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  • 81 slide

    [slaɪd] 1. гл.; прош. вр., прич. прош. вр. slid
    1)
    а) скользить; двигаться плавно, без резких скачков

    He lay on the sleeping-porch and watched the winter sun slide along the taut curtains, turning their ruddy khaki to pale blood red. — Он лежал на веранде и наблюдал, как зимнее солнце скользит по натянутым занавескам, превращая их цвет из красноватого оттенка хаки в тусклый кроваво-красный.

    The canoe seemed to slide painfully on a mirror (of a lake). — Лодка, казалось, едва скользила по (водяному) зеркалу.

    Syn:
    glide 2., flow 2.

    These slippery snakes slid away. — Эти скользкие змеи уползли отсюда.

    Syn:
    crawl 1., glide 2.
    2)
    а) скользить; кататься

    The gradually breaking crest enables the body to slide down its front at an angle of approximately 45 degrees. (J. Bloomfield) — Постепенно падающий гребешок волны делает практически невозможным скольжение по фронтальной поверхности волны под углом 45 градусов.

    3) скользить, поскользнуться
    Syn:
    slip 2.
    4)
    а) делать что-л. незаметно

    He slid into a seat near my own. — Он незаметно сел рядом со мной.

    б) незаметно проходить мимо; красться
    Syn:
    steal 1., creep 1., slink I
    в) проходить, течь, пролетать (незаметно) ( о времени)
    Syn:
    pass 1.
    5)

    The economy slid from recession to depression. — Экономическая ситуация от состояния спада плавно перешла к ситуации полного развала.

    You have slid into a bad habit of repeating yourself. — У вас появилась дурная привычка повторяться в своих суждениях.

    б) адаптироваться, приспосабливаться (к какому-л. новому состоянию)
    Syn:
    shift 2.
    6) вдвигать, всовывать, задвигать, засовывать

    Gashford slid his cold insidious palm into his master's grasp. (Ch. Dickens) — Гашфорд сунул свою холодную мерзкую ладошку в ладонь своего хозяина.

    7) (slide over / (a)round) обходить (что-л.), замалчивать (о чём-л.); вскользь касаться (чего-л.)

    We cannot slide over this problem, it should be discussed openly. — Мы не можем умолчать об этой проблеме, её следует обсудить открыто.

    The politician tried to slide over the delicate subject. — Политик попытался обойти щекотливую тему.

    Don't allow the chairman to slide round that urgent matter, it must be dealt with at once. — Не дай председательствующему обойти вниманием этот вопрос, его нужно решить немедленно.

    8) разг.; амер. уходить, удирать

    He slid with the stolen money. — Он скрылся с награбленными деньгами.

    Syn:
    9) скользить (взглядом по чему-л.)
    10)
    а) совершить проступок, совершить неверное действие
    б) морально разложиться, морально пасть, опуститься (до чего-л.)
    Syn:
    ••

    to let things slide — относиться к чему-л. небрежно, не обращать внимания, наплевать

    2. сущ.
    1)
    б) ровный, размеренный ход (какого-л. механизма)
    2) муз.
    б) портаменто (способ певучего исполнения мелодии путём скольжения от одного звука к другому)
    Syn:
    в) приём игры на гитаре, где скольжение от звука к звуку осуществляется при помощи прижатой к струнам металлической пластинки
    Syn:
    3) понижение, снижение, уменьшение (о ценах и т. п.)
    4)
    а) дорожка с залитым льдом; каток
    5) спускной жёлоб; наклонная плоскость
    6) геол. оползень; сдвиг горной породы
    Syn:
    7) диапозитив; слайд

    slide report — выступление, сопровождаемое показом слайдов

    9) воен. затворная рама пулемёта
    10)
    а) тех. скользящая часть механизма; салазки; золотник
    б) муз. скользящий U-образный компонент трубы
    Syn:

    Англо-русский современный словарь > slide

  • 82 bird

    1. n птица

    bird dung — гуано, птичий помёт

    2. n разг. девчонка, легкомысленная женщина
    3. n разг. парень, человек
    4. n разг. летательный аппарат, самолёт, управляемая ракета
    5. n разг. амер. военный лётчик
    6. n разг. разг. заключённый, арестант; преступник
    7. n разг. сл. тюремный срок
    8. n разг. спутник Земли весом в 100 фунтов
    9. n разг. волан

    badminton bird — мячик или пёрышко для бадминтона, бадминтонный волан

    10. n разг. спорт. тарелочка
    11. n разг. грубый жест
    12. n разг. амер. сл. орёл

    to make a bird — попадать, поражать

    a bird in the bush — нечто нереальное или неизвестное;

    13. v ловить, стрелять птиц
    14. v изучать птиц в естественных условиях

    sun bird — птица, принесённая в жертву солнцу

    Синонимический ряд:
    1. avis (noun) avis; chick; feathered creature; feathered friend; fledgling; fowl; game; hatchling; wild fowl
    2. kind of bird (noun) chicken; crow; duck; goose; kind of bird; pelican; pheasant; sea gull; sparrow; turkey
    3. raspberry (noun) bazoo; boo; catcall; hiss; hoot; pooh; pooh-pooh; raspberry

    English-Russian base dictionary > bird

  • 83 face

    1. n лицо, физиономия
    2. n морда
    3. n выражение лица
    4. n разг. гримаса

    to make a face — сделать гримасу, гримасничать

    5. n внешний вид

    on the face of — судя по внешнему виду; на первый взгляд

    on the face of it you are guilty — похоже на то, что вы виновны

    the idea is absurd on the face of it — на первый взгляд, эта мысль кажется абсурдной

    outer face — внешняя сторона; лицевая сторона

    face of the battlefield — картина сражения, вид поля боя

    6. n аспект, сторона
    7. n разг. наглость, нахальство

    brazen face — наглость, бесстыдство

    8. n поверхность; внешняя сторона
    9. n лицевая сторона, лицо; правая сторона

    poker face — бесстрастное, каменное лицо

    10. n циферблат
    11. n престиж; репутация; достоинство

    loss of face — унижение; потеря престижа

    12. n разг. личность, человек с именем, знаменитость
    13. n сл. детина, «лоб»
    14. n амер. сл. белый
    15. n геом. грань
    16. n фас, грань
    17. n тех. поверхность, торец

    lateral face — боковая поверхность; боковой фасад

    18. n тех. срез; фаска
    19. n тех. горн. забой, плоскость забоя; лава

    face cut — забойка, вруб

    20. n полигр. очко
    21. n полигр. шрифт, рисунок шрифта; гарнитура шрифта, шрифт

    light face — светлое начертание; светлый шрифт

    heavy face — жирное начертание; жирный шрифт

    black face — жирное начертание; жирный шрифт

    fat face — жирное начертание; жирный шрифт

    22. n полигр. ширина
    23. n полигр. тлв. экран

    flat face — плоскоэкранный; плоский экран

    24. n полигр. тех. боёк
    25. n полигр. тех. передняя грань
    26. n полигр. спец. облицовка

    to show a false face — притворяться, лицемерить

    in the face of day — не скрываясь, открыто; среди бела дня

    to fly in the face — держаться вызывающе, бравировать, бросать вызов

    to fly in the face of facts — игнорировать факты, пренебрегать фактами

    27. v находиться лицом к
    28. v быть обращённым к

    face up — быть готовым; встретить смело

    dead-pan face — каменное лицо, лицо как у истукана

    to face a charge — быть обвинённым, подвергнуться обвинению

    29. v смотреть в лицо

    a face peppered with freckles — лицо, усыпанное веснушками

    wooden face — деревянное лицо, лицо без всякого выражения

    30. v встречать смело; смотреть в лицо без страха

    a face that denotes energy — лицо, которое дышит энергией

    31. v сталкиваться лицом к лицу
    32. v отделывать
    33. v облицовывать
    34. v полировать; обтачивать
    35. v повёртывать лицом вверх

    a face scarred by smallpox — лицо, обезображенное оспой

    long face — унылое, мрачное лицо; вытянутая физиономия

    36. v воен. скомандовать поворот

    the captain faced his company left — капитан скомандовал роте «налево»

