturā cohaerentia opinione distraxissent,

    id. Off. 3, 3, 11:

    non quaero jam, verumne sit: illud dico, ea, quae dicat, praeclare inter se cohaerere,

    id. Fin. 5, 27, 79:

    animadvertisti, quam multa dicta sint, quamque, etiam si minus vera, tamen apta inter se et cohaerentia,

    id. N. D. 3, 1, 4:

    male cohaerens cogitatio,

    Quint. 10, 6, 6:

    sensus inter se juncti, atque ita cohaerentes, ne, etc.,

    id. 7, 10, 16; 9, 4, 20; 9, 4, 63:

    sermo hercule familiaris et cottidianus non cohaerebit, si verba inter nos aucupamur,

    have a consistent meaning, be intelligible, Cic. Caecin. 18, 52:

    vix diserti adulescentis cohaerebat oratio,

    id. Cael. 7, 15; and of harmony in the arrangement of words: conlocabuntur igitur verba, ut aut inter se aptissime cohaereant extrema cum primis eaque sint quam suavissimis vocibus, etc., id. Or. 44, 149:

    haec collocatio verborum... quae junctam orationem efficit, quae cohaerentem, etc.,

    id. de Or. 3, 43, 172; Quint. 9, 4, 66.—
    3.
    Pregn., to hold together, i.e. remain, exist, maintain itself:

    omnibus modis fulciendi sunt, qui ruunt nec cohaerere possunt propter magnitudinem aegritudinis,

    Cic. Tusc. 3, 25, 61:

    virtutes sine vitā beatā cohaerere non possunt, nec sine virtute vita beata,

    id. ib. 5, 28, 80:

    vix haec, si undique fulciamus, jam labefacta... nixa in omnium nostrum umeris cohaerebunt,

    id. Har. Resp. 27, 60.—
    II. A.
    Lit.
    1.
    With dat.:

    temptanti dextera flxa est Cuspide Marmaridae Corythi, lignoque cohaesit,

    Ov. M. 5, 125; 11, 76:

    nec equo mea membra cohaerent,

    id. Am. 1, 4, 9:

    scopuloque affixa cohaesit,

    id. M. 4, 553:

    fructus quamdiu solo cohaerent,

    Dig. 47, 2, 63:

    superficies... quae natura solo cohaeret,

    ib. 44, 7, 44, § 1 fin.:

    quippe turris... muris hostium propemodum cohaerebat,

    Curt. 4, 4, 11:

    experimentum marmorati est in subigendo donec rutro non cohaereat,

    Plin. 36, 23, 55, § 177:

    qui cohaerent Mesopotamiae Rhoali vocantur,

    adjoin, id. 5, 24, 21, § 87.—
    2.
    With cum and abl.:

    quidquid enim sequitur quamque rem, id cohaeret cum re necessario,

    Cic. Top. 12, 53.—
    3.
    With in and abl.:

    cohaerentis videmus in conchis (margaritas), etc.,

    Plin. 9, 35, 54, § 109.—
    4.
    Absol.:

    jamque ea (navis) quae non cohaerebat,

    i.e. which did not collide, Curt. 4, 4, 7.—
    B.
    Trop., to be closely connected with, in agreement or harmony with something else, to be consistent with:

    quod illa, quae prima dicuntur, si vehementer velis congruere et cohaerere cum causā, ex eis ducas oportet, quae post dicenda sunt,

    Cic. Inv. 1, 14, 19:

    si continget, etiam (id quod fingemus) verae alicui rei cohaereat,

    Quint. 4, 2, 89:

    ut non tamquam citharoedi prooemium adfictum aliquid, sed cohaerens cum omni corpore membrum videatur,

    Cic. de Or. 2, 80, 325:

    creditis tot gentes... non sacris, non moribus, non commercio linguae nobiscum cohaerentes, eodem proelio domitas esse, etc.,

    Curt. 6, 3, 8:

    potentia male cohaerens inter Pompeium et Caesarem,

    Vell. 2, 47, 2.—
    2.
    To be vitally connected with, to depend upon a thing; with abl.:

    sed ita legibus Sullae cohaerere statum civitatis adfirmat, ut iis solutis stare ipsa non possit,

    Quint. 11, 1, 85.—Hence,
    1.
    cŏhae-rens, entis, P. a. (cohering, i.e.), being in accord, corresponding:

    aptius et cohaerentius,

    Gell. 1, 1, 6.—
    * 2.
    cŏhaerenter, adv., continuously, uninterruptedly:

    dimicatum est,

    Flor. 2, 17, 5.—
    3.
    cŏhaesus, a, um. P. a., pressed together:

    quercus stricta denuo et cohaesa,

    Gell. 15, 16, 4.

    Lewis & Short latin dictionary > cohaerens

  • 9 cohaereo

    cŏ-haerĕo, haesi, haesum, 2, v. n., to cling together, to be united, either of that whose parts cling together, to cohere, or of that which cleaves to something else, to adhere.
    I.
    Of a whole as composed of parts, or of the parts of a whole, to cling together, be united, to cohere, press or crowd together.
    A.
    Lit.
    1.
    In gen.:

    mundus ita apte cohaeret, ut dissolvi nullo modo queat, nisi ab eodem a quo est colligatus,

    Cic. Univ. 5:

    omnia autem duo ad cohaerendum tertium aliquid anquirunt et quasi nodum vinculumque desiderant,

    id. ib. 4:

    neque enim materiam ipsam cohaerere potuisse, si nullā vi contineretur,

    id. Ac. 1, 6, 24:

    omni naturā cohaerente et continuatā,

    id. ib. 1, 7, 28:

    nec res ulla magis primoribus ex elementis Indupedita suis arte conexa cohaeret Quam validi ferri natura,

    Lucr. 6, 1010:

    solidā primordia... Quae minimis stipata cohaerent partibus arte,

    id. 1, 610; 2, 67:

    inter se juga velut serie cohaerentia,

    continuous, Curt. 7, 3, 21.—Of persons in a throng, etc.:

    alii extremo complexu suorum cohaerentes,

    Quint. 8, 3, 68;

    so of soldiers in line of battle: conferti et quasi cohaerentes tela vibrare non poterant,

    Curt. 3, 11, 4;

    and of two contending armies: duae quippe acies ita cohaerebant, ut armis arma pulsarent,

    id. 3, 11, 5;

    of ships: binas quadriremes Macedones inter se ita junxerant, ut prorae cohaererent,

    id. 4, 3, 14: conexis et cohaerentibus aedificiis, * Tac. G. 16.—
    2.
    Pregn., to consist in or of, be composed of; with abl. (rare):

    cum alia quibus cohaererent homines e mortali genere sumpserint, quae fragilia essent et caduca, animum esse ingeneratum a deo,

    Cic. Leg. 1, 8, 24; cf.: mundus omnibus partibus inter se congruentibus cohaeret et nititur, etc., Cic. Leg. ap. Lact. 5, 8, 10.—
    B.
    Trop.
    1.
    Of persons united by kindred, friendship, etc., to be near, close, united:

    turpes ac perniciosos, etiamsi nobis sanguine cohaereant, amputandos,

    Quint. 8, 3, 75:

    est enim mihi perjucundum quod viri optimi mihique amicissimi adeo cohaesistis ut invicem vos obligari putetis,

    Plin. Ep. 7, 7, 1.—
    2.
    Of things.
    a.
    In discourse, to belong together, be closely connected:

    quae... si suis quaeque temporibus reddere voluero, interrumpendae sunt res Asiae, quas... sicut inter se cohaerent, ita opere ipso conjungi aptius videri potest,

    Curt. 5, 1, 2.—
    b.
    In thought, to be consistent, agree together:

    em, Paululum obsoni, ipsus tristis, de inproviso nuptiae—Non cohaerent,

    i.e. cannot all be here at once, Ter. And. 2, 2, 24:

    tam eras excors, ut... non modo non cohaerentia inter se diceres, sed maxime dijuncta atque contraria,

    Cic. Phil. 2, 8, 18:

    dubitandum non est quin numquam possit utilitas cum honestate contendere. Itaque accepimus Socratem exsecrari solitum eos qui primum haec naturā cohaerentia opinione distraxissent,

    id. Off. 3, 3, 11:

    non quaero jam, verumne sit: illud dico, ea, quae dicat, praeclare inter se cohaerere,

    id. Fin. 5, 27, 79:

    animadvertisti, quam multa dicta sint, quamque, etiam si minus vera, tamen apta inter se et cohaerentia,

    id. N. D. 3, 1, 4:

    male cohaerens cogitatio,

    Quint. 10, 6, 6:

    sensus inter se juncti, atque ita cohaerentes, ne, etc.,

    id. 7, 10, 16; 9, 4, 20; 9, 4, 63:

    sermo hercule familiaris et cottidianus non cohaerebit, si verba inter nos aucupamur,

    have a consistent meaning, be intelligible, Cic. Caecin. 18, 52:

    vix diserti adulescentis cohaerebat oratio,

    id. Cael. 7, 15; and of harmony in the arrangement of words: conlocabuntur igitur verba, ut aut inter se aptissime cohaereant extrema cum primis eaque sint quam suavissimis vocibus, etc., id. Or. 44, 149:

    haec collocatio verborum... quae junctam orationem efficit, quae cohaerentem, etc.,

    id. de Or. 3, 43, 172; Quint. 9, 4, 66.—
    3.
    Pregn., to hold together, i.e. remain, exist, maintain itself:

    omnibus modis fulciendi sunt, qui ruunt nec cohaerere possunt propter magnitudinem aegritudinis,

    Cic. Tusc. 3, 25, 61:

    virtutes sine vitā beatā cohaerere non possunt, nec sine virtute vita beata,

    id. ib. 5, 28, 80:

    vix haec, si undique fulciamus, jam labefacta... nixa in omnium nostrum umeris cohaerebunt,

    id. Har. Resp. 27, 60.—
    II. A.
    Lit.
    1.
    With dat.:

    temptanti dextera flxa est Cuspide Marmaridae Corythi, lignoque cohaesit,

    Ov. M. 5, 125; 11, 76:

    nec equo mea membra cohaerent,

    id. Am. 1, 4, 9:

    scopuloque affixa cohaesit,

    id. M. 4, 553:

    fructus quamdiu solo cohaerent,

    Dig. 47, 2, 63:

    superficies... quae natura solo cohaeret,

    ib. 44, 7, 44, § 1 fin.:

    quippe turris... muris hostium propemodum cohaerebat,

    Curt. 4, 4, 11:

    experimentum marmorati est in subigendo donec rutro non cohaereat,

    Plin. 36, 23, 55, § 177:

    qui cohaerent Mesopotamiae Rhoali vocantur,

    adjoin, id. 5, 24, 21, § 87.—
    2.
    With cum and abl.:

    quidquid enim sequitur quamque rem, id cohaeret cum re necessario,

    Cic. Top. 12, 53.—
    3.
    With in and abl.:

    cohaerentis videmus in conchis (margaritas), etc.,

    Plin. 9, 35, 54, § 109.—
    4.
    Absol.:

    jamque ea (navis) quae non cohaerebat,

    i.e. which did not collide, Curt. 4, 4, 7.—
    B.
    Trop., to be closely connected with, in agreement or harmony with something else, to be consistent with:

    quod illa, quae prima dicuntur, si vehementer velis congruere et cohaerere cum causā, ex eis ducas oportet, quae post dicenda sunt,

    Cic. Inv. 1, 14, 19:

    si continget, etiam (id quod fingemus) verae alicui rei cohaereat,

    Quint. 4, 2, 89:

    ut non tamquam citharoedi prooemium adfictum aliquid, sed cohaerens cum omni corpore membrum videatur,

    Cic. de Or. 2, 80, 325:

    creditis tot gentes... non sacris, non moribus, non commercio linguae nobiscum cohaerentes, eodem proelio domitas esse, etc.,

    Curt. 6, 3, 8:

    potentia male cohaerens inter Pompeium et Caesarem,

    Vell. 2, 47, 2.—
    2.
    To be vitally connected with, to depend upon a thing; with abl.:

    sed ita legibus Sullae cohaerere statum civitatis adfirmat, ut iis solutis stare ipsa non possit,

    Quint. 11, 1, 85.—Hence,
    1.
    cŏhae-rens, entis, P. a. (cohering, i.e.), being in accord, corresponding:

    aptius et cohaerentius,

    Gell. 1, 1, 6.—
    * 2.
    cŏhaerenter, adv., continuously, uninterruptedly:

    dimicatum est,

    Flor. 2, 17, 5.—
    3.
    cŏhaesus, a, um. P. a., pressed together:

    quercus stricta denuo et cohaesa,

    Gell. 15, 16, 4.

    Lewis & Short latin dictionary > cohaereo

  • 10 νέμω

    νέμω, [tense] fut.
    A

    νεμῶ S.Aj. 513

    , ([etym.] ἀπο-) Pl.Phlb. 65b, later

    νεμήσω Longus 2.23

    : [tense] aor. ἔνειμα, [dialect] Ep.

    νεῖμα Il.3.274

    : [tense] pf. νενέμηκα ([etym.] δια-) X.Cyr.4.5.45:—[voice] Med., νέμομαι, [tense] fut.

    νεμοῦμαι Th.4.64

    , D.21.203; [dialect] Ion. νεμέομαι ([etym.] ἀνα-) Hdt.1.173; later

    νεμήσομαι D.H.8.71

    , Plu.Crass.14, etc.: [tense] aor.

    ἐνειμάμην Th.8.21

    , etc. ( ἐνεμησάμην is f.l. in Clearch.10, Hp.Oss.18 ([etym.] ὑπο-)):—[voice] Pass., [tense] fut.

    νεμηθήσομαι Plu. Agis14

     (also νεμήσομαι in pass. sense ([etym.] δια-) App.BC4.3): [tense] aor.

    ἐνεμήθην Pl.Lg. 849c

    , D.36.38 (also in med. sense ([etym.] κατ-) Plu.Per.34, Ath.15.677e): [tense] pf.

    νενέμημαι Pl.Prm. 144d

    , etc. (also in med. sense, D.47.35).—Hom. uses of the [voice] Act., only [tense] pres., [tense] impf., and [tense] aor.; of the [voice] Med., [tense] pres. and [tense] impf.
    A deal out, dispense, freq. in Hom., esp. of meat and drink, μοίρας, κύπελλα, κρέα, μέθυ ν., Od.8.470, 10.357, Il.9.217, Od.7.179, cf. IG12.10.3, al.; οἱ γεωνόμοι νειμάντων τὴν γῆν ib.45.7: then generally, distribute, of the gods,

    Ζεὺς.. νέμει ὄλβον.. ἀνθρώποισιν Od.6.188

    ;

    Ζεὺς τά τε καὶ τὰ νέμει Pi.I.5(4).52

    , cf. P.5.55;

    θεῶν τὰ ἴς α νεμόντων Hdt.6.11

    , 109;

    Ζεὺς νέμων εἰκότως ἄδικα μὲν κακοῖς, ὅσια δ' ἐννόμοις A.Supp. 403

     (lyr.); [Διὶ] τὸν ὑπεραλγῆ χόλον ν. leave vengeance to Zeus, S.El. 176 (lyr.); of men,

    ν. δευτερεῖά τινι Hdt.1.32

    ;

    τρίτον μέρος τῶν σκύλων τισί Th.3.114

    ; μοῖραν ν. τινί pay one due honour, respect, A.Pr. 294 (lyr.); μητρὸς τιμὰς ν. respect her privileges, Id.Eu. 624 (but πρόσω ν. τιμάς extend one's privileges, ib. 747);

    Λύκῳ κῆπον Εὐβοίας νέμει S.Fr.24

    ; Πολυκράτης μητέρα νέμει P. allots a mother (to you), prov. in Duris63 J.;

    εἰ πατρὸς νέμοι τιν' ὤραν τοῦ καλῶς πράσσειν δοκεῖν S. Tr.57

    ;

    τὸ σὸν γέρας τιμὴν ἐμοὶ ν. Id.Ph. 1062

    ;

    ἐκείνῳ.. αἰτίαν νέμει Id.Aj.28

    ; ν. αἵρεσιν give one a choice, ib. 265;

    ναύταις οὐκέθ' ὁδὸν νέμει

     affords, vouchsafes,

    E.Hipp. 745

     (lyr.); τὸ πιστὸν τῆς ἀληθείας ν. observe it, S.Tr. 398;

    τῷ.. ὄχλῳ πλέον ν. E.Hec. 868

    ;

    μήτε οἴκτῳ πλέον ν. μήτ' ἐπιεικείᾳ Th.3.48

    ;

    τὸ ἧσσον ἀδικίᾳ E.Supp. 380

     (lyr.); τῷ φθόνῳ πλέον μέρος ib. 241;

    τὸ πλεῖστον ἡμέρας τούτῳ μέρος Id.Fr. 183

    ;

    ἔλασσόν τινι Antipho 5.10

    ;

    χάριν τινί Ar.Av. 384

    ;

    πενίᾳ καὶ πλούτῳ τιμὴν ν. Pl.Lg. 696a

    ; of judges, κολαστὴν.. θάνατον ν. ib. 863a;

    συγγνώμην τισί Gal.6.753

    : c. inf.,

    νεῖμεν ἐμοὶ τέρψιν ὁμιλεῖν S.Aj. 1201

     (lyr.):—[voice] Pass., νέμεται ἐπὶ τοὺς Ἕλληνας is freely bestowed upon them, Hdt.9.7.α'; κρέα νενεμημένα portions of meat, X.An.7.3.21; πλεῖστα μέρη ἡ οὐσία νενεμημένη distributed into.., Pl.Prm. 144d.
    2 pay out, distribute a bandage, in [voice] Act. and [voice] Pass., Hp. Off.8,22, Fract.4,16, Sor.Fasc.4, al.
    II [voice] Med., distribute among themselves: hence, have and hold as one's portion, possess,

    πατρώϊα πάντα νέμεσθαι Od.20.336

    : mostly of land, τεμένεα, τέμενος, 11.185, Il.12.313;

    ἔργα 2.751

    , Hes.Op. 119; πρὸς τὸν ἀδελφὸν ἐνειμάμην (sc. οὐσίαν) Lys.16.10, cf. 19.46; τἄλλα νεμομένη administering.., Hdt.4.165; τὰ μέταλλα, τὰ ἐμπόρια, Id.7.112, Th. 1.100; [τὰ λήμματα] ἃ νέμεσθε which you enjoy, D.3.33: abs., ἔμ' οἴεσθ' ὑμῖν εἰσοίσειν ὑμᾶς δὲ νεμεῖσθαι; that you shall reap the fruit, Id.21.203.
    2 reap the fruit of: hence, dwell in, inhabit,

    ἄλσεα νέμεσθαι Il.20.8

    ; freq. with names of places, spread over, occupy a country, Ἰθάκην, Ὑρίην νέμεσθαι, Od.2.167, Il.2.496;

    ἀγρούς Pi.P.4.150

    ;

    τὸ πρὸς τὴν ἠῶ Hdt.4.19

    , etc.;

    νεμόμενοι τὰ αὑτῶν.. ὅσον ἀποζῆν Th.1.2

    .
    b generally, enjoy,

    προσόδους BGU256.9

     (ii A.D.), etc.
    c of cities, to be situated upon,

    τὸν Ἄθων Hdt.7.23

    , cf. 123:— [voice] Pass.,

    ἄχρι τῆς ὁδοῦ τῆσδε τὸ ἄστυ τῇδε νενέμηται IG12.893

    ; cf.

    νέμησις 11.1

    .
    3 in Pi., of Time, spend, pass, αἰῶνα, ἁμέραν, O.2.66, N.10.56: abs., live,

    ἡσυχᾷ νεμόμενος P.11.55

    .
    III from Pi. onwards, [voice] Act. is found in sense of [voice] Med., hold, possess,

    ἕδος Ὀλύμπου ν. O.2.12

    ;

    ἔνδον ν. πλοῦτον κρυφαῖον I.1.67

    ; inhabit,

    γῆν ν. Hdt.4.191

    ;

    χωρίον κοινῇ ν. Th.5.42

    ;

    πόλιν S.OC 879

     (lyr.); ὅτι πλείστους ν. ἄνδρας to have as many husbands as possible, Str.11.13.11: abs., hold land, occupy, dwell,

    ν. περὶ τὴν λίμνην Hdt.4.188

    :—[voice] Pass., of places, to be inhabited,

    πάντα ὑπὸ βαρβάροισι νέμεται Id.7.158

    : abs., of a country, maintain itself, be constituted, Th.1.5,6.
    2 hold sway over, manage,

    πόλιν Hdt. 1.59

    , 5.29; τὰς Ἀθήνας ib.71, etc.;

    λαόν Pi.O.13.27

    ;

    πάντα A.Pr. 526

     (lyr.);

    ἀστραπᾶν κράτη ν. S.OT 201

     (lyr.); κράτη καὶ θρόνους ib. 237, cf.Aj. 1016;

    σύνοδον OGI50.3

     (Ptolemais, iii B.C.);

    τὸν μέγαν Πακτωλὸν εὔχρυσον νέμεις S.Ph. 393

     (lyr.); οἴακα ν. wield, manage it, A.Ag. 802 (anap.);

    ἀσπίδ' εὔκυκλον ν. Id.Th. 590

    ; ἰσχὺν ν. ἐπὶ σκήπτροις support oneself on staves, Id.Ag.75 (anap.); ν. γλῶσσαν use the tongue, ib. 685 (lyr.);

    ν. πόδα Pi.N.6.15

    : abs., hold sway,

    ὃς Συρακόσσαισι ν. Id.P.3.70

    .
    3 hold, consider as..,

    σὲ νέμω θεόν S.El. 150

     (lyr.), cf. 598, Tr. 483, Aj. 1331 (so in [voice] Pass., οὐδέ μοι ἐμμελέως τὸ Πιττάκειον νέμεται seems not to me fitly said, Simon.5.9): in Prose, προστάτην νέμειν τινά register as one's patron, Isoc.8.53, Hyp.Fr.21, Arist.Pol. 1275a12;

    ἡγεμόνα ν. τινά Agatharch.Fr.Hist.17J.

    ; ἀθλητῶν τοὺς μὴ νενεμημένους ἢ σεσωμασκηκότας unproved athletes, Plb. 6.47.8.
    IV call over, recite, S.Fr. 144; = ἀναγινώσκω, Hsch.
    B of herdsmen, pasture, graze their flocks, drive to pasture, abs.,

    ἐπῆλθε νέμων Od.9.233

    ; [χώραν] ἱκανὴν νέμειν τε καὶ ἀροῦν both for pasture and tillage, Pl.R. 373d: c. acc.,

    ὁ μὲν ἵππους νέμων, ὁ δὲ βοῦς Hdt.8.137

    ;

    μῆλα E.Cyc.28

    , etc.; κτήνη πληγῇ ν. drive them afield with blows, Pl.Criti. 109c, cf. Heraclit.11 ([voice] Pass.).
    2 more freq. in [voice] Med., of cattle, feed, graze, Il.5.777, 15.631, Od.13.407, Hdt. 8.115, etc.: c. acc. loci, range over,

    ὡς λέαινα.. δρύοχα νεμομένα E.El. 1163

     (lyr.);

    κολοιοὶ ταπεινὰ ν. Pi.N.3.82

    : c. acc. cogn., feed on,

    νέμεαι.. ἄνθεα ποίης Od.9.449

    ;

    νομάς Hdt.1.78

    ;

    χλόην E.Ba. 735

    ;

    τὰ λευκὰ σήσαμα Ar.Av. 159

    ; of men, eat, S.Ph. 709 (lyr.).
    b metaph., of fire, consume, devour, Il.23.177, Hdt.5.101; also

    τὸ ψεῦδος.. νέμεται τὴν ψυχήν Plu.2.165a

    .
    c Medic., abs., of ulcers, spread,

    ἐνέμετο πρόσω Hdt.3.133

    , cf. Thphr.HP9.9.5; of gangrene, prob. in D.S.17.103; of thrush, Asclep. ap. Gal.12.995;

    ἐπὶ μᾶλλον ν. Aret.CA1.9

    ; ἐς τὸ εἴσω ν. ibid.; of a swelling,

    ὄγκος νεμόμενος Philum.Ven.17.1

    .
    II c. acc. loci, ὄρη νέμειν graze the hills [with cattle], X.Cyr.3.2.20:—[voice] Pass.,

    [τὸ ὄρος] νέμεται αἰξὶ καὶ βουσί Id.An. 4.6.17

    .
    2 metaph., πυρὶ νέμειν πόλιν waste a city by fire, give it to the flames, Hdt.6.33:—[voice] Pass., πυρὶ χθὼν νέμοιτο were being devoured, wasted by fire, Il.2.780;

    πυρὶ νέμεται.. ἡ φάλαγξ Plu.Alex. 18

    . (Cf. OHG. neman 'take', Avest. n[schwa]mah- 'loan', Lith. nuoma 'rent', 'usury'.)

    Greek-English dictionary (Αγγλικά Ελληνικά-λεξικό) > νέμω

  • 11 affirmer

    affirmer [afiʀme]
    ➭ TABLE 1 transitive verb
       a. ( = proclamer) to assert
       b. ( = manifester) to assert
    • talent/personnalité qui s'affirme talent/personality which is asserting itself
    * * *
    afiʀme
    1.
    1) ( soutenir) to maintain [vérité, contraire]

    ‘je n'ai pas l'intention de démissionner’, affirma-t-il — ‘I have no intention of resigning,’ he declared

    affirmer que — to maintain ou claim (that)

    2) ( prouver) to assert [talent, personnalité, autorité]
    3) ( proclamer) to declare, to affirm [volonté, désir] (à to)

    2.
    s'affirmer verbe pronominal [progrès, tendance] to become apparent; [personnalité, style] to assert itself

    s'affirmer comme — to establish oneself/itself etc as

    * * *
    afiʀme vt
    1) (= prétendre) to maintain, to claim

    affirmer que — to maintain that, to claim that

    Il a affirmé que c'était la vérité. — He claimed it was the truth.

    2) [autorité, volonté, personnalité] to assert
    * * *
    affirmer verb table: aimer
    A vtr
    1 ( soutenir) to maintain [fait, vérité, contraire]; ‘je n'ai pas l'intention de démissionner’, affirma-t-il ‘I have no intention of resigning,’ he declared; affirmer faire/avoir fait to claim to do/to have done; affirmer que to maintain ou claim (that); pouvez-vous l'affirmer? can you be sure about it?; la police ne peut encore rien affirmer the police are not yet able to make any positive statement; je vous l'affirme I can assure you (of it);
    2 ( prouver) to assert [talent, personnalité, autorité, originalité, indépendance];
    3 ( proclamer) to declare, to affirm [volonté, désir] (à to).
    B s'affirmer vpr [progrès, tendance] to become apparent; [majorité] to be established; [personnalité, style] to assert itself; s'affirmer comme [personne] to establish oneself as; s'affirmer comme une force nouvelle to establish itself as a new force; le festival s'affirme comme un événement majeur the festival is becoming established as a major event.
    [afirme] verbe transitif
    1. [assurer] to assert, to affirm (soutenu)
    la semaine dernière, affirma-t-il last week, he said
    2. [exprimer - volonté, indépendance] to assert
    ————————
    s'affirmer verbe pronominal intransitif
    [qualité, désir, volonté] to assert ou to express itself

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > affirmer

  • 12 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 13 sostener

    v.
    1 to support, to hold up.
    sostenme esto, por favor hold this for me, please
    La columna sostiene la pared The column supports the wall.
    Elsa sostiene la verdad Elsa sustains=adduces the truth.
    2 to defend (defender) (idea, opinión, tesis).
    sostener que… to maintain that…
    3 to support.
    4 to hold, to have (tener) (conversación).
    sostener correspondencia con alguien to correspond with somebody
    5 to sustain.
    La organización sostiene a María The organization sustains Mary.
    6 to maintain to.
    Ella sostiene tener crédito She maintains to have a credit.
    7 to claim to, to hold to.
    Elsa sostiene la verdad Elsa sustains=adduces the truth.
    Ella sostuvo ser la heredera She claimed to be the heiress.
    * * *
    Conjugation model [ TENER], like link=tener tener
    1 (mantener firme) to support, hold up
    2 (sujetar) to hold
    3 figurado (apoyar) to support, back
    4 figurado (soportar) to endure, bear, put up with
    5 figurado (defender) to defend, uphold
    6 figurado (afirmar) to maintain, affirm
    7 figurado (alimentar) to support, keep
    8 figurado (velocidad, correspondencia, relación, etc) to keep up, maintain
    1 (mantenerse) to support oneself; (de pie) to stand up
    2 (permanecer) to stay, remain
    \
    sostener la palabra figurado to keep one's word
    sostener una conversación figurado to hold a conversation
    sostener la mirada a alguien figurado to stare somebody out
    * * *
    verb
    2) hold
    3) defend, uphold
    4) maintain, sustain
    •
    * * *
    1. VT
    1) (=sujetar)
    a) [en las manos, los brazos] to hold

    ¡sostén esto un momentito! — hold this a minute!

    b) [en pie] [+ construcción, edificio, techo] to hold up, support

    entró borracho, sostenido por dos amigos — he came in drunk, held up o supported by two friends

    c) (=soportar) [+ peso, carga] to bear, carry, sustain frm
    2) (=proporcionar apoyo a)
    a) [económicamente] to support
    b) (=alimentar) to support, sustain frm
    c) [moralmente] to support
    3) (=mantener)
    a) [+ opinión] to hold

    sostiene un punto de vista muy diferente — he has o holds a very different point of view

    la investigación no ha terminado, como sostiene el juez — the investigation has not concluded, as the judge maintains o holds

    • sostener que — to maintain o hold that

    sigue sosteniendo que es inocente — she still maintains o holds that she is innocent

    b) [+ situación] to maintain, keep up

    • sostener la mirada de algn — to hold sb's gaze

    4) (=tener) [+ conversación, enfrentamiento, polémica] to have
    [+ reunión, audiencia]
    5) (Mús) [+ nota] to hold, sustain
    2.
    See:
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    1) ( apoyar)
    a) <estructura/techo> to hold up, support; <carga/peso> to bear
    b) ( en un estado) to keep
    c) ( sustentar) < familia> to support, maintain
    2) (sujetar, tener cogido) < paquete> to hold

    no tengas miedo, yo te sostengo — don't be afraid, I've got you o I'm holding you

    3) <conversación/relación/reunión> to have
    4)
    a) ( opinar) to hold

    yo siempre he sostenido que... — I have always maintained o held that...

    b) <argumento/afirmación> to support, back up
    5)
    a) <lucha/ritmo/resistencia> to keep up, sustain
    b) (Mús) < nota> to hold, sustain
    2.
    sostenerse v pron
    1)
    a) ( no caerse)
    b) ( en un estado) to remain
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    1) ( apoyar)
    a) <estructura/techo> to hold up, support; <carga/peso> to bear
    b) ( en un estado) to keep
    c) ( sustentar) < familia> to support, maintain
    2) (sujetar, tener cogido) < paquete> to hold

    no tengas miedo, yo te sostengo — don't be afraid, I've got you o I'm holding you

    3) <conversación/relación/reunión> to have
    4)
    a) ( opinar) to hold

    yo siempre he sostenido que... — I have always maintained o held that...

    b) <argumento/afirmación> to support, back up
    5)
    a) <lucha/ritmo/resistencia> to keep up, sustain
    b) (Mús) < nota> to hold, sustain
    2.
    sostenerse v pron
    1)
    a) ( no caerse)
    b) ( en un estado) to remain
    * * *
    sostener1
    1 = sustain, balance, hold.
    Nota: Verbo irregular: pasado y participio held.

    Ex: Publishers in the United Stated benefit from a larger home market which serves to sustain the production of an information tool.

    Ex: He lifted about five lines from the top of the nearest page on a setting rule and balanced it on his left hand, with the face of the letter towards him and the last line uppermost.
    Ex: If the search is made with a call number, a summary of copies with that call number which are held by the library is first displayed.

    sostener2
    2 = be + Posesivo + contention, contend, submit, uphold, underpin, hold, maintain.

    Ex: It is our contention that an understanding of such basic principles is fundamental to an appreciation of the many and varied contexts that the individual is likely to encounter.

    Ex: The author contends that it is possible to view the search conducted with the aid of a series of menus as having strong similarities with the search through the hierarchy of a enumerative classification scheme.
    Ex: I submit that no ordinary, right-minded library user who is looking for Western Behavioral Institute is going to look under LA JOLLA, California.
    Ex: It's about time that we go back to these principles and make sure that the quality of cataloging is upheld.
    Ex: This process is underpinned by a patient-based information system which is timely, accessible and credible to all participants.
    Ex: Some theorists hold that one stage must be completely worked through before the next stage can be entered.
    Ex: They maintain, in an article written for Library Resources and Technical Services (LRTS) 'that automated cataloging systems have addressed only half of the problems of maintaining a library catalog'.
    * sostener la opinión = argue.
    * sostener una opinión = hold + view, hold + opinion.
    * sostener un punto de vista = assert + view, hold + point of view.

    * * *
    vt
    1 ‹estructura/techo› to hold up, support; ‹carga/peso› to bear
    tenían que sostenerlo los dos it needed both of them to support him o hold him o prop him up
    2 (en un estado) to keep
    las fuerzas que lo sostuvieron en el poder the forces which kept him in power
    lo único que la sostiene es la fuerza de voluntad it's sheer willpower that's keeping her going
    3 (sustentar) ‹familia› to support, maintain
    B (sujetar, tener cogido) ‹paquete› to hold
    no tengas miedo, yo te sostengo don't be afraid, I've got you o I'm holding you o I'll keep hold of you
    sostén la puerta hold the door open
    ponte un pasador para sostener el pelo put a barrette ( AmE) o ( BrE) slide in your hair to keep it in place ( o up etc)
    C ‹conversación/relación/reunión› to have
    sostuvieron una acalorada discusión they had a heated discussion
    no he sostenido nunca una relación duradera I've never had a lasting relationship
    la polémica que sostiene con Godoy the dispute that he and Godoy are engaged in o that he is carrying on with Godoy
    D
    1 (opinar) to hold
    yo siempre he sostenido que … I have always maintained o held that …
    2 ‹argumento/afirmación› to support, back up
    no tienes pruebas para sostener esa afirmación you don't have any proof to back up o support that statement
    E
    1 ‹lucha/ritmo/resistencia› to keep up, sustain
    la miró y ella sostuvo su mirada he looked at her and she held his gaze
    2 ( Mús) ‹nota› to hold, sustain
    A
    1
    (no caerse): la estructura se sostiene sola the structure stays up o stands up without support
    estaba tan débil que apenas se sostenía en pie he was so weak that he could hardly stand
    la planta ya no se sostiene the plant doesn't stand up on its own o can't support itself any more
    2 (en un estado) to remain
    se sostuvo en el poder a pesar de la crisis she managed to stay o remain in power despite the crisis
    la economía se ha sostenido firme the economy has held o stood firm
    se sostuvo en su negativa he kept o stuck firmly to his refusal
    B
    (sustentarse): apenas puede sostenerse con lo que gana he can hardly support himself on what he earns
    se sostiene a base de zumos y de leche she lives on o survives on fruit juice and milk
    * * *

     

    sostener ( conjugate sostener) verbo transitivo
    1 ( apoyar)
    a) ‹estructura/techo› to hold up, support;

    ‹carga/peso› to bear

    2 (sujetar, tener cogido) ‹ paquete› to hold;
    ◊ no tengas miedo, yo te sostengo don't be afraid, I've got you o I'm holding you

    3 ‹conversación/relación/reunión› to have
    4

    b) ‹argumento/afirmación› to support, back up

    5
    a) ‹lucha/ritmo/resistencia› to keep up, sustain;


    b) (Mús) ‹ nota› to hold, sustain

    sostenerse verbo pronominal
    a) ( no caerse):


    apenas se sostenía en pie he could hardly stand


    sostener verbo transitivo
    1 (un peso, cúpula, etc) to support, hold up
    (con la mano) sosténme el paraguas un momento, hold the umbrella for me for a moment
    2 fig (un derecho, etc) to uphold
    (una teoría) to maintain
    3 (a la familia) to support
    4 (negociaciones, una conversación) to have
    ' sostener' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    coger
    - mantener
    - mirada
    - sujetarse
    - aguantar
    - sostuve
    - sujetar
    - tener
    English:
    allege
    - argue
    - bolster
    - contend
    - hold up
    - submit
    - support
    - sustain
    - uphold
    - hold
    - prop
    * * *
    ♦ vt
    1. [sujetar] [edificio, estructura, lo que se tambalea] to support, to hold up;
    [objeto, puerta, bebé] to hold;
    cuatro columnas sostienen todo el peso de la cúpula four columns take o support the entire weight of the dome;
    sosténgame esto, por favor hold this for me, please;
    si no nos llegan a sostener nos hubiéramos peleado if they hadn't held us back, we'd have started fighting;
    sólo les sostiene su inquebrantable optimismo the only thing that keeps them going is their unshakeable optimism
    2. [dar manutención a, sustentar] to support
    3. [mantener] [idea, opinión, tesis] to defend;
    [promesa, palabra] to keep;
    sostienen su oferta/invitación their offer/invitation still stands;
    sostener que… to maintain that…
    4. [tener] [conversación] to have;
    [reunión, negociaciones] to hold, to have;
    sostener correspondencia con alguien to correspond with sb;
    durante semanas sostuvo una agria polémica he was involved in a bitter dispute which lasted several weeks
    5. Fig [aguantar]
    el corredor no podía sostener aquel ritmo de carrera the athlete couldn't keep up with the pace of the race;
    era una situación imposible de sostener the situation was untenable;
    le sostuve la mirada I held her gaze
    6. Mús
    sostener una nota to hold a note
    * * *
    I v/t
    1 familia support
    2 opinión hold
    * * *
    sostener {80} vt
    1) : to support, to hold up
    2) : to hold
    sostenme la puerta: hold the door for me
    sostener una conversación: to hold a conversation
    3) : to sustain, to maintain
    * * *
    1. (sujetar) to hold [pt. & pp. held]
    2. (aguantar) to support
    3. (afirmar, mantener) to maintain
    sostenerse en pie to stand up [pt. & pp. stood]

    Spanish-English dictionary > sostener

  • 14 affermare

    state
    * * *
    affermare v.tr. to affirm, to declare, to maintain, to aver, to state; ( sostenere) to assert: affermare qlco. sotto giuramento, to state sthg. on oath; affermare la propria innocenza, to declare (o assert) one's innocence; affermare un diritto, to assert a right; affermare la propria autorità, to assert one's authority (o to make one's authority felt)
    ◆ v. intr. ( dire di sì) to nod: affermare con un cenno del capo, to agree with a nod (o to nod agreement).
    ◘ affermarsi v.rifl. to assert one's authority, to assert oneself; to impose oneself, to establish oneself; ( farsi un nome) to make* a name for oneself: già famoso come attore, adesso si è affermato anche come regista, already famous as an actor he's now made a name for himself as a director; la moda ben presto si affermò, the fashion rapidly imposed itself.
    * * *
    [affer'mare]
    1. vt
    (dichiarare) to declare, (diritti) to assert
    (imporsi) to make o.s. o one's name known
    * * *
    [affer'mare] 1.
    verbo transitivo
    1) (sostenere) to maintain, to state, to affirm [fatto, verità]
    2) (provare) to assert [talento, indipendenza]
    3) (proclamare) to declare, to affirm [ volontà]
    2.
    verbo pronominale affermarsi
    1) (imporsi) [ tendenza] to become* apparent; [personalità, stile] to assert itself

    - rsi come scrittore — to establish one's credentials o to make a name for oneself as a writer

    * * *
    affermare
    /affer'mare/ [1]
     1 (sostenere) to maintain, to state, to affirm [fatto, verità]; affermare di aver fatto to claim to have done; affermare i propri diritti to assert one's rights
     2 (provare) to assert [talento, indipendenza]
     3 (proclamare) to declare, to affirm [ volontà]
    II affermarsi verbo pronominale
     1 (imporsi) [ tendenza] to become* apparent; [personalità, stile] to assert itself
     2 (avere successo) - rsi come scrittore to establish one's credentials o to make a name for oneself as a writer.

    Dizionario Italiano-Inglese > affermare

  • 15 bewähren

    v/t
    1. (aufrechterhalten: Tradition etc.) keep, preserve; jemandem ein gutes Andenken bewahren keep s.o. in fond remembrance
    2. (beibehalten: Eigenschaft, Aussehen etc.) auch retain; er hat seinen Humor bewahrt he’s kept ( oder he hasn’t lost) his sense of humo(u)r; bitte ( die) Ruhe bewahren please keep calm; etw. / jemanden in guter Erinnerung bewahren have happy memories of s.th. / s.o.; Fassung 3
    3. (behüten): bewahren vor (+ Dat) protect ( oder keep) s.o. from; (retten) auch save s.o. from; jemanden vor einer Dummheit bewahren stop s.o. (from) doing something stupid; seinen Ruf bewahren maintain one’s reputation; ( Gott) bewahre! God forbid!, heaven forbid!; ( Gott) bewahre, nein! good heavens, no!
    * * *
    to perpetuate; to maintain; to save; to keep; to preserve
    * * *
    be|wah|ren ptp bewahrt
    vt
    1) (= beschützen) to protect (
    vor +dat from)

    jdn vor etw bewáhren — to protect or save or preserve sb from sth

    (i or Gott) bewahre! (inf) — heaven or God forbid!, heaven or saints preserve us!

    2) (geh = aufbewahren) to keep

    jdn/etw in guter Erinnerung bewáhren — to have happy memories of sb/sth

    3) (= beibehalten) to keep, to retain, to preserve; Denkmal to conserve

    etw bewáhren — to keep or retain or preserve sth

    * * *
    1) (to keep safe from harm: (May) Heaven preserve us from danger!) preserve
    2) (to continue to have, use, remember etc; to keep in one's possession, memory etc: He finds it difficult to retain information; These dishes don't retain heat very well.) retain
    * * *
    be·wah·ren *
    vt
    ▪ jdn vor jdm/etw \bewahren to save [or protect] sb from sb/sth
    vor etw dat bewahrt bleiben to be spared sth
    ▪ jdn davor \bewahren, etw zu tun to save sb from doing sth
    davor bewahrt bleiben, etw zu tun to be spared having to do sth
    2. (geh: aufheben)
    ▪ etw [für jdn] \bewahren to keep sth [for sb]
    bewahre bitte dieses Schmuckstück [für mich] in deinem Safe please keep [or look after] this piece of jewellery [for me] in your safe
    ▪ [sich dat] etw \bewahren to keep sth
    den guten Ruf \bewahren to protect [or guard] one's good reputation; s.a. Stillschweigen
    4.
    ▶ das Gesicht \bewahren to save face
    ▶ Gott bewahre! (fam) [good] Lord [or heavens] no!
    * * *
    1)

    jemanden vor etwas (Dat.) bewahren — protect or preserve somebody from something

    [Gott od. i] bewahre! — good Lord, no!; (Gott behüte) God forbid!

    seine Fassung od. Haltung bewahren — keep or retain one's composure

    Stillschweigen/Treue bewahren — remain silent/faithful

    sich (Dat.) etwas bewahren — retain or preserve something

    etwas im Gedächtnis bewahren — (fig. geh.) preserve the memory of something

    * * *
    bewähren v/r Person, Maßnahme etc: prove o.s. ( oder itself), prove one’s ( oder its) worth; Idee, neues Produkt etc: auch prove a success, prove successful, prove to be a good investment; Grundsatz: hold good; zeitlich: stand the test of time;
    sich bestens bewähren Person: give a (very) good account of o.s. ( oder itself), US show what one ( oder it) can do; Sache: do a good ( oder an excellent) job; Methode: pay off, be worthwhile;
    sich bewähren als Lehrer etc prove (to be) a good teacher etc;
    sich nicht bewähren prove a failure, prove not (to be) worthwhile
    * * *
    1)

    jemanden vor etwas (Dat.) bewahren — protect or preserve somebody from something

    [Gott od. i] bewahre! — good Lord, no!; (Gott behüte) God forbid!

    seine Fassung od. Haltung bewahren — keep or retain one's composure

    Stillschweigen/Treue bewahren — remain silent/faithful

    sich (Dat.) etwas bewahren — retain or preserve something

    etwas im Gedächtnis bewahren — (fig. geh.) preserve the memory of something

    * * *
    v.
    to preserve v.
    to save v.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > bewähren

  • 16 interpretar

    v.
    1 to interpret.
    2 to perform (artísticamente) (obra de teatro, sinfonía).
    * * *
    1 to interpret
    2 (obra, pieza) to perform; (papel) to play; (canción) to sing
    * * *
    verb
    * * *
    VT
    1) [+ texto, mensaje] to interpret

    interpretar mal — to misinterpret, misunderstand

    2) (Ling) to interpret
    3) (Mús) [+ pieza] to play, perform; [+ canción] to sing; (Teat) [+ papel] to play
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    1) <texto/comentario/sueño> to interpret
    2)
    a) <papel/personaje> to play
    b) <pieza/sinfonía> to play, perform; < canción> to sing
    2.
    interpretar vi (Ling) to interpret
    * * *
    = execute, interpret, paraphrase, place + interpretation, read, construe, rephrase, frame, play out, decipher.
    Ex. Melanie Stanton broke into a gentle laugh as he recalled him executing a shuffling fandango and announcing mischievously, 'Women in the SLA, get ready, here I come!'.
    Ex. Cataloguing codes give general guidance, which must be interpreted in specific instances.
    Ex. A musical adaptation is a musical work that represents a distinct alteration of another work (e.g. a free transcription), a work that paraphrases parts of various works or the general style of another composer, or a work that is merely based on other music (e.g. variations on a them).
    Ex. If one word is used out of context as an index heading, plainly it will be difficult to establish the interpretation to be placed on the homograph.
    Ex. For 'concept' may be read any relatively elementary term such as Libraries, Staff, Buildings, Recruitment, Chemistry.
    Ex. This is not to be construed as a suggestion that the library should attempt to set itself up as pedagogue to the nation.
    Ex. To rephrase this in terms already used, they involve effort at the input stage in order to reduce effort at the output stage = Expresando esto con términos ya usados, suponen un esfuerzo en la etapa inicial con objeto de reducir el esfuerzo en la etapa final.
    Ex. This paper examines the ways in which extremists and moderates in the two communities frame the televised representation of the Israeli-Arab conflict.
    Ex. The author discusses access, censorship, and privacy, looking at how these issues are played out in legal debates over copyright law.
    Ex. Such redundant entries are difficult to decipher and expensive to produce and maintain.
    ----
    * capacidad de interpretar imágenes = visual literacy.
    * capacidad de interpretar información espacial = spatial literacy.
    * capacidad de interpretar información estadística = statistical literacy.
    * capacidad de interpretar información gráfica = graphic literacy.
    * habilidad de interpretar imágenes = visual literacy.
    * interpretar de nuevo = reinterpret [re-interpret].
    * interpretar la ley = interpret + the law.
    * interpretar la ley según le convenga mejor a Uno = bend + the rules to suit + Posesivo + own purposes, bend + the rules, circumvent + rules.
    * interpretar música = perform + music.
    * interpretarse como = be thought of as.
    * malinterpretar = misread, misconstrue.
    * volver a interpretar = reinterpret [re-interpret].
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    1) <texto/comentario/sueño> to interpret
    2)
    a) <papel/personaje> to play
    b) <pieza/sinfonía> to play, perform; < canción> to sing
    2.
    interpretar vi (Ling) to interpret
    * * *
    = execute, interpret, paraphrase, place + interpretation, read, construe, rephrase, frame, play out, decipher.

    Ex: Melanie Stanton broke into a gentle laugh as he recalled him executing a shuffling fandango and announcing mischievously, 'Women in the SLA, get ready, here I come!'.

    Ex: Cataloguing codes give general guidance, which must be interpreted in specific instances.
    Ex: A musical adaptation is a musical work that represents a distinct alteration of another work (e.g. a free transcription), a work that paraphrases parts of various works or the general style of another composer, or a work that is merely based on other music (e.g. variations on a them).
    Ex: If one word is used out of context as an index heading, plainly it will be difficult to establish the interpretation to be placed on the homograph.
    Ex: For 'concept' may be read any relatively elementary term such as Libraries, Staff, Buildings, Recruitment, Chemistry.
    Ex: This is not to be construed as a suggestion that the library should attempt to set itself up as pedagogue to the nation.
    Ex: To rephrase this in terms already used, they involve effort at the input stage in order to reduce effort at the output stage = Expresando esto con términos ya usados, suponen un esfuerzo en la etapa inicial con objeto de reducir el esfuerzo en la etapa final.
    Ex: This paper examines the ways in which extremists and moderates in the two communities frame the televised representation of the Israeli-Arab conflict.
    Ex: The author discusses access, censorship, and privacy, looking at how these issues are played out in legal debates over copyright law.
    Ex: Such redundant entries are difficult to decipher and expensive to produce and maintain.
    * capacidad de interpretar imágenes = visual literacy.
    * capacidad de interpretar información espacial = spatial literacy.
    * capacidad de interpretar información estadística = statistical literacy.
    * capacidad de interpretar información gráfica = graphic literacy.
    * habilidad de interpretar imágenes = visual literacy.
    * interpretar de nuevo = reinterpret [re-interpret].
    * interpretar la ley = interpret + the law.
    * interpretar la ley según le convenga mejor a Uno = bend + the rules to suit + Posesivo + own purposes, bend + the rules, circumvent + rules.
    * interpretar música = perform + music.
    * interpretarse como = be thought of as.
    * malinterpretar = misread, misconstrue.
    * volver a interpretar = reinterpret [re-interpret].

    * * *
    vt
    A ‹texto/comentario/sueño› to interpret
    me hizo un gesto que no supe interpretar I didn't know how to interpret o what to make of her gesture
    el decorador ha sabido interpretar mis deseos the designer has successfully interpreted my wishes
    interpretó mal tus palabras she misinterpreted what you said
    B
    1 ‹papel/personaje› to play
    2 ‹pieza/sinfonía› to play, perform; ‹canción› to sing
    ■ interpretar
    vi
    ( Ling) to interpret
    * * *

     

    interpretar ( conjugate interpretar) verbo transitivo
    1 ‹texto/comentario/sueño› to interpret;

    2
    a) ‹papel/personaje› to play

    b) ‹pieza/sinfonía› to play, perform;

    ‹ canción› to sing
    interpretar verbo transitivo
    1 (entender, descifrar, traducir) to interpret
    2 Teat (un papel) to play
    (obra) to perform
    Mús to play, perform: interpretaremos una canción popular, we'll sing a folk song
    ' interpretar' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    tomarse
    - hacer
    English:
    act
    - construe
    - interpret
    - misinterpret
    - misread
    - perform
    - play
    - read
    - misunderstand
    * * *
    ♦ vt
    1. [entender, explicar] to interpret;
    interpretar mal to misinterpret;
    interpretamos sus palabras como una amenaza we are interpreting o taking his words as a threat
    2. [artísticamente] [obra de teatro, sinfonía] to perform;
    [papel] to play; [canción] to sing
    3. [traducir] to interpret
    ♦ vi
    [traducir] to interpret;
    interpretar del español al inglés to interpret from Spanish into English
    * * *
    v/t
    1 interpret
    2 TEA play
    * * *
    1) : to interpret
    2) : to play, to perform
    * * *
    1. (en general) to interpret
    2. (música) to perform
    3. (papel) to play

    Spanish-English dictionary > interpretar

  • 17 penetrar

    v.
    1 to pierce, to penetrate (introducirse en) (sujeto: arma, sonido).
    Los policías penetraron The policemen penetrated.
    Ella penetró el misterio She penetrated=understood the mystery.
    El ácido penetra la piel Acid penetrates the skin.
    La bala penetra la pared The bullet pierces the wall.
    2 to get to the bottom of (secreto, misterio).
    3 to penetrate (sexualmente).
    4 to go deep into, to penetrate.
    El misil penetró la tierra The missile went deep into the ground.
    * * *
    1 (introducirse - en un territorio) to penetrate (en, -); (- en una casa, propiedad) to enter
    2 (atravesar) to penetrate, seep through
    3 figurado (entender) to comprehend (en, -); (analizar) to look (en, into)
    1 (atravesar) to penetrate; (ruido) to pierce
    2 (descifrar - misterio) to get to the bottom of; (- secreto) to fathom (out)
    * * *
    verb
    * * *
    1. VI
    1) (=entrar)

    penetraron a través de o por una claraboya — they entered through a skylight

    el agua había penetrado a través de o por las paredes — the water had seeped into the walls

    penetrar en: penetramos en un túnel — we went into o entered a tunnel

    el cuchillo penetró en la carne — the knife went into o entered o penetrated the flesh

    2) frm (=descifrar) to penetrate
    2. VT
    1) (=atravesar) to go right through
    2) [sexualmente] to penetrate
    3) frm (=descubrir) [+ misterio] to fathom; [+ secreto] to unlock; [+ sentido] to grasp; [+ intención] to see through, grasp
    3.
    See:
    * * *
    1.
    verbo intransitivo
    a) ( entrar)

    penetrar por algo — agua/humedad to seep through something

    b) ( en el acto sexual) to penetrate
    2.
    a) <defensa/membrana> to penetrate
    b) (liter) <misterio/secreto> to fathom, penetrate (liter)
    c) (Com) < mercado> to penetrate
    d) ( en el acto sexual) to penetrate
    * * *
    = cut through, go into, penetrate, go in, permeate, break through, tread into, seep into, seep through, seep, pervade, see through, insinuate + Reflexivo + (into), insinuate + Posesivo + way through, insinuate into, pierce, intromit.
    Ex. Publishers attempting to cut through this nomenclature morass can check with the library's administration.
    Ex. As something you may or may not know, every item going into the processing stream is assigned a priority, and our judgment will in many cases be different from yours, as our needs will be different from yours.
    Ex. But the leaven of the principles, promulgated by the International Federation, has not yet penetrated into more than half the lump of documentary material.
    Ex. But in the country the processes of printing always provoke such lively curiosity that the customers preferred to go in by a glazed door set in the shop-front and giving onto the street.
    Ex. This concept permeates all bibliothecal activities from start to finish, especially indexing and abstracting.
    Ex. Is there a glass ceiling for librarians? If so, what's the best way to break through it?.
    Ex. This seems to suggest that Schopenhauer may have trodden much further into the mystics' domain than he is willing to admit.
    Ex. Rampant commercialism is seeping into every crevice of American culture.
    Ex. The consequences were beginning to seep through to respondents at the time of the visits made to them and were creating a great deal of concern.
    Ex. The outer edges of the sheet -- the deckle edges -- are rough and uneven where the stuff seeped between the deckle and the mould.
    Ex. I strongly believe that we must cultivate a more positive attitude towards change in the field of library work, and that this attitude must pervade all levels of librarianship.
    Ex. Books can seldom be disbound for the benefit of bibliographers (although it is worth remembering that they sometimes have to be rebound, when they are completely dismembered), but we can now see through printing ink by means of betaradiography.
    Ex. But self-concern can insinuate itself into every corner of the emotional life.
    Ex. As they insinuated their way through the stack area, the secretary responded that all she knew was that the director had just returned from a meeting.
    Ex. While endorsing the thought that language is insinuated into brains, I also identify what I believe is the theory's Achilles heel.
    Ex. She waited like Saint Sebastian for the arrows to begin piercing her.
    Ex. During copulation, hamster females maintain lordosis for hundreds of seconds, while the male mounts and intromits repeatedly.
    ----
    * osar penetrar = venture into.
    * palabras + penetrar = words + sink.
    * penetrar de un modo inclinado = slant into.
    * penetrar una barrera = break through + barrier.
    * * *
    1.
    verbo intransitivo
    a) ( entrar)

    penetrar por algo — agua/humedad to seep through something

    b) ( en el acto sexual) to penetrate
    2.
    a) <defensa/membrana> to penetrate
    b) (liter) <misterio/secreto> to fathom, penetrate (liter)
    c) (Com) < mercado> to penetrate
    d) ( en el acto sexual) to penetrate
    * * *
    = cut through, go into, penetrate, go in, permeate, break through, tread into, seep into, seep through, seep, pervade, see through, insinuate + Reflexivo + (into), insinuate + Posesivo + way through, insinuate into, pierce, intromit.

    Ex: Publishers attempting to cut through this nomenclature morass can check with the library's administration.

    Ex: As something you may or may not know, every item going into the processing stream is assigned a priority, and our judgment will in many cases be different from yours, as our needs will be different from yours.
    Ex: But the leaven of the principles, promulgated by the International Federation, has not yet penetrated into more than half the lump of documentary material.
    Ex: But in the country the processes of printing always provoke such lively curiosity that the customers preferred to go in by a glazed door set in the shop-front and giving onto the street.
    Ex: This concept permeates all bibliothecal activities from start to finish, especially indexing and abstracting.
    Ex: Is there a glass ceiling for librarians? If so, what's the best way to break through it?.
    Ex: This seems to suggest that Schopenhauer may have trodden much further into the mystics' domain than he is willing to admit.
    Ex: Rampant commercialism is seeping into every crevice of American culture.
    Ex: The consequences were beginning to seep through to respondents at the time of the visits made to them and were creating a great deal of concern.
    Ex: The outer edges of the sheet -- the deckle edges -- are rough and uneven where the stuff seeped between the deckle and the mould.
    Ex: I strongly believe that we must cultivate a more positive attitude towards change in the field of library work, and that this attitude must pervade all levels of librarianship.
    Ex: Books can seldom be disbound for the benefit of bibliographers (although it is worth remembering that they sometimes have to be rebound, when they are completely dismembered), but we can now see through printing ink by means of betaradiography.
    Ex: But self-concern can insinuate itself into every corner of the emotional life.
    Ex: As they insinuated their way through the stack area, the secretary responded that all she knew was that the director had just returned from a meeting.
    Ex: While endorsing the thought that language is insinuated into brains, I also identify what I believe is the theory's Achilles heel.
    Ex: She waited like Saint Sebastian for the arrows to begin piercing her.
    Ex: During copulation, hamster females maintain lordosis for hundreds of seconds, while the male mounts and intromits repeatedly.
    * osar penetrar = venture into.
    * palabras + penetrar = words + sink.
    * penetrar de un modo inclinado = slant into.
    * penetrar una barrera = break through + barrier.

    * * *
    penetrar [A1 ]
    vi
    1
    (en un lugar): la puerta por donde penetró el ladrón the door through which the thief entered
    el agua penetraba por entre las tejas water was seeping in o coming in between the tiles
    una luz tenue penetraba a través de los visillos a pale light filtered in through the lace curtains
    un intenso olor penetraba por todos los rincones de la casa a pungent smell pervaded every corner of the house
    penetrar EN algo:
    la bala penetró en el pulmón izquierdo the bullet pierced his left lung
    tropas enemigas han penetrado en nuestras fronteras enemy troops have pushed over o crossed o penetrated our borders
    hace un frío que penetra en los huesos the cold gets right into your bones
    la humedad había penetrado en las paredes the damp had seeped into the walls
    esta crema penetra rápidamente en la piel this cream is quickly absorbed by the skin
    2 (descubrir, descifrar) penetrar EN algo:
    intenta penetrar en la intimidad del personaje he attempts to delve into the personality of the character
    es difícil penetrar en su mente it is difficult to fathom his thoughts o ( colloq) to get inside his head
    4 (en el acto sexual) to penetrate
    ■ penetrar
    vt
    1 (atravesar) to penetrate
    un ruido que penetra los oídos a piercing o ear-splitting noise
    es difícil penetrar la corteza it is difficult to penetrate o get through the outer layer
    2 ‹misterio/secreto› to fathom
    3 ( Com) ‹mercado› to penetrate
    4 (en el acto sexual) to penetrate
    * * *

     

    penetrar ( conjugate penetrar) verbo intransitivo ( entrar) penetrar por algo [agua/humedad] to seep through sth;
    [ luz] to shine through sth;
    [ ladrón] to enter through sth;
    penetrar EN algo to penetrate sth
    verbo transitivo
    to penetrate;
    ◊ la bala le penetró el pulmón the bullet penetrated o entered his lung

    penetrar
    I verbo transitivo to penetrate: el aceite penetró el tejido y no pude sacar la mancha, the oil went straight through the material and I couldn't get it out
    era incapaz de penetrar el sentido de sus palabras, it was impossible to get to the bottom of his meaning
    un intenso olor penetraba el lugar, a strong smell seeped through the place
    II vi (en un recinto) to go o get [en, in]: un frente frío penetrará por el noroeste, a cold front will sweep over from the north-east
    el veneno penetró en la piel, the poison was soaked in through the skin

    ' penetrar' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    calar
    - internarse
    English:
    come through
    - penetrate
    - pierce
    - sink in
    - soak in
    - strike through
    - break
    * * *
    ♦ vi
    el agua penetraba por la puerta the water was seeping under the door;
    la luz penetraba por entre las rendijas the light came filtering through the cracks;
    penetrar en o Am [m5]a [internarse en] to enter;
    [filtrarse por] to get into, to penetrate; [perforar] to pierce; [llegar a conocer] to get to the bottom of;
    cinco terroristas penetraron en el palacio five terrorists got into the palace;
    no consiguen penetrar en el mercado europeo they have been unable to penetrate the European market
    ♦ vt
    1. [introducirse en] [sujeto: arma, sonido] to pierce, to penetrate;
    [sujeto: humedad, líquido] to permeate; [sujeto: emoción, sentimiento] to pierce;
    la bala le penetró el corazón the bullet pierced her heart;
    el frío les penetraba hasta los huesos they were chilled to the bone;
    el grito le penetró los oídos the scream pierced her eardrums;
    han penetrado el mercado latinoamericano they have made inroads into o penetrated the Latin American market
    2. [secreto, misterio] to get to the bottom of
    3. [sexualmente] to penetrate
    * * *
    I v/t penetrate
    II v/i
    1 ( atravesar) penetrate
    2 ( entrar) enter
    3 de un líquido seep in
    * * *
    1) : to penetrate, to sink in
    2)
    penetrar en : to pierce, to go in, to enter into
    el frío penetra por la ventana: the cold comes right in through the window
    1) : to penetrate, to permeate
    2) : to pierce
    el dolor penetró su corazón: sorrow pierced her heart
    3) : to fathom, to understand
    * * *
    1. (entrar) to get into
    2. (perforar) to penetrate / to pierce

    Spanish-English dictionary > penetrar

  • 18 servicio de préstamo

    (n.) = lending service, loaner service
    Ex. The public library can overcome its public image as a solely lending service and effectively promote itself as an information agency.
    Ex. Here in the library, we've been able to establish a very successful laptop loaner service giving our patrons the flexibility to maintain a live connection anywhere within the building.
    * * *
    (n.) = lending service, loaner service

    Ex: The public library can overcome its public image as a solely lending service and effectively promote itself as an information agency.

    Ex: Here in the library, we've been able to establish a very successful laptop loaner service giving our patrons the flexibility to maintain a live connection anywhere within the building.

    Spanish-English dictionary > servicio de préstamo

  • 19 trabajadores

    m.pl.
    workpeople, labour, labor, workmen.
    * * *
    (n.) = labour [labor, -USA], work group, work-force [workforce], shop floor, labour force, working people
    Ex. Encouraged by these developments, successive waves of cheap labor immigrated from Europe.
    Ex. They found that when the work group associated itself with management, productivity rose.
    Ex. Employers of library and information staff have to develop and maintain skills within the workforce.
    Ex. The system requires close cooperation between the library and shop floor.
    Ex. The view that Chinese immigration was a threat to the American labour force spread throughout the United States in the late 19th century.
    Ex. The author examines the social and architectural history of the industrial estate, using evidence from the experiences of working people.
    * * *
    (n.) = labour [labor, -USA], work group, work-force [workforce], shop floor, labour force, working people

    Ex: Encouraged by these developments, successive waves of cheap labor immigrated from Europe.

    Ex: They found that when the work group associated itself with management, productivity rose.
    Ex: Employers of library and information staff have to develop and maintain skills within the workforce.
    Ex: The system requires close cooperation between the library and shop floor.
    Ex: The view that Chinese immigration was a threat to the American labour force spread throughout the United States in the late 19th century.
    Ex: The author examines the social and architectural history of the industrial estate, using evidence from the experiences of working people.

    Spanish-English dictionary > trabajadores

  • 20 vitalidad

    f.
    vitality.
    * * *
    1 vitality
    * * *
    noun f.
    * * *
    * * *
    femenino vitality
    * * *
    = vitality, joie de vivre, vibrance, vibrancy, pizzazz, oomph, aliveness, pep.
    Ex. Listed below are a number of alternatives which could be implemented to maintain our vitality under the conditions of declining enrollment, spiraling costs, and different outlooks.
    Ex. It is a tall order for information workers to avoid objective obsolescence and subjective burnout, and enhance the joie de vivre of the work setting.
    Ex. Our South American Colleagues will have the opportunity of a lifetime, to experience the vibrance of the meeting of minds, as well as the forging of communities of practice across time zones, distance and linguistic barriers = Nuestros colegas sudamericanos tendrán la oportunidad de su vida de experimentar la vitalidad de este encuentro de expertos así como la creación de lazos profesionales por encima de barreras lingüísticas, de espacio y de tiempo.
    Ex. The success of the national library is related to the vibrancy of local and national publishing.
    Ex. I wanted to show them an application which not only was database functional, but which itself had some pizzazz as a website.
    Ex. Many recent commentators speak as if they think that computers can painlessly deliver the oomph we need in curriculum.
    Ex. The beauty, the aliveness, the creativity, the passion that made her lovable and gave her life meaning has been effaced.
    Ex. Not a lot of pep however, so this might be the day to curl up with a really challenging book or game.
    ----
    * con más vitalidad = revitalised [revitalized, -USA].
    * con mucha vitalidad = lively [livelier -comp., liveliest -sup.].
    * dar vitalidad = vitalise [vitalize, -USA].
    * lleno de vitalidad = full of beans.
    * perder vitalidad = run out of + steam.
    * pletórico de vitalidad = full of beans.
    * * *
    femenino vitality
    * * *
    = vitality, joie de vivre, vibrance, vibrancy, pizzazz, oomph, aliveness, pep.

    Ex: Listed below are a number of alternatives which could be implemented to maintain our vitality under the conditions of declining enrollment, spiraling costs, and different outlooks.

    Ex: It is a tall order for information workers to avoid objective obsolescence and subjective burnout, and enhance the joie de vivre of the work setting.
    Ex: Our South American Colleagues will have the opportunity of a lifetime, to experience the vibrance of the meeting of minds, as well as the forging of communities of practice across time zones, distance and linguistic barriers = Nuestros colegas sudamericanos tendrán la oportunidad de su vida de experimentar la vitalidad de este encuentro de expertos así como la creación de lazos profesionales por encima de barreras lingüísticas, de espacio y de tiempo.
    Ex: The success of the national library is related to the vibrancy of local and national publishing.
    Ex: I wanted to show them an application which not only was database functional, but which itself had some pizzazz as a website.
    Ex: Many recent commentators speak as if they think that computers can painlessly deliver the oomph we need in curriculum.
    Ex: The beauty, the aliveness, the creativity, the passion that made her lovable and gave her life meaning has been effaced.
    Ex: Not a lot of pep however, so this might be the day to curl up with a really challenging book or game.
    * con más vitalidad = revitalised [revitalized, -USA].
    * con mucha vitalidad = lively [livelier -comp., liveliest -sup.].
    * dar vitalidad = vitalise [vitalize, -USA].
    * lleno de vitalidad = full of beans.
    * perder vitalidad = run out of + steam.
    * pletórico de vitalidad = full of beans.

    * * *
    vitality
    * * *

    vitalidad sustantivo femenino
    vitality
    vitalidad sustantivo femenino vitality
    ' vitalidad' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    vida
    English:
    bounce
    - bouncy
    - get-up-and-go
    - life
    - vitality
    - revitalize
    * * *
    vitality
    * * *
    f vitality, liveliness
    * * *
    : vitality

    Spanish-English dictionary > vitalidad

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