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  • 81 guerre

    guerre [gεʀ]
    1. feminine noun
       a. ( = conflit) war
    • correspondant/criminel de guerre war correspondent/criminal
    • guerre civile/sainte civil/holy war
    • guerre de religion/de libération war of religion/of liberation
    • la Première/Deuxième Guerre mondiale the First/Second World War
       b. ( = technique) warfare
    • la guerre atomique/psychologique/chimique atomic/psychological/chemical warfare
    * * *
    gɛʀ
    nom féminin ( conflit) war; ( technique) warfare

    faire la guerre — to wage war (à against, on)

    Phrasal Verbs:
    ••

    c'est de bonne guerre — it's only fair, it's fair enough

    de guerre lasse, elle renonça à le convaincre — realizing that she was fighting a losing battle, she gave up trying to convince him

    * * *
    ɡɛʀ nf
    1) (= conflit) war

    de guerre lasse — tired of fighting, tired of resisting

    * * *
    guerre nf ( conflit) war; ( technique) warfare; entrer en guerre to go to war (contre against); l'entrée en guerre d'un pays a country's entry into the war; être en guerre to be at war (avec with); état de guerre state of war; faire la guerre to wage war (à against, on); mon grand-père a fait la guerre my grandfather was ou fought in the war; mourir à la guerre to die in the war; les pays en guerre the warring nations; entre elle et lui, c'est la guerre! it's war between those two!; c'est la guerre ouverte entre les deux compagnies it's open warfare between the two firms; les deux candidats se livrent une guerre sans merci it's out-and-out war between the two candidates, it's no holds barred between the two candidates; faire la guerre aux retardataires/fautes d'orthographe to wage war on latecomers/spelling mistakes; elle lui fait la guerre pour qu'il range sa chambre she's fighting a running battle with him to try and get him to tidy his room; partir en guerre contre le gaspillage/les préjugés/les fraudeurs to wage war on waste/prejudice/fare dodgers; les enfants jouent à la guerre the children are playing at GB ou playing soldiers; ⇒ grand.
    guerre de Cent Ans Hundred Years' War; guerre chimique ( conflit) chemical war; ( technique) chemical warfare; guerre civile civil war; guerre éclair blitzkrieg, lightning war; guerre économique economic warfare; guerre d'Espagne Spanish Civil War; guerre des étoiles Star Wars; guerre froide Cold War; guerre du Golfe Gulf War; guerre mondiale world war; Première/Deuxième or Seconde Guerre mondiale World War I/II, First/Second World War; troisième guerre mondiale third world war; guerre de mouvement war of movement; guerre des nerfs war of nerves; guerre nucléaire ( conflit) nuclear war; ( technique) nuclear warfare; guerre de positions war of position; guerre psychologique psychological warfare; guerre de 14 1914-18 war; guerre de religion war of religion; guerre sainte holy war; guerre de Sécession American Civil War; guerre totale total war, all-out war; guerre de tranchée trench warfare; guerre de Troie Trojan War; guerre d'usure war of attrition; guerre du Viêt Nam Vietnam War; guerres puniques Hist the Punic Wars.
    à la guerre comme à la guerre in time of hardship you have to make the best of things; c'est de bonne guerre it's only fair, it's fair enough; être sur le pied de guerre to be on a war footing; de guerre lasse, elle renonça à le convaincre realizing that she was fighting a losing battle, she gave up trying to convince him.
    [gɛr] nom féminin
    1. [conflit] war
    des pays en guerre countries at war, warring countries
    entrer ou se mettre en guerre (contre) to go to war (with)
    maintenant, entre Jeanne et moi c'est la guerre Jeanne and I are at each others' throats all the time now
    guerre atomique/nucléaire atomic/nuclear war
    la Grande Guerre, la Première Guerre (mondiale), la guerre de 14 the Great War, the First World War, World War I
    la Seconde Guerre mondiale, la guerre de 40 World War II, the Second World War
    je fais la guerre aux moustiques/fumeurs I've declared war on mosquitoes/smokers
    mes chaussures/gants ont fait la guerre (familier) my shoes/gloves have been in the wars
    à la guerre comme à la guerre (familier) well, you just have to make the best of things
    ‘Guerre et Paix’ Tolstoï ‘War and Peace’
    2. [technique] warfare
    guerre biologique/chimique biological/chemical warfare