    37. v подкрашивать
    Синонимический ряд:
    1. appearance (noun) appearance; appearances; guise; seeming; semblance; showing; simulacrum
    2. cheek (noun) assumption; brashness; brass; brazenness; cheek; cheekiness; confidence; effrontery; familiarity; gall; nerve; presumption; presumptuousness; temerity
    3. front (noun) aspect; dial; facade; front; kisser; map
    4. grimace (noun) grimace; moue; mouth; mouthing; mow; mug
    5. look (noun) cast; countenance; expression; features; look; muzzle; phiz; physiognomy; superficies; surface; top; view; visage
    6. makeup (noun) makeup; maquillage; paint; war paint
    7. mask (noun) cloak; color; coloring; colour; colouring; cover; disguise; disguisement; false front; frontage; frontal; gloss; mask; masquerade; muffler; pretence; pretense; pretext; put-on; show; veil; veneer; window dressing; window-dressing
    8. reputation (noun) dignity; image; name; prestige; reputation; self-respect; standing; status
    9. beard (verb) beard; brave; challenge; dare; defy; look; oppose; outdare; outface; venture
    10. cover (verb) cover; decorate; overlay; plaster; refinish; remodel; veneer
    11. engage (verb) accost; affront; close; confront; encounter; engage; front; look on; meet; meet with; run into; take on
    12. sheathe (verb) clad; coat; sheathe; side; skin
    Антонимический ряд:
    absence; back; crouch; fear; humility; inside; interior; rear; refuse; retreat; shrink; sneak; strip; withdraw

    English-Russian base dictionary > face

  • 84 going

    1. n отъезд

    going abroad — выезжающий за рубеж; отъезд за рубеж

    2. n скорость передвижения

    for a car 40 miles an hour is pretty good going — 40 миль в час — довольно хорошая скорость для машины

    3. n ходьба
    4. n ход

    a story is going about — ходит слух, что …

    going into — входящий в; вход в

    5. n состояние дороги

    the going is rough — дорога в плохом состоянии;

    6. n спорт. состояние беговой дорожки
    7. n разг. продвижение к цели

    I hear the bells going — я слышу, как звонят колокола

    8. n стр. проступь
    9. n обыкн. дела, обстоятельства

    rough goings — трудности, затруднения; неприятности

    10. a работающий, действующий

    in going order — в исправном состоянии, исправный

    a going concern — действующее предприятие; преуспевающее предприятие

    11. a существующий
    12. a вет. забеременевшая, понёсшая
    Синонимический ряд:
    1. bound (adj.) bound; destined; directed
    2. working (adj.) active; alive; functioning; live; operative; running; working
    3. leaving (noun) departure; egress; exit; exodus; leaving; withdrawal
    4. agreeing (verb) according; agreeing; checking; checking out; cohering; comporting; conforming; consisting; consorting; corresponding; dovetailing; fitting in; harmonizing; jibing; marching; rhyming; squaring; suiting; tallying
    5. bearing (verb) abiding; bearing; brooking; digesting; enduring; lumping; standing; sticking out; suffering; supporting; sustaining; swallowing; sweating out; taking; tolerating
    6. becoming (verb) becoming; coming; getting; growing; waxing
    7. consuming (verb) consuming; exhausting; expending; finishing; running through; spending; using up; washing up
    8. departing (verb) departing; exiting; get away; getting away; getting off; going; leaving; moving; popping off; pull out; pulling out; pushing off; quitting; retiring; run along; running along; shoving off; taking off; withdrawing
    9. dying or dieing (verb) cashing in; conking; deceasing; demising; dropping; dying; dying or dieing; elapsing; expiring; go away; go by; pass away; passing away; passing out; pegging out; perishing; pipping; succumbing
    10. enjoying (verb) enjoying; liking; relishing
    11. faring (verb) faring; hying or hieing; journeying; passing; proceeding; push on; pushing on; traveling or travelling; travelling; wending
    12. fitting (verb) belonging; fitting
    13. functioning (verb) acting; functioning; operating; working
    14. giving (verb) bending; break down; breaking; buckling; cave in; caving; collapsing; crumpling; folding up; giving; yielding
    15. happening (verb) befalling; betiding; chancing; developing; doing; falling out; happening; occurring; rising; transpiring
    16. making (verb) heading; making; set out; strike out
    17. offering (verb) bidding; offering
    18. resorting (verb) applying; recurring; referring; repairing; resort to; resorting; turning
    19. running (verb) carrying; extending; leading; making; ranging; reaching; running; stretching; varying
    20. setting (verb) betting; gambling; laying; risking; setting; staking; venturing; wagering
    21. succeeding (verb) arriving; clicking; come off; come through; coming off; flourishing; go over; going over; making out; panning out; prospering; proving out; scoring; succeeding; thriving; work out

    English-Russian base dictionary > going

  • 85 heading

    1. n заглавие, заголовок
    2. n рубрика; раздел

    the article comes under the heading of Sporting News — статья помещена под рубрикой «Спортивные новости»

    3. n удар головой по мячу
    4. n направление, курс
    5. n верх
    6. n перёд
    7. n крышка
    8. n горн. главный штрек; штольня
    9. n горн. грудь забоя
    10. n горн. тех. высадка головок
    11. n горн. широкая клёпка для выделки днищ

    heading sword — меч палача, меч для обезглавливания

    12. n горн. гидр. головные сооружения
    13. n с. -х. колошение, выколашивание
    14. n с. -х. завивание головок, образование кочанов
    Синонимический ряд:
    1. course (noun) bearing; course; vector
    2. title (noun) band; banner; banner head; caption; head; header; headline; inscription; legend; section head; subtitle; title; underline
    3. bearing (verb) bearing; lighting out; making; setting out; striking out; taking off
    4. beheading (verb) beheading; decapitating; decollating; guillotining; necking
    5. directing (verb) addressing; aiming; casting; directing; inclining; laying; leveling or levelling; levelling; pointing; presenting; setting; training; turning; zero in; zeroing in
    6. going (verb) going; heading; set out; strike out
    7. running (verb) administering; administrating; governing; managing; running; superintending
    8. springing (verb) arising; coming from; deriving from; emanating; flowing; issuing; originating; proceeding; rising; springing; stemming

    English-Russian base dictionary > heading

  • 86 turn

    1. n с. -х. оборот пласта
    2. n вращение; вращательное движение
    3. n авт. разворот
    4. n поворот, место поворота
    5. n изгиб
    6. n поворот; поворотный пункт; порог, конец
    7. n поворот; отклонение, отступление

    the story has so many twists and turns that the reader becomes lost — в рассказе столько поворотов и отступлений, что читатель совершенно теряется

    8. n изменение направления
    9. n смена, перемена курса
    10. n перемена, изменение
    11. n очередь

    in turn, by turns, turn and turn aboutпо очереди

    laughing and crying in turn — то смеясь, то плача

    he went hot and cold by turns — его бросало то в жар, то в холод

    to take turns — делать по очереди; чередоваться, сменяться

    my turn will come! — придёт и мой черёд!; я ещё своё возьму!; я ещё своего добьюсь!

    12. n очередной номер программы, выход; сценка, интермедия
    13. n исполнитель номера
    14. n короткая прогулка, поездка

    to take a turn, to go for a turnпройтись

    15. n короткий период деятельности

    a turn of work — небольшая работа, немного работы

    16. n особенность, характерная черта; склад
    17. n стиль, манера; интерпретация
    18. n способность; дар; жилка
    19. n строение, форма
    20. n построение
    21. n оборот
    22. n разг. приступ, припадок, вспышка
    23. n разг. потрясение, шок
    24. n разг. менструация
    25. n бирж. акт купли-продажи
    26. n бирж. прибыль от купли или продажи ценных бумаг
    27. n бирж. оборот капитала
    28. n бирж. разница между курсом покупателей и курсом продавцов
    29. n бирж. полигр. марашка
    30. n ж. -д. обходный путь
    31. n ж. -д. виток
    32. n ж. -д. муз. группетто

    turn of the tide — заметное изменение к лучшему, перемена судьбы

    turn of life — переходный период, климактерий

    to a turn — точно; как нужно

    at every turn — на каждом шагу; повсюду, постоянно; каждый раз

    travelling through Europe we kept meeting Americans at every turn — путешествуя по Европе, мы на каждом шагу встречали американцев

    33. v поворачивать

    he turned the knob and the door opened — он повернул ручку, и дверь открылась

    turn round — оборачиваться; поворачиваться

    turn aside — отклонять; поворачивать в сторону

    34. v отворачивать, отводить

    turn away — отворачивать; отклонять

    35. v вращать
    36. v обёртывать, наматывать
    37. v вращаться
    38. v кружиться
    39. v переворачивать

    to turn the leaves of a book — переворачивать страницы книги, листать книгу

    40. v переворачиваться
    41. v опрокидывать; переворачивать вверх дном
    42. v выкладывать, выпускать

    turn loose — отпускать; выпускать

    43. v загибать; закручивать; отгибать
    44. v загибаться; закручиваться; отгибаться

    turn up — поднимать вверх; загибать

    45. v направляться

    not to know which way to turn — не знать, куда идти

    46. v поворачиваться

    it is time to turn now if we wish to get home in time for dinner — пора поворачивать назад, если мы хотим поспеть к обеду

    47. v отклонять, менять направление

    to turn down — отклонять, отвергать

    48. v отклоняться, менять направление
    49. v нацеливать, направлять
    50. v огибать, обходить
    51. v точить, обтачивать на токарном станке
    52. v поддаваться обработке на токарном станке, поддаваться токарной обработке
    53. v оттачивать, придавать завершённую форму
    54. v редк. менять; действовать

    his speech turned my thinking — то, что он сказал, заставило меня изменить свою точку зрения

    55. v редк. изменяться, подвергаться изменению
    56. v редк. обращать в другую веру

    turn upon — обращаться; обратиться

    does it serve your turn — это вам подходит; это вам годится

    57. v редк. обращаться в другую веру, менять религию

    to turn the room upside down — привести комнату в беспорядок, перевернуть всё в комнате

    58. v редк. изменять, предавать
    59. v редк. редк. вызывать тошноту
    60. v редк. уст. иметь противоположный результат

    how did the game turn out? — чем закончилась игра?, каков результат встречи?

    Синонимический ряд:
    1. action (noun) action; deed; service
    2. alteration (noun) alteration; fluctuation
    3. angle (noun) angle; bow; flection; flexure; turning
    4. arc (noun) arc; curve; twist
    5. attack (noun) access; attack; fit; seizure; throe
    6. bend (noun) bend; deflection; double; shift; tack; yaw
    7. bent (noun) aptitude; bent; bias; disposition; inclination; leaning; partiality; penchant; predilection; predisposition; proclivity; proneness; propensity; squint; talent; tendency
    8. chance (noun) chance; opportunity; stint
    9. deviation (noun) change; deviation; variation; vicissitude
    10. drive (noun) drive; ride; spin
    11. gift (noun) aptness; bump; faculty; flair; genius; gift; head; knack; nose; set
    12. go (noun) bout; go; hitch; innings; spell; time; tour; trick; watch
    13. move (noun) adjustment; manoeuvre; move; movement
    14. need (noun) exigency; necessity; need; requirement
    15. reversal (noun) about-face; changeabout; inversion; reversal; reverse; reversement; reversion; right-about; right-about-face; turnabout; volte-face
    16. revolution (noun) circle; circuit; circulation; circumvolution; cycle; gyration; gyre; orbit; revolution; revolve; rotation; tour; twirl; wheel; whirl
    17. round (noun) crook; curvature; round
    18. trend (noun) direction; drift; trend
    19. walk (noun) constitutional; hike; ramble; saunter; stroll; walk
    20. become (verb) become; come; get; go; grow; refer; repair; resort to; run; wax
    21. bend (verb) angle; bend; curve; deflect; deviate; dodge; refract; swerve; veer
    22. break (verb) break; plough; turn over
    23. change (verb) alter; change; convert; metamorphose; modify; mutate; refashion; transfer; transform; transmute; turn into; vary
    24. circle (verb) circle; circumduct; gyrate; gyre; revolve; roll; rotate; twirl; wheel
    25. decay (verb) break down; corrupt; crumble; decay; decompose; deteriorate; disintegrate; molder; moulder; putrefy; putresce; rot; spoil; taint
    26. defect (verb) apostatize; defect; desert; rat; renounce; repudiate; tergiversate; tergiverse
    27. direct (verb) aim; cast; direct; head; incline; lay; level; point; present; set; train; zero in
    28. distract (verb) derange; distract; disturb; infatuate; infuriate
    29. dull (verb) blunt; disedge; dull; obtund
    30. give (verb) address; apply; buckle; concentrate; dedicate; devote; focus; give
    31. reverse (verb) invert; reverse; transpose
    32. sheer (verb) avert; divert; pivot; redirect; re-route; sheer; shift; swing; swivel; volte-face; wheel; whip
    33. upset (verb) disorder; unhinge; unsettle; upset
    34. wrench (verb) sprain; wrench

    English-Russian base dictionary > turn

  • 87 wind

    I 1. [wind] noun
    1) ((an) outdoor current of air: The wind is strong today; There wasn't much wind yesterday; Cold winds blow across the desert.) vent
    2) (breath: Climbing these stairs takes all the wind out of me.) souffle
    3) (air or gas in the stomach or intestines: His stomach pains were due to wind.) gaz
    2. verb
    (to cause to be out of breath: The heavy blow winded him.) couper le souffle (à)
    3. adjective
    ((of a musical instrument) operated or played using air pressure, especially a person's breath.) à vent
    - windiness - windfall - windmill - windpipe - windsurf - windsurfer - windsurfing - windscreen - windsock - windsurf - windsurfer - windsurfing - windswept - get the wind up - get wind of - get one's second wind - in the wind - like the wind II past tense, past participle - wound; verb
    1) (to wrap round in coils: He wound the rope around his waist and began to climb.) enrouler
    2) (to make into a ball or coil: to wind wool.) enrouler
    3) ((of a road etc) to twist and turn: The road winds up the mountain.) serpenter
    4) (to tighten the spring of (a clock, watch etc) by turning a knob, handle etc: I forgot to wind my watch.) remonter
    - winding - wind up - be/get wound up

    English-French dictionary > wind

  • 88 wind

    I 1. [wind] noun
    1) ((an) outdoor current of air: The wind is strong today; There wasn't much wind yesterday; Cold winds blow across the desert.) vento
    2) (breath: Climbing these stairs takes all the wind out of me.) fôlego, sopro
    3) (air or gas in the stomach or intestines: His stomach pains were due to wind.) gás
    2. verb
    (to cause to be out of breath: The heavy blow winded him.) deixar sem fôlego
    3. adjective
    ((of a musical instrument) operated or played using air pressure, especially a person's breath.) de sopro
    - windiness - windfall - windmill - windpipe - windsurf - windsurfer - windsurfing - windscreen - windsock - windsurf - windsurfer - windsurfing - windswept - get the wind up - get wind of - get one's second wind - in the wind - like the wind II past tense, past participle - wound; verb
    1) (to wrap round in coils: He wound the rope around his waist and began to climb.) enrolar
    2) (to make into a ball or coil: to wind wool.) enovelar
    3) ((of a road etc) to twist and turn: The road winds up the mountain.) serpentear
    4) (to tighten the spring of (a clock, watch etc) by turning a knob, handle etc: I forgot to wind my watch.) dar corda
    - winding - wind up - be/get wound up

    English-Portuguese (Brazil) dictionary > wind

  • 89 Introduction

       Portugal is a small Western European nation with a large, distinctive past replete with both triumph and tragedy. One of the continent's oldest nation-states, Portugal has frontiers that are essentially unchanged since the late 14th century. The country's unique character and 850-year history as an independent state present several curious paradoxes. As of 1974, when much of the remainder of the Portuguese overseas empire was decolonized, Portuguese society appeared to be the most ethnically homogeneous of the two Iberian states and of much of Europe. Yet, Portuguese society had received, over the course of 2,000 years, infusions of other ethnic groups in invasions and immigration: Phoenicians, Greeks, Celts, Romans, Suevi, Visigoths, Muslims (Arab and Berber), Jews, Italians, Flemings, Burgundian French, black Africans, and Asians. Indeed, Portugal has been a crossroads, despite its relative isolation in the western corner of the Iberian Peninsula, between the West and North Africa, Tropical Africa, and Asia and America. Since 1974, Portugal's society has become less homogeneous, as there has been significant immigration of former subjects from its erstwhile overseas empire.
       Other paradoxes should be noted as well. Although Portugal is sometimes confused with Spain or things Spanish, its very national independence and national culture depend on being different from Spain and Spaniards. Today, Portugal's independence may be taken for granted. Since 1140, except for 1580-1640 when it was ruled by Philippine Spain, Portugal has been a sovereign state. Nevertheless, a recurring theme of the nation's history is cycles of anxiety and despair that its freedom as a nation is at risk. There is a paradox, too, about Portugal's overseas empire(s), which lasted half a millennium (1415-1975): after 1822, when Brazil achieved independence from Portugal, most of the Portuguese who emigrated overseas never set foot in their overseas empire, but preferred to immigrate to Brazil or to other countries in North or South America or Europe, where established Portuguese overseas communities existed.
       Portugal was a world power during the period 1415-1550, the era of the Discoveries, expansion, and early empire, and since then the Portuguese have experienced periods of decline, decadence, and rejuvenation. Despite the fact that Portugal slipped to the rank of a third- or fourth-rate power after 1580, it and its people can claim rightfully an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions that assure their place both in world and Western history. These distinctions should be kept in mind while acknowledging that, for more than 400 years, Portugal has generally lagged behind the rest of Western Europe, although not Southern Europe, in social and economic developments and has remained behind even its only neighbor and sometime nemesis, Spain.
       Portugal's pioneering role in the Discoveries and exploration era of the 15th and 16th centuries is well known. Often noted, too, is the Portuguese role in the art and science of maritime navigation through the efforts of early navigators, mapmakers, seamen, and fishermen. What are often forgotten are the country's slender base of resources, its small population largely of rural peasants, and, until recently, its occupation of only 16 percent of the Iberian Peninsula. As of 1139—10, when Portugal emerged first as an independent monarchy, and eventually a sovereign nation-state, England and France had not achieved this status. The Portuguese were the first in the Iberian Peninsula to expel the Muslim invaders from their portion of the peninsula, achieving this by 1250, more than 200 years before Castile managed to do the same (1492).
       Other distinctions may be noted. Portugal conquered the first overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean in the early modern era and established the first plantation system based on slave labor. Portugal's empire was the first to be colonized and the last to be decolonized in the 20th century. With so much of its scattered, seaborne empire dependent upon the safety and seaworthiness of shipping, Portugal was a pioneer in initiating marine insurance, a practice that is taken for granted today. During the time of Pombaline Portugal (1750-77), Portugal was the first state to organize and hold an industrial trade fair. In distinctive political and governmental developments, Portugal's record is more mixed, and this fact suggests that maintaining a government with a functioning rule of law and a pluralist, representative democracy has not been an easy matter in a country that for so long has been one of the poorest and least educated in the West. Portugal's First Republic (1910-26), only the third republic in a largely monarchist Europe (after France and Switzerland), was Western Europe's most unstable parliamentary system in the 20th century. Finally, the authoritarian Estado Novo or "New State" (1926-74) was the longest surviving authoritarian system in modern Western Europe. When Portugal departed from its overseas empire in 1974-75, the descendants, in effect, of Prince Henry the Navigator were leaving the West's oldest empire.
       Portugal's individuality is based mainly on its long history of distinc-tiveness, its intense determination to use any means — alliance, diplomacy, defense, trade, or empire—to be a sovereign state, independent of Spain, and on its national pride in the Portuguese language. Another master factor in Portuguese affairs deserves mention. The country's politics and government have been influenced not only by intellectual currents from the Atlantic but also through Spain from Europe, which brought new political ideas and institutions and novel technologies. Given the weight of empire in Portugal's past, it is not surprising that public affairs have been hostage to a degree to what happened in her overseas empire. Most important have been domestic responses to imperial affairs during both imperial and internal crises since 1415, which have continued to the mid-1970s and beyond. One of the most important themes of Portuguese history, and one oddly neglected by not a few histories, is that every major political crisis and fundamental change in the system—in other words, revolution—since 1415 has been intimately connected with a related imperial crisis. The respective dates of these historical crises are: 1437, 1495, 1578-80, 1640, 1820-22, 1890, 1910, 1926-30, 1961, and 1974. The reader will find greater detail on each crisis in historical context in the history section of this introduction and in relevant entries.
       LAND AND PEOPLE
       The Republic of Portugal is located on the western edge of the Iberian Peninsula. A major geographical dividing line is the Tagus River: Portugal north of it has an Atlantic orientation; the country to the south of it has a Mediterranean orientation. There is little physical evidence that Portugal is clearly geographically distinct from Spain, and there is no major natural barrier between the two countries along more than 1,214 kilometers (755 miles) of the Luso-Spanish frontier. In climate, Portugal has a number of microclimates similar to the microclimates of Galicia, Estremadura, and Andalusia in neighboring Spain. North of the Tagus, in general, there is an Atlantic-type climate with higher rainfall, cold winters, and some snow in the mountainous areas. South of the Tagus is a more Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry, often rainless summers and cool, wet winters. Lisbon, the capital, which has a fifth of the country's population living in its region, has an average annual mean temperature about 16° C (60° F).
       For a small country with an area of 92,345 square kilometers (35,580 square miles, including the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and the Madeiras), which is about the size of the state of Indiana in the United States, Portugal has a remarkable diversity of regional topography and scenery. In some respects, Portugal resembles an island within the peninsula, embodying a unique fusion of European and non-European cultures, akin to Spain yet apart. Its geography is a study in contrasts, from the flat, sandy coastal plain, in some places unusually wide for Europe, to the mountainous Beira districts or provinces north of the Tagus, to the snow-capped mountain range of the Estrela, with its unique ski area, to the rocky, barren, remote Trás-os-Montes district bordering Spain. There are extensive forests in central and northern Portugal that contrast with the flat, almost Kansas-like plains of the wheat belt in the Alentejo district. There is also the unique Algarve district, isolated somewhat from the Alentejo district by a mountain range, with a microclimate, topography, and vegetation that resemble closely those of North Africa.
       Although Portugal is small, just 563 kilometers (337 miles) long and from 129 to 209 kilometers (80 to 125 miles) wide, it is strategically located on transportation and communication routes between Europe and North Africa, and the Americas and Europe. Geographical location is one key to the long history of Portugal's three overseas empires, which stretched once from Morocco to the Moluccas and from lonely Sagres at Cape St. Vincent to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is essential to emphasize the identity of its neighbors: on the north and east Portugal is bounded by Spain, its only neighbor, and by the Atlantic Ocean on the south and west. Portugal is the westernmost country of Western Europe, and its shape resembles a face, with Lisbon below the nose, staring into the
       Atlantic. No part of Portugal touches the Mediterranean, and its Atlantic orientation has been a response in part to turning its back on Castile and Léon (later Spain) and exploring, traveling, and trading or working in lands beyond the peninsula. Portugal was the pioneering nation in the Atlantic-born European discoveries during the Renaissance, and its diplomatic and trade relations have been dominated by countries that have been Atlantic powers as well: Spain; England (Britain since 1707); France; Brazil, once its greatest colony; and the United States.
       Today Portugal and its Atlantic islands have a population of roughly 10 million people. While ethnic homogeneity has been characteristic of it in recent history, Portugal's population over the centuries has seen an infusion of non-Portuguese ethnic groups from various parts of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. Between 1500 and 1800, a significant population of black Africans, brought in as slaves, was absorbed in the population. And since 1950, a population of Cape Verdeans, who worked in menial labor, has resided in Portugal. With the influx of African, Goan, and Timorese refugees and exiles from the empire—as many as three quarters of a million retornados ("returned ones" or immigrants from the former empire) entered Portugal in 1974 and 1975—there has been greater ethnic diversity in the Portuguese population. In 2002, there were 239,113 immigrants legally residing in Portugal: 108,132 from Africa; 24,806 from Brazil; 15,906 from Britain; 14,617 from Spain; and 11,877 from Germany. In addition, about 200,000 immigrants are living in Portugal from eastern Europe, mainly from Ukraine. The growth of Portugal's population is reflected in the following statistics:
       1527 1,200,000 (estimate only)
       1768 2,400,000 (estimate only)
       1864 4,287,000 first census
       1890 5,049,700
       1900 5,423,000
       1911 5,960,000
       1930 6,826,000
       1940 7,185,143
       1950 8,510,000
       1960 8,889,000
       1970 8,668,000* note decrease
       1980 9,833,000
       1991 9,862,540
       1996 9,934,100
       2006 10,642,836
       2010 10,710,000 (estimated)

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Introduction

  • 90 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 91 look

    A n
    1 ( glance) coup m d'œil ; to have ou take a look at sth ( briefly) jeter un coup d'œil à or sur qch ; ( closely) examiner qch ; to have ou take a good look at examiner [qch] soigneusement [car, contract, patient] ; regarder [qch] de près [suspect, photo] ; I didn't get a good look at the thief je n'ai pas bien vu le voleur ; to have a look inside/behind sth regarder à l'intérieur de/derrière qch ; to have a look round faire un tour de [house, town] ; I had a quick look round ( in town) j'ai fait un petit tour ; ( in shop) j'ai jeté un coup d'œil ; to have a look round the shops faire le tour des magasins ; to have a look through ( peer) regarder dans [telescope] ; regarder par [crack, window] ; ( scan) chercher dans [archives, files] ; parcourir [essay, report] ; she took one look at him and screamed elle l'a regardé et s'est mise à crier ; I took one look at him and knew that he was ill j'ai tout de suite vu qu'il était malade ; let's have a look at that grazed knee voyons ce genou écorché ; to take a long hard look at sth fig étudier sérieusement qch ;
    2 ( search) to have a look chercher ; to have a look for sth chercher qch ; I've had several looks j'ai regardé or cherché plusieurs fois ; I had a good look in the attic j'ai bien cherché dans le grenier ;
    3 ( expression) regard m ; a look of fear/anger un regard rempli de terreur/de colère ; a look of sadness un regard triste ; to give sb a kind/pitying look regarder qn avec bonté/pitié ; he gave me a look of sheer hatred il m'a lancé or jeté un regard de pure haine ; did you see the look he gave me? tu as vu le regard qu'il m'a jeté? ; she gave me such a look! elle m'a jeté un de ces regards! ; he got some odd ou funny looks on l'a regardé d'un drôle d'air ; I don't like the look on his face ou in his eye je n'aime pas son air ; you could tell from the look on his face that à sa tête on voyait que ; to give sb a dirty/evil look regarder qn d'un sale œil/d'un air méchant ;
    4 ( appearance) ( of person) air m ; (of building, car, design, scenery) aspect m ; to have a look of weariness/sadness about one avoir l'air abattu/triste ; the car has a dated look la voiture ne fait pas très moderne ; she has a look of her father about her elle a quelque chose de son père ; to have the look of a military man/seasoned traveller avoir l'allure d'un militaire/d'un voyageur expérimenté ; I like the look of it ça a l'air bien ; I like the look of the new computer/car j'aime bien la ligne du nouvel ordinateur/de la nouvelle voiture ; I like the look of him il a l'air sympa , il a une bonne tête ; I don't like the look of him il ne m'inspire pas confiance ; I don't like the look of the weather le ciel n'annonce rien de bon ; I don't like the look of that rash ces rougeurs m'inquiètent ; by the look(s) of him he must be about 40 à le voir on lui donnerait la quarantaine ; by the look(s) of the barometer à en juger par le baromètre ;
    5 ( style) look m, style m ; the look for the 90's le look des années 90.
    B looks npl he's got the looks, but can he act? il a le physique, mais sait-il jouer? ; looks aren't everything il n'y a pas que la beauté qui compte ; to keep one's looks rester beau/belle ; he's losing his looks il n'est pas aussi beau qu'autrefois ; you can't go ou judge by looks alone il ne faut pas se fier aux apparences.
    C vtr
    1 (gaze, stare) regarder ; look what he's done! regarde ce qu'il a fait! ; look how/where… regarde comment/où… ; to look sb in the eye/in the face regarder qn dans les yeux/en face ; to look sb up and down ( appraisingly) regarder qn de haut en bas ; ( critically) toiser qn des pieds à la tête ; to look one's last on jeter un dernier regard sur [house, view] ; look what arrived this morning regarde ce qui est arrivé ce matin ; look who it is! regarde qui voilà! ; look who's just walked in! regarde qui vient d'arriver! ; now look what you've done! regarde ce que tu as fait! ; look what time it starts! tu as vu à quelle heure ça commence! ;
    2 ( appear) to look one's age faire son âge ; to look one's best être à son avantage ; she still looks the same elle n'a pas changé ; to look an idiot ou a fool avoir l'air ridicule ; it won't look good if you refuse ça sera mal vu si tu refuses ; he doesn't look himself today il n'a pas l'air dans son assiette aujourd'hui.
    D vi
    1 regarder (into dans ; over par-dessus) ; to look and see who's at the door regarder qui est à la porte ; to look and see what's on TV regarder ce qu'il y a à la télé ; to look at sb/sth regarder qn/qch ; to look away détourner le regard or les yeux ; to look in at the window regarder (à l'intérieur) par la fenêtre ; to look out of ou through the window regarder par la fenêtre ; to look the other way lit regarder ailleurs ; fig fermer les yeux ; to look up and down the street regarder partout dans la rue ; I didn't know where to look fig je ne savais plus où me mettre ; ( in shop) I'm just looking je ne fais que regarder ;
    2 ( search) chercher, regarder ; to look down parcourir [list] ; to look for sth chercher qch ; a group of youths looking for trouble une bande de jeunes qui cherchent la bagarre ; are you looking for a smack in the mouth ? tu veux mon poing sur la figure ? ;
    3 (appear, seem) avoir l'air, paraître ; he looks happy il a l'air heureux, il paraît heureux ; it's nice to see you looking happy ça fait plaisir de te voir heureux ; you look hot/cold tu as l'air d'avoir chaud/froid ; he doesn't look French il n'a pas l'air français, il ne fait pas français ; he looks young for his age il fait or il paraît jeune pour son âge ; she's 40 but she doesn't look it elle a 40 ans mais elle ne les fait pas ; he looks about 50 il doit avoir la cinquantaine ; that dress makes you look younger cette robe te rajeunit ; how do I look? comment me trouves-tu? ; you look well tu as bonne mine ; you don't look well tu as mauvaise mine ; you look good in that hat ce chapeau te va bien ; you look good enough to eat! tu es mignon à croquer ! ; that cake looks good ce gâteau a l'air bon ; the picture will look good in the study le tableau ira bien dans le bureau ; how does my tie look? comment est ma cravate? ; it doesn't look straight il n'est pas droit, il est de travers ; it doesn't look right ça ne va pas ; how does it look to you? qu'est-ce que tu en penses? ; it looks OK to me ça m'a l'air d'aller ; does the meat look cooked to you? est-ce que tu crois que la viande est cuite? ; things are looking good les choses se présentent bien ; things aren't looking too good ça ne va pas très bien ; it looks to me as if ou though j'ai l'impression que ; this looks to me like the right street j'ai l'impression que c'est la bonne rue ; it looks as if ou though it will rain/snow on dirait qu'il va pleuvoir/neiger ; it looks likely that il semble probable que (+ subj) ; it looks certain that il semble certain que (+ indic) ; he looks to be the strongest il semble être le plus fort ; it looks to be a question of time/money ça a l'air d'être une question de temps/d'argent ;
    4 to look like sb/sth ressembler à qn/qch ; it doesn't look anything like a Picasso! ça ne ressemble absolument pas à un Picasso! ; that photograph doesn't look like you ou looks nothing like you on ne te reconnaît pas du tout sur cette photo ; what does she look like? comment est-elle? ; what does the house look like? comment est la maison? ; it looks like being funny/interesting cela promet d'être amusant/intéressant ; you look like being the only man there il y a de fortes chances pour que tu sois le seul homme présent ; she looks like being the first to finish il y a de fortes chances pour qu'elle soit la première à finir ; it looks like he's dying tout porte à croire qu'il est mourant ; it looks like rain/snow on dirait qu'il va pleuvoir/neiger ; it certainly looks like it ça en a tout l'air ; ‘are you having trouble?’ ‘what does it look like?’ iron ‘tu as des ennuis?’ ‘à ton avis?’ iron ; what does it look like to you? murder? qu'en pensez-vous? c'est un meurtre? ; it looks like cancer to me je pense que c'est un cancer ; you look like you could do with a drink/bath j'ai l'impression qu'un verre d'alcool/un bain ne te ferait pas de mal ;
    5 ( also look here) écoute ; look, this is ridiculous écoute, c'est ridicule ; look, it wasn't my fault écoute, ce n'était pas ma faute ; look here, I'm in no mood for jokes écoute-moi bien, je ne suis pas d'humeur à plaisanter ;
    6 ( be oriented) to look north/south [house, room] être orienté au nord/sud.
    E - looking (dans composés) serious/distinguished-looking [person] à l'air sérieux/distingué ; dubious/sinister-looking [place, object] à l'aspect douteux/sinistre ; he's not bad-looking il n'est pas mal.
    if looks could kill, I'd be dead by now il/elle/etc m'a fusillé du regard.
    look after [sb/sth]
    1 ( care for) soigner [patient, sick animal] ; garder [child] ; s'occuper de [customer, guest] ; s'occuper de [animal, plant] ; entretenir [car, equipment] ; prendre soin de [belongings, toys] ; he's being looked after by his grand-parents ce sont ses grand-parents qui le gardent ; these books have been well looked after on a pris soin de ces livres ; to look after sb's needs satisfaire les besoins de qn ;
    2 ( be responsible for) s'occuper de [administration, finances, business, shop] ; surveiller [class, schoolchildren] ; to look after sb's interests veiller aux intérêts de qn ; look after my luggage, I'll be back in a minute! surveille mes bagages, je reviens tout de suite! ;
    1 ( cope) she's too frail to look after herself elle est trop fragile pour se débrouiller toute seule ; I'm old enough to look after myself je suis assez grand pour me débrouiller tout seul ;
    2 ( be careful) safe journey, and look after yourself bon voyage, sois prudent!
    look ahead lit regarder devant soi ; fig regarder vers l'avenir ; we must look ahead to the future now nous devons penser à l'avenir maintenant ; she's looking ahead to the next Olympics elle se prépare pour les prochains jeux Olympiques ; and now, looking ahead to tomorrow's programmes Radio, TV et maintenant, un aperçu des émissions de demain.
    1 ( turn around) se retourner ;
    2 ( glance around) regarder autour de soi ; to look around at one's friends/ colleagues fig passer en revue ses amis/collègues ;
    3 ( search) chercher ; to look around for sb/sth chercher qn/qch ;
    4 (visit, examine) (in building, town) faire un tour ; ( in room) jeter un coup d'œil ;
    look around [sth] visiter [church, town] ; faire le tour de [room] ; they spent the morning looking around London/the shops ils ont passé la matinée à visiter Londres/à faire les magasins.
    look at:
    look at [sth]
    1 gen regarder ; ( briefly) jeter un coup d'œil sur ; look at the state of you! regarde un peu de quoi tu as l'air! ; just look at the state of this room! regarde un peu l'état de cette pièce! ; look at this coat/book! regarde-moi ce manteau/ce livre! ; just look at this! regarde-moi ça ! ; you'd never guess, to look at her à la voir on ne devinerait jamais ; he's/it's not much to look at il/ça ne paie pas de mine ;
    2 ( examine) vérifier [equipment] ; [doctor] examiner [patient, wound] ; [workman] jeter un coup d'œil à [car, plumbing] ; étudier [problem, implications, effects, ways, offer, options] ; you should get that wound looked at tu devrais faire examiner cette blessure (par le médecin) ;
    3 (see, view) voir [life, events, situation] ; envisager [problem] ; try and look at it my way essaie de voir les choses de mon point de vue ; his way of looking at things sa façon de voir les choses ; look at it this way, if he offers, I won't refuse écoute, s'il me fait une proposition, je ne la refuserai pas ; that's how I look at it c'est comme ça que je vois les choses ; the problem needs to be looked at from all angles il faut envisager ce problème sous tous ses aspects ; you can't be too careful, look at Tom! il faut être très prudent, regarde ce qui est arrivé à Tom! ;
    4 ( face) to be looking at [firm] être au bord de [bankruptcy, collapse] ; [criminal] risquer [life sentence, fine] ; you're looking at major repairs here dites-vous bien qu'il s'agit ici de réparations importantes ; you're looking at a bill for about 3,000 dollars ça va vous coûter aux alentours de 3 000 dollars.
    look back:
    1 ( turn around) se retourner ; to look back at sb/sth se retourner pour regarder qn/qch ;
    2 (reflect, reminisce) let's look back to the year 1964 revenons à l'année 1964 ; if we look back to the 19th century si l'on considère le dix-neuvième siècle ; since then she's never looked back depuis tout s'est très bien passé pour elle ; to look back on se tourner sur [past] ; repenser à [experience] ; faire le bilan de [career, marriage] ; looking back on it, I think I made the right decision rétrospectivement, je pense que j'ai pris la bonne décision.
    look down:
    look down (with modesty, shame) baisser les yeux ; ( from a height) regarder en bas ; from the hilltop she looked down on the city elle regardait la ville du haut de la colline ;
    look down on [sb/sth]
    1 ( despise) mépriser [person, lifestyle] ;
    2 ( dominate) [fortress, tower] dominer [town, valley].
    look for:
    look for [sb/sth] ( search for) chercher qn/qch ;
    look for [sth] ( expect) attendre [commitment, co-operation, result, reward] (from de) ; what I'm looking for from you is a guarantee ce que j'attends de vous c'est une garantie ; what do you look for in a new recruit? qu'est-ce que vous attendez d'une nouvelle recrue?
    look forward: to look forward to [sth] attendre [qch] avec impatience ; I was so looking forward to it j'attendais ça avec tant d'impatience, je m'en faisais une telle joie ; she's looking forward to going on holiday elle a hâte de partir en vacances ; I'm not looking forward to the interview/party la perspective de l'entretien/la fête ne me réjouit pas ; I look forward to hearing from you ( writing to a friend) j'espère avoir bientôt de tes nouvelles ; ( in formal correspondence) dans l'attente de votre réponse.
    look in
    1 ( pay a visit) passer ; I'll look in again tomorrow je repasserai demain ; to look in on passer voir [person, class, rehearsals] ; look in on the baby and check she's still asleep va voir si le bébé dort ;
    2 ( watch TV) if there are any viewers looking in who want more details, please contact us les téléspectateurs qui désirent obtenir plus de renseignements peuvent nous contacter.
    look into:
    look into [sth] examiner, étudier [matter, possibility, problem] ; examiner [accounts, background] ; enquêter sur [death, disappearance, theft].
    look on:
    look on [crowd, spectators] regarder ; we looked on admiringly as she danced nous l'avons regardée danser avec admiration ; I was forced to look on as the house was ransacked j'ai été forcé d'assister au pillage de la maison ;
    look on [sb/sth] considérer [person, event etc] (as comme ; with avec) ; we look on him as a son nous le considérons comme notre fils ; I look on it as a privilege je considère que c'est un privilège.
    look onto:
    look onto [sth] [house, room] donner sur [sea, garden, street].
    look out:
    look out ( take care) faire attention (for à) ; ( be wary) se méfier (for de) ; you must look out for snakes faites attention aux serpents ; look out for motorists turning out of side roads méfiez-vous des automobilistes qui débouchent des petites routes ; look out! attention! ;
    look out for [sb/sth] guetter [person] ; être à l'affût de [new recruits, talent] ; être à la recherche de [apartment, book] ; guetter l'apparition de [signs, symptoms] ; repérer [cases, examples] ; être à l'affût de [bargain, special offer] ;
    look out for [oneself] se débrouiller tout seul, s'occuper de soi ;
    look out over [sth] [window, balcony] donner sur [sea, park].
    look over:
    look [sb] over passer [qn] en revue [new recruits, troops] ;
    look [sth] over examiner [car, equipment] ; [vet] examiner [animal] ; get an expert to look the car over before you buy it fais examiner la voiture par un spécialiste avant de l'acheter ;
    look over [sth]
    1 ( read) ( in detail) examiner [document, contract] ; ( rapidly) parcourir [essay, lines, notes] ; jeter un coup d'œil sur, parcourir [document, report] ; I'll get Rose to look it over quickly je demanderai à Rose d'y jeter un petit coup d'œil ;
    2 ( visit) visiter [factory, gardens, house].
    1 ( look behind one) se retourner ; she looked round to see who it was elle s'est retournée pour voir qui c'était ;
    2 ( look about) regarder autour de soi ; I'm just looking round ( in shop) je ne fais que regarder ; we're looking round for a new house nous cherchons une nouvelle maison ;
    look round [sth] visiter [town, building].
    look through [sth]
    1 ( read) consulter [archive, material, files] ; parcourir [essay, list, script, report, notes] ; ( scan idly) feuilleter [book, magazine] ;
    2 ( search) fouiller dans [belongings, drawers, briefcase] ; I caught him looking through my diary je l'ai trouvé en train de lire mon journal intime ; try looking through that pile of papers regarde dans cette pile de papiers ;
    look through [sb] faire semblant de ne pas voir [person].
    look to:
    look to [sb/sth]
    1 ( rely on) compter sur qn/qch (for pour ; to do pour faire) ; they look to him for leadership ils comptent sur lui pour les diriger ;
    2 ( turn to) se tourner vers [future] ; he looked to his friends for support il s'est tourné vers ses amis pour qu'ils le soutiennent ;
    look to [sth] ( pay attention) veiller à [defences, interests] ;
    look to do ( expect) espérer faire ; we're looking to break even/make a profit nous espérons rentrer dans nos frais/faire des bénéfices.
    look up:
    look up
    1 ( raise one's eyes) lever les yeux (from de) ;
    2 ( raise one's head) lever la tête ; to look up at the clouds/tree-tops regarder les nuages/le sommet des arbres ;
    3 ( improve) [business, prospects] aller mieux ; [conditions, situation] s'améliorer ; [property market] reprendre ; things are looking up for us les choses s'arrangent pour nous ;
    look up [sth] regarder à l'intérieur de [chimney] ; to look up sb's skirt regarder sous la jupe de qn ;
    look [sb/sth] up, look up [sb/sth]
    1 ( check in book) chercher [address, phone number, price, word] (in dans) ; look his number up in the phone book cherche son numéro de téléphone dans l'annuaire ;
    2 ( visit) passer voir [acquaintance, friend] ; look me up if you're ever in New York passez me voir or faites-moi signe si jamais vous vous trouvez à New York ;
    look up to [sb] admirer [person].

    Big English-French dictionary > look

  • 92 sharp

    A n dièse m.
    B adj
    1 ( good for cutting) [knife, razor] tranchant ; [edge] coupant ; [blade, scissors] bien aiguisé ; [saw] bien affûté ;
    2 ( pointed) [tooth, fingernail] acéré ; [end, needle, rock, peak] pointu ; [pencil] bien taillé ; [point] acéré, fin ; [features] anguleux/-euse ; [nose, chin] pointu ;
    3 ( abrupt) [angle] aigu/-uë ; [bend, turning] brusque, serré ; [movement, reflex] brusque ; [drop, incline] fort ; Econ, Fin [fall, rise, change] brusque, brutal ;
    4 ( acidic) [taste, smell] âcre ; [fruit] acide ;
    5 ( piercing) [pain] vif/vive ; [cry] aigu/-uë ; [blow] sévère ; [frost] fort, intense ; [cold, wind] vif/vive, pénétrant ;
    6 fig ( aggressive) [tongue] acéré ; [tone, reply, rebuke] acerbe ; [disagreement] vif/vive ;
    7 ( alert) [person] vif/vive, dégourdi ; [mind, intelligence] vif/vive ; [eyesight, eye] perçant ; [hearing, ear] fin ; to have a sharp wit avoir de la repartie ; to keep a sharp lookout rester sur le qui-vive (for pour) ; to have a sharp eye for sth fig avoir l'œil pour qch ;
    8 ( clever) péj [businessman, person] malin/-igne ; sharp operator filou m ;
    9 ( clearly defined) [image, outline, picture, sound] net/nette ; [contrast] prononcé ; [difference, distinction] net/nette ; to bring sth into sharp focus lit cadrer qch avec netteté ; fig faire passer qch au premier plan ;
    10 GB [suit] tape-à-l'œil (inv) pej ; to be a sharp dresser prendre grand soin de son apparence ;
    11 US ( stylish) chic (inv) ;
    12 Mus dièse ; ( too high) aigu/-uë.
    C adv
    1 ( abruptly) [stop, pull up] net ; to turn sharp left/right tourner brusquement vers la gauche/la droite ;
    2 ( promptly) at 9 o'clock sharp à neuf heures pile or précises ;
    3 Mus [sing, play] trop haut.
    to be at the sharp end être en première ligne ; to look sharp se dépêcher ; you're so sharp you'll cut yourself tu te crois vraiment très malin/-igne.

    Big English-French dictionary > sharp

  • 93 bad

    bad [bæd]
    mauvais1 (a), 1 (b), 1 (d), 1 (e), 1 (g), 1 (h), 2, 3 grave1 (c) malade1 (f) pourri1 (h)
    (compar worse [wɜ:s], superl worst [wɜ:st])
    (a) (unpleasant → breath, news, terms, weather) mauvais; (→ smell, taste) mauvais, désagréable;
    that's too bad! (regrettable) c'est ou quel dommage!; (hard luck) tant pis pour toi!;
    it's too bad he had to leave quel dommage qu'il ait été obligé de partir;
    there was a bad smell in the house il y avait une odeur désagréable ou une mauvaise odeur dans la maison;
    bad weather mauvais temps m; Nautical gros temps m;
    I have a bad feeling about this j'ai le pressentiment que ça va mal tourner;
    he's/she's not bad-looking il/elle n'est pas mal;
    he's in a bad mood or bad temper il est de mauvaise humeur;
    she has a bad temper elle a un sale caractère, elle a un caractère de chien ou de cochon;
    I'm on bad terms with her nous sommes en mauvais termes;
    to come to a bad end mal finir;
    it's a bad business (unpleasant) c'est une sale affaire; (unhappy) c'est une triste affaire;
    things went from bad to worse les choses se sont gâtées ou sont allées de mal en pis
    (b) (unfavourable → effect, result) mauvais, malheureux; (→ omen, report) mauvais, défavorable; (→ opinion) mauvais before n;
    that looks bad (augurs ill) c'est mauvais signe;
    things look bad la situation n'est pas brillante;
    is this a bad time to ask for leave? peut-être n'est-ce pas le moment de demander des congés?;
    am I phoning at a bad time? je vous dérange?;
    it happened at the worst possible time ça ne pouvait pas tomber plus mal;
    please don't say anything bad about him ne dis pas de mal de lui, s'il te plaît;
    he's in a bad way (ill, unhappy) il va mal, il est en piteux état; (in trouble) il est dans de sales draps
    (c) (severe → accident, mistake) grave; (→ pain) violent, aigu(üe); (→ headache) violent; (→ climate, winter) rude, dur;
    I have a bad cold j'ai un gros rhume;
    she has a bad case of flu elle a une mauvaise grippe;
    is the pain bad? est-ce que cela fait très mal?;
    that looks bad (injury, accident) ça a l'air grave
    (d) (evil, wicked → person) méchant, mauvais; (→ behaviour, habit) mauvais, odieux;
    they're a bad lot ils ne sont pas recommandables;
    to call sb bad names traiter qn de tous les noms, injurier qn;
    you've been a bad girl! tu as fait la vilaine ou la méchante!;
    bad boy! vilain!;
    bad language gros mots mpl, grossièretés fpl
    (e) (harmful) mauvais, néfaste;
    smoking is bad for your health le tabac est mauvais pour la santé;
    eating all these sweets is bad for him c'est mauvais pour lui ou ça ne lui vaut rien de manger autant de sucreries;
    to be or have a bad influence on sb avoir une mauvaise influence sur qn
    (f) (unhealthy → leg, arm, person) malade; (→ tooth) carié;
    to have bad teeth avoir de mauvaises dents;
    to have a bad back avoir des problèmes de dos;
    your grandmother is bad today ta grand-mère ne va pas ou ne se sent pas bien aujourd'hui;
    how are you? - not so bad comment allez-vous? - on fait aller ou pas trop mal;
    familiar he was taken bad at the office il a eu un malaise au bureau;
    to have a bad heart être cardiaque, avoir le cœur malade;
    because of my bad leg à cause de mes problèmes de jambe
    (g) (poor → light, work) mauvais, de mauvaise qualité; (→ actor, pay, performance, road) mauvais;
    to have bad hair ne pas avoir de beaux cheveux;
    he's got bad eyesight il n'a pas de bons yeux;
    that's not bad for a beginner ce n'est pas mal pour un débutant;
    British familiar your painting isn't half bad ton tableau n'est pas mal du tout ;
    the salary isn't bad le salaire est convenable;
    it was a bad buy ce n'était pas un bon investissement;
    he speaks rather bad Spanish il parle plutôt mal espagnol ou un espagnol plutôt mauvais;
    it would be bad form or manners to refuse ce serait impoli de refuser;
    I've always been bad at maths je n'ai jamais été doué pour les maths, j'ai toujours été mauvais en maths;
    he's bad at keeping a secret il ne sait pas garder un secret;
    he's bad at helping about the house il n'aide pas souvent aux tâches ménagères;
    she's bad about paying bills on time elle ne paie jamais ses factures à temps;
    familiar he's always turning up like a bad penny on n'arrive jamais à se débarrasser de lui;
    don't worry, he'll turn up like a bad penny ne t'en fais pas, tu sais bien qu'il revient toujours;
    familiar I'm having a bad hair day (my hair's a mess) je n'arrive pas à me coiffer aujourd'hui ; (I'm having a bad day) aujourd'hui c'est un jour sans, c'est pas mon jour;
    bad light stopped play (at cricket match) la partie a été remise à cause d'un manque de lumière
    (h) (food) mauvais, pourri;
    to go bad (milk) tourner; (meat) pourrir, se gâter;
    a bad apple une pomme pourrie; figurative une brebis galeuse;
    figurative one bad apple spoils the barrel il ne faut qu'une brebis galeuse pour gâter un troupeau
    (i) (unhappy, uncomfortable)
    I feel bad about leaving you alone cela m'ennuie de te laisser tout seul;
    he felt bad about the way he'd treated her il s'en voulait de l'avoir traitée comme ça;
    I feel bad about firing him but I'll have to cela m'embête d'avoir à le renvoyer, mais il faudra bien que je le fasse
    man, you're looking bad! mon vieux, tu as l'air en super forme!
    2 noun
    mauvais m;
    you have to take the bad with the good il faut prendre les choses comme elles viennent, bonnes ou mauvaises;
    he's gone to the bad il a mal tourné;
    Finance he is £5,000 to the bad (overdrawn) il a un découvert de 5000 livres; (after a deal) il a perdu 5000 livres;
    familiar she got in bad with her boss elle n'a pas la cote avec son patron
    (people) the bad les mauvais mpl
    familiar he wants it bad il en meurt d'envie;
    she's got it bad for him elle l'a dans la peau;
    American he was beaten bad il s'est fait méchamment tabasser
    ►► Banking bad cheque chèque m sans provision;
    Computing bad command commande f erronée;
    Finance bad debt créance f irrécouvrable ou douteuse;
    bad debt provision provision f pour créances douteuses;
    bad debts reserve réserve f pour créances douteuses;
    bad debtor créance f irrécouvrable ou douteuse;
    Computing bad file name nom m de fichier erroné;
    Computing bad sector secteur m endommagé
    ✾ Film 'Bad Day at Black Rock' Sturges 'Un homme est passé'

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > bad

  • 94 blade

    1. лопасть < винта>; лопатка <вентилятора, компрессора, турбины>
    2. лезвие; режущая пластина; нож
    advancing blade
    broken blade
    cantilever blade
    cantilevered blade
    cascade blades
    cascading blades
    centrally-hinged blades
    cold blades
    contrarotating blades
    cooled blade
    detachable blade
    directionally solidified blade
    downward rotating blade
    equally spaced blade
    extension-twist-coupled blade
    free-tip blade
    heated blade
    high-turning blade
    highly twisted blade
    hinged blade
    hot blades
    ideally twisted blade
    low-thickness-ratio blade
    low-aspect-ratio blade
    low-density blade
    multiple-load-path blade
    multiple-load-path rotor blade
    nonrotating blade
    nonrectangular blade
    paddletip blade
    preconed blade
    pretwisted blade
    prop-fan blade
    propeller blade
    propulsor blade
    punched blade
    recamberable blade
    rectangular blade
    replacement blades
    retreating blade
    rotor blade
    scimitar-curved blade
    shroudless blade
    single crystal blade
    snap-through equipped blade
    soft in-plane blade
    solid aluminium alloy blade
    spinning blade
    spring-loaded blades
    spring-restrained blade
    stiff in-plane blade
    swept blade
    tapered blade
    tilt rotor blade
    torsionally flexible blade
    torsionally rigid blade
    torsionally soft blade
    turbine blade
    twisted blade
    UDF blade
    uncooled blade
    unlimited-life blade
    untwisted blade
    upward rotating blade
    zero-twist blade

    Авиасловарь > blade

  • 95 unit

    unit n
    пункт
    acceleration control unit
    автомат приемистости
    across track display unit
    блок индикатора отклонения от линии пути
    aerodrome control unit
    аэродромный диспетчерский пункт
    aileron servo unit
    рулевая машинка элеронов
    aircraft step unit
    бортовой трап
    air-flow metering unit
    заслонка дозировки расхода воздуха
    air-mileage unit
    автомат счисления пути
    airport rescue unit
    спасательная команда аэропорта
    air traffic control unit
    пункт управления воздушным движением
    air traffic services unit
    пункт обслуживания воздушного движения
    air unit
    авиационное подразделение
    along track display unit
    блок индикатора оставшегося пути
    altitude control unit
    высотный корректор
    altitude sensing unit
    блок датчика высотного корректора
    antenna-electronics unit
    электронный антенный блок
    antenna turning unit
    поворотный механизм антенный
    approach control unit
    диспетчерский пункт управления заходом на посадку
    apron management unit
    орган управления движением на перроне
    artificial feel unit
    загрузочный механизм
    Audio Visual Aids Unit
    Сектор аудиовизуальных средств
    automatic range unit
    блок автоматического определения дальности
    autopilot disengage unit
    блок отключения автопилота
    autopilot servo unit
    рулевая машинка автопилота
    autostart control unit
    автомат запуска
    auxiliary power unit
    вспомогательная силовая установка
    azimuth guidance unit
    блок азимутального наведения
    bank-and-climb gyro unit
    гироавтомат крена и тангажа
    bleed valve control unit
    блок управления клапанами перепуска
    brake unit
    механизм торможения
    Cartographic Unit
    Картографический сектор
    cold-air unit
    холодильная установка
    compass system coupling unit
    блок связи с курсовой системой
    constant-speed unit
    регулятор постоянных оборотов
    control unit
    командный прибор
    Data Processing Unit
    Сектор обработки данных
    deceleration control unit
    дроссельный механизм
    display unit
    1. блок индикации
    2. блок управления Distribution Unit
    Сектор распространения документации
    Document Control Unit
    Сектор контроля за документацией
    elevation setting of light units
    установка углов возвышения глиссадных огней
    engine-driven unit
    агрегат с приводом от двигателя
    engine-propeller unit
    винтомоторный блок
    exhaust unit
    выхлопное устройство
    expenses per traffic unit
    расходы на единицу перевозки
    fare construction unit
    базовый тариф
    feel unit
    загрузочный механизм
    Field Personal Administration Unit
    Сектор учета кадров на местах
    Field Procurement Services Unit
    Сектор обеспечения снабжения на местах
    Field Purchasing Unit
    Сектор закупок на местах
    Field Recruitment Unit
    Сектор найма на местах
    fire-protection unit
    противопожарный блок
    flight data storage unit
    блок сбора полетной информации
    flight information service unit
    аэродромный диспетчерский пункт полетной информации
    flushing unit
    установка для прокачки
    free wheel unit
    муфта свободного хода
    fuel control unit
    командно-топливный агрегат
    fueling nose unit
    пистолет заправки топливом
    fuel metering unit
    агрегат дозировки топлива
    General Services Unit
    Сектор общего обслуживания
    ground air starting unit
    аэродромная установка для запуска
    ground power unit
    аэродромный пусковой агрегат
    ground starting unit
    наземная установка для запуска
    gyro unit
    гидроагрегат
    hydraulic unit
    гидроагрегат
    ignition unit
    блок зажигания
    inertial navigation unit
    инерциально-навигационный блок
    information service unit
    информационно-справочная служба
    jacking control unit
    пульт управления подъемниками
    limit bank warning unit
    блок сигнализации предельного крена
    load feel unit
    загрузочный механизм
    load per unit area
    нагрузка на единицу площади
    outside power unit
    внешний источник питания
    pipeline to tail unit
    трубопровод подвода воздуха к хвостовому оперению
    plug-and-socket unit
    соединитель со штыревым разъемом
    power unit
    силовой агрегат
    pressure control unit
    автомат давления
    propeller control unit
    регулятор числа оборотов воздушного винта
    propulsion unit
    силовая установка
    protection-and-control unit
    блок защиты и управления
    pumping unit
    насосная станция
    Purchasing Unit
    Сектор закупок
    Q-feel unit
    механизм усилий по скоростному напору
    quick release unit
    быстросъемный блок
    radar coupling unit
    блок связи с радиолокационным оборудованием
    range-indicator unit
    блок указателя дальности
    rate construction unit
    единица при построении грузовых тарифов
    rate gyro unit
    блок датчиков угловых скоростей гироскопа
    rate-of-flow metering unit
    датчик мгновенного расхода
    receiver-processor unit
    приемник - процессор
    reclaim unit
    карусель для выдачи
    refuelling unit
    комплект оборудования для заправки и слива топлива
    Registry and Achieves Unit
    Сектор регистрации и архивов
    revenue per traffic unit
    доход на единицу воздушной перевозки
    rudder pedal unit
    пульт ножного управления рулем направления
    rudder servo unit
    рулевая машинка руля направления
    rudder unit
    вертикальное оперение
    runway lighting unit
    комплект светотехнического оборудования ВПП
    servo unit
    рулевая машинка
    Shopping and Mail Unit
    Экспедиция
    single-point unit
    пульт централизованного управления
    slot-type unit
    агрегат щелевого типа
    standby power unit
    запасной агрегат
    starter unit
    пусковой блок
    starting fuel control unit
    автомат подачи пускового топлива
    start tracker unit
    датчик курсовых углов астрокомпаса
    swivel coupling unit
    гидрошарнирное соединение
    synchronizer unit
    блок согласования
    system of units
    система единиц
    (измерения) tail unit
    хвостовое оперение
    three-pointer engine gage unit
    трехстрелочный указатель
    total flow metering unit
    датчик суммарного расхода
    traffic unit
    единица воздушной перевозки
    unit fitting
    арматура крепления
    unit load
    укомплектованный груз
    unit load device
    средство пакетирования грузов
    unit load device rate
    тариф за перевозку грузов в специальном приспособлении для комплектования
    unit noise duration
    продолжительность единичного звукового сигнала
    unit of measurement
    единица измерения
    unit operating costs
    стоимость контейнерных перевозок
    unit seat price
    средняя стоимость одного места
    unit toll
    специальный тариф за перевозку транспортируемой единицы
    unit toll transportation
    перевозка по специальному тарифу
    visual display unit
    табло информации
    warning system control unit
    блок управления аварийной сигнализации
    windshield heat control unit
    автомат обогрева стекол

    English-Russian aviation dictionary > unit

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