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > guerre

  • 82 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 83 war

    war [wɔ:(r)] (pt & pp warred, cont warring)
    1 noun
    (a) (armed conflict) guerre f;
    ∎ to be at war/to go to war with sb être en guerre/entrer en guerre avec qn;
    ∎ Japan was at war with Russia le Japon était en guerre avec la Russie;
    ∎ Israel went to war with Syria over border disagreements Israël est entré en guerre avec ou contre la Syrie pour des problèmes territoriaux;
    ∎ the Allies waged war against or on the Axis les Alliés ont fait la guerre aux puissances de l'Axe;
    ∎ he fought in the war il a fait la guerre;
    ∎ the troops went off to war les troupes sont parties pour ou sont allées à la guerre;
    ∎ familiar humorous you've been through the wars! on dirait que tu reviens de la guerre!, tu t'es bien arrangé!;
    ∎ familiar humorous that carpet (looks like it) has been through the wars! cette moquette est dans un état lamentable!;
    ∎ to have a good war (soldier) être vaillant au combat;
    ∎ the war to end all wars la der des der;
    ∎ literary to let loose the dogs of war déchaîner les fureurs de la guerre;
    ∎ war of attrition guerre f d'usure;
    ∎ war of nerves guerre f des nerfs;
    ∎ the American War of Independence la guerre d'Indépendance américaine;
    ∎ the War between the States, the War of Secession la guerre de Sécession;
    ∎ the Wars of the Roses la guerre des Deux-Roses
    (b) (conflict, struggle) guerre f, lutte f;
    ∎ to declare or to wage war on sth partir en guerre contre ou déclarer la guerre à qch;
    ∎ a war of nerves/words une guerre des nerfs/des mots;
    ∎ the war against crime/drugs la lutte contre le crime/la drogue
    (diary, hero, pension) de guerre;
    ∎ during the war years pendant la guerre;
    ∎ the war effort l'effort m de guerre
    faire la guerre;
    ∎ to war with sb faire la guerre à qn
    ►► war baby = enfant né pendant la guerre;
    war bond titre m d'emprunt de guerre (émis pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale);
    war bride mariée f de la guerre;
    war cabinet cabinet m de guerre;
    war cemetery cimetière m militaire;
    war chest caisse f spéciale (affectée à une guerre); figurative caisse f spéciale (d'un parti politique, d'hommes d'affaires etc);
    war clouds nuages mpl ou signes mpl précurseurs de guerre;
    ∎ the war clouds are gathering la guerre menace;
    war correspondent correspondant(e) m,f de guerre;
    war crime crime m de guerre;
    war criminal criminel(elle) m,f de guerre; also figurative war cry cri m de guerre;
    war dance danse f de guerre ou guerrière;
    war film film m de guerre;
    war game Military (simulated battle with maps) kriegspiel m, wargame m; (manoeuvres) manœuvres fpl militaires; (game) wargame m;
    war grave = tombeau d'un soldat tombé au champ d'honneur;
    British war loan titre m d'emprunt de guerre;
    war machine machine f de guerre;
    war memorial monument m aux morts;
    war museum musée m de la guerre;
    the War Office = ancien nom du ministère de la Défense britannique;
    war record passé m militaire;
    ∎ he has a good war record il s'est conduit honorablement pendant la guerre;
    ∎ what's his war record? qu'est-ce qu'il a fait pendant la guerre?;
    war risk (in insurance) risques mpl de guerre;
    war victims victimes fpl de guerre;
    war widow veuve f de guerre;
    ∎ a war widow's pension une pension de veuve de guerre;
    war wound blessure f de guerre;
    war zone zone f de guerre
    ✾ Book 'War and Peace' Tolstoy 'Guerre et paix'
    ✾ Book 'The War of the Worlds' Wells 'La Guerre des mondes'
    ⓘ THE WARS OF THE ROSES Au XVème siècle, ces guerres opposèrent les deux familles pouvant prétendre au trône d'Angleterre: la maison d'York, dont l'emblème était une rose blanche, et la maison de Lancastre, représentée par une rose rouge. La "guerre des Deux-Roses" prit fin en 1485 avec la victoire d'un Lancastre, qui devint Henri VII et réconcilia les deux familles en épousant Élisabeth d'York.
    ⓘ THE WAR OF THE WORLDS Cette pièce radiophonique, adaptée du roman de H.G. Wells et mise en scène par Orson Welles, fut diffusée le 30 octobre 1938 par une radio new-yorkaise à l'occasion de Halloween. La description très réaliste de l'arrivée sur Terre de martiens fut prise au sérieux par les auditeurs, ce qui provoqua une panique générale: désertion des villes, embouteillages monstres mais aussi crises d'hystérie, crises cardiaques et suicides.

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > war

  • 84 war

    wo: 1. noun
    ((an) armed struggle, especially between nations: Their leader has declared war on Britain; The larger army will win the war; the horrors of war; ( also adjective) He is guilty of war crimes.) krig, krigs-
    2. verb
    (to fight: The two countries have been warring constantly for generations.) føre krig, krige
    - warrior
    - war correspondent
    - war-cry
    - war-dance
    - warfare
    - warhead
    - warhorse
    - warlord
    - warmonger
    - warpaint
    - warship
    - wartime
    - war of nerves
    krig
    I
    subst. \/wɔː\/
    ( også overført) krig, kamp, strid
    be at war ( også overført) være i krig, krige, kjempe
    carry a war into something føre krig inn i
    declare war (on\/against) erklære krig (mot)
    gang war gangsterkrig, bandekrig, krig mellom rivaliserende gjenger
    go to the wars ( gammeldags) dra ut i krigen
    go to war gå til krig, erklære krig, bryte freden
    in the wars ( hverdagslig) i hardt vær
    on a war footing\/establishment ( også overført) på krigsfot
    the powers at war de krigførende makter
    wage war on someone føre krig mot noen
    war of attrition utmattelseskrig
    war of independence frihetskrig, uavhengighetskrig
    war of words ordkrig
    war scare krigsfrykt
    the wars of the elements elementenes raseri
    the war to end all wars krigen som skal få slutt på alle kriger (brukes særlig om 1. verdenskrig)
    war to the knife\/death krig på kniven
    II
    verb \/wɔː\/
    ( også overført) krige, føre krig, ligge i krig (med noen)
    war against krige mot, føre krig mot
    war with ( overført) bekjempe
    kjempe med, være i konflikt med

    English-Norwegian dictionary > war

  • 85 Caetano, Marcello José das Neves Alves

    (19061980)
       Marcello Caetano, as the last prime minister of the Estado Novo, was both the heir and successor of Antônio de Oliveira Salazar. In a sense, Caetano was one of the founders and sustainers of this unusual regime and, at various crucial stages of its long life, Caetano's contribution was as important as Salazar's.
       Born in Lisbon in 1906 to a middle-class family, Caetano was a member of the student generation that rebelled against the unstable parliamentary First Republic and sought answers to Portugal's legion of troubles in conservative ideologies such as integralism, Catholic reformism, and the Italian Fascist model. One of the most brilliant students at the University of Lisbon's Law School, Caetano soon became directly involved in government service in various ministries, including Salazar's Ministry of Finance. When Caetano was not teaching full-time at the law school in Lisbon and influencing new generations of students who became critical of the regime he helped construct, Caetano was in important government posts and working on challenging assignments. In the 1930s, he participated in reforms in the Ministry of Finance, in the writing of the 1933 Constitution, in the formation of the new civil code, of which he was in part the author, and in the construction of corporativism, which sought to control labor-management relations and other aspects of social engineering. In a regime largely directed by academics from the law faculties of Coimbra University and the University of Lisbon, Caetano was the leading expert on constitutional law, administrative law, political science, and colonial law. A prolific writer as both a political scientist and historian, Caetano was the author of the standard political science, administrative law, and history of law textbooks, works that remained in print and in use among students long after his exile and death.
       After his apprenticeship service in a number of ministries, Caetano rose steadily in the system. At age 38, he was named minister for the colonies (1944 47), and unlike many predecessors, he "went to see for himself" and made important research visits to Portugal's African territories. In 1955-58, Caetano served in the number-three position in the regime in the Ministry of the Presidency of the Council (premier's office); he left office for full-time academic work in part because of his disagreements with Salazar and others on regime policy and failures to reform at the desired pace. In 1956 and 1957, Caetano briefly served as interim minister of communications and of foreign affairs.
       Caetano's opportunity to take Salazar's place and to challenge even more conservative forces in the system came in the 1960s. Portugal's most prominent law professor had a public falling out with the regime in March 1962, when he resigned as rector of Lisbon University following a clash between rebellious students and the PIDE, the political police. When students opposing the regime organized strikes on the University of Lisbon campus, Caetano resigned his rectorship after the police invaded the campus and beat and arrested some students, without asking permission to enter university premises from university authorities.
       When Salazar became incapacitated in September 1968, President Américo Tomás named Caetano prime minister. His tasks were formidable: in the midst of remarkable economic growth in Portugal, continued heavy immigration of Portuguese to France and other countries, and the costly colonial wars in three African colonies, namely Angola, Guinea- Bissau, and Mozambique, the regime struggled to engineer essential social and political reforms, win the wars in Africa, and move toward meaningful political reforms. Caetano supported moderately important reforms in his first two years in office (1968-70), as well as the drafting of constitutional revisions in 1971 that allowed a slight liberalization of the Dictatorship, gave the opposition more room for activity, and decentrali zed authority in the overseas provinces (colonies). Always aware of the complexity of Portugal's colonial problems and of the ongoing wars, Caetano made several visits to Africa as premier, and he sought to implement reforms in social and economic affairs while maintaining the expensive, divisive military effort, Portugal's largest armed forces mobilization in her history.
       Opposed by intransigent right-wing forces in various sectors in both Portugal and Africa, Caetano's modest "opening" of 1968-70 soon narrowed. Conservative forces in the military, police, civil service, and private sectors opposed key political reforms, including greater democratization, while pursuing the military solution to the African crisis and personal wealth. A significant perspective on Caetano's failed program of reforms, which could not prevent the advent of a creeping revolution in society, is a key development in the 1961-74 era of colonial wars: despite Lisbon's efforts, the greater part of Portuguese emigration and capital investment during this period were directed not to the African colonies but to Europe, North America, and Brazil.
       Prime Minister Caetano, discouraged by events and by opposition to his reforms from the so-called "Rheumatic Brigade" of superannuated regime loyalists, attempted to resign his office, but President Américo Tomás convinced him to remain. The publication and public reception of African hero General Antônio Spinola's best-selling book Portugal e Futuro (Portugal and the Future) in February 1974 convinced the surprised Caetano that a coup and revolution were imminent. When the virtually bloodless, smoothly operating military coup was successful in what became known as the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Caetano surrendered to the Armed Forces Movement in Lisbon and was flown to Madeira Island and later to exile in Brazil, where he remained for the rest of his life. In his Brazilian exile, Caetano was active writing important memoirs and histories of the Estado Novo from his vantage point, teaching law at a private university in Rio de Janeiro, and carrying on a lively correspondence with persons in Portugal. He died at age 74, in 1980, in Brazil.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Caetano, Marcello José das Neves Alves

  • 86 Ethnic minorities

       Traditionally and for a half millennium, Portugal has been a country of emigration, but in recent decades it has become a country of net immigration. During Portugal's long period of overseas empire, beginning in the 15th century, there was always more emigration overseas than immigration to Portugal. There were, nevertheless, populations of natives of Africa, Asia, and the Americas who came to Portugal during the 1450-1975 era. Historians continue to debate the actual numbers of migrants of African descent to Portugal during this period, but records suggest that the resident African population in Portugal during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries was a minority of some consequence but not as large as previously imagined.
       After the wars of independence in Africa began in 1961, and after India conquered and annexed former Portuguese Goa, Damão, and Diu in December of that year, Portugal began to receive more migrants from Asia and Africa than before. First came political refugees carrying Portuguese passports from former Portuguese India; these left India for Portugal in the early 1960s. But the larger numbers came from Portugal's former colonial territories in Africa, especially from Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea-Bissau; these sought refuge from civil wars and conflicts following the end of the colonial wars and independence from Portugal. While a considerable number of the refugee wave of 1975-76 from these territories were of African as well as Afro-European descent, larger numbers of African migrants began to arrive in the 1980s. A major impetus for their migration to Portugal was to escape civil wars in Angola and Mozambique.
       Another wave of migrants of European descent came beginning in the 1990s, primarily from Ukraine, Russia, Rumania, and Moldova. Following the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, and the implosion of the Soviet Union, migrants from these countries arrived in Portugal in some number. At about the same time, there arrived migrants from Brazil and another former colony of Portugal, the isolated, poverty-stricken Cape Verde Islands. The largest number of foreign immigrants in Portugal continue to be the Brazilians and the Cape Verdeans, whose principal language is also Portuguese.
       Different ethnic migrant groups tended to work in certain occupations; for example, Brazilians were largely professional people, including dentists and technicians. Cape Verdeans, by and large, as well as numbers of other African migrants from former Portuguese African territories, worked in the construction industry or in restaurants and hotels. As of 2004, the non- European Union (EU) migrant population was over 374,000, while the EU migrant numbers were about 74,000.
       Of the foreign migrants from EU countries, the largest community was the British, with as many as 20,000 residents, with smaller numbers from France, Germany, Italy, and Spain. About 9,000 Americans reside in Portugal. Unlike many migrants from the non-EU countries noted above, who sought safety and a way to make a decent living, migrants from Europe and the United States include many who seek a comfortable retirement in Portugal, with its warm, sunny climate, fine cuisine, and security.
        1999 2004
       Brazil 20,851 Brazil 66,907
       Cape Verde Isl. Cape Verde Isl. 64,164
       Angola 17,721 Angola 35,264
       Guinea Bissau 25,148
       São Tomé 10,483
       Mozambique 5,472
       Ukraine 66,227
       Romania 12,155
       Moldova 13,689

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Ethnic minorities

  • 87 war

    {wɔ:}
    I. 1. война
    cold WAR студена война, война на нерви
    hot/shooting WAR същинска война, въоръжен конфликт
    World War I/II Първата/Втората световна война
    WAR of manoeuvre маневрена война
    position WAR позиционна война
    private WAR продължителна вражда между лица/семейства, враждебни действия срещу отделни лица от друга държава
    the WAR s of the Roses ист. войната на Червената и на Бялата роза (XV в.)
    to make/wage/levy WAR on водя война/воювам с
    to go to WAR прибягвам до оръжие, воювам (with с)
    to have been in the WARs разг. пострадал съм, имам окаян вид
    in the WAR през (време на) войната
    on a WAR footing, on WAR establishment на бойна нога, в боева готовност
    to carry the WAR into the enemy's country/camp пренасям войната на територията на противника, прен. предявявам насрещно обвинение
    2. борба, стълкновение
    WAR of the elements борба на стихните, буря
    WAR of words словесен двубой
    3. attr военен
    War Office англ. Военно министерство
    II. v обик. прен. воювам, бия се, сражавам се (with, against с)
    * * *
    {wъ:} а 1. война; cold war студена война, война на нерви; hot/shoot(2) {wъ:} v (-rr-) обик. прен. воювам, бия се, сражавам се (with,
    * * *
    борба; война; военен;
    * * *
    1. attr военен 2. cold war студена война, война на нерви 3. hot/shooting war същинска война, въоръжен конфликт 4. i. война 5. ii. v обик. прен. воювам, бия се, сражавам се (with, against с) 6. in the war през (време на) войната 7. on a war footing, on war establishment на бойна нога, в боева готовност 8. position war позиционна война 9. private war продължителна вражда между лица/семейства, враждебни действия срещу отделни лица от друга държава 10. the war s of the roses ист. войната на Червената и на Бялата роза (xv в.) 11. to carry the war into the enemy's country/camp пренасям войната на територията на противника, прен. предявявам насрещно обвинение 12. to go to war прибягвам до оръжие, воювам (with с) 13. to have been in the wars разг. пострадал съм, имам окаян вид 14. to make/wage/levy war on водя война/воювам с 15. war of manoeuvre маневрена война 16. war of the elements борба на стихните, буря 17. war of words словесен двубой 18. war office англ. Военно министерство 19. world war i/ii Първата/Втората световна война 20. борба, стълкновение
    * * *
    war[wɔ:] I. n 1. война; the Great W., World W. I Световната война, Първата световна война; civil \war гражданска (междуособна) война; W. of Secession гражданската война (в САЩ); private \war продължителна (обикн. наследствена) вражда; кръвна мъст; \war of attrition война на изтощение; the W.s of the Roses ист. войната на Червената и на Бялата роза (ХV в.); man of \war боен (военен) кораб; to make ( wage, levy) \war on водя война с, воювам против (с); to go to \war прибягвам до оръжие; воювам ( with); to have been in the \wars прен. пострадал съм, имам окаян вид; in the \war на война; през време на войната; in time of \war по време на война; to carry the \war into the enemy's country ( camp) пренасям войната на противникова територия; прен. предявявам насрещно обвинение, отговарям на обвинението с обвинение; 2. борба; \war to the knife разг. ожесточена (свирепа) борба; a \war of the elements борба на стихиите; буря; \war of words словесен двубой; 3. attr военен; \war effort мобилизация на всички сили за водене на война; W. office англ. военно министерство; II. v (- rr-) обикн. прен. воювам, бия се, сражавам се ( with, against).

    English-Bulgarian dictionary > war

  • 88 war

    1. n
    1) війна; бойові дії

    war of siege — блокада; позиційна війна

    to wage (to make, to levy) war on (against) smb. — вести війну (воювати) з кимсь

    2) боротьба; ворожнеча; ворожість

    war of the elements — боротьба стихій, стихійне лихо

    3) поет. зброя; війська
    4) поет. битва

    war bonds — фін. облігації воєнних позик

    war brides — амер. дружини американських військовослужбовців, що одружилися під час служби за межами США

    W. Book — військ. мобілізаційний розклад

    war build-up — військ., розм. воєнні приготування; зосередження військ

    war cabinet — військовий кабінет; уряд воєнного часу

    W. College — військовий коледж

    W. Department — військове міністерство (у США)

    war eagle — орн. беркут

    war effort — мобілізація усіх сил на оборону країни; робота для потреб фронту

    war fever — мед. висипний («воєнний») тиф

    war footing — воєнне становище; бойова готовність

    war guilt — відповідальність (вина) за розв'язування війни

    war hawk — амер. палій війни

    W. House — військ., розм. військове міністерство

    war loss — військ. воєнні втрати; корабель, що потонув під час воєнних дій

    W. Office — військове міністерство (у Великій Британії)

    war outfit — військове майно; бойова техніка; озброєння і обмундирування воєнного часу

    war room — мор. командний пункт

    war strength — бойовий склад; чисельність за штатами воєнного часу

    war to the knife — військ. війна на винищення

    war usage — юр. звичай війни

    private war — кровна помста; самочинні воєнні дії

    * * *
    I [wxː] n
    1) війна; бойові дії

    war of siege — позиційна війна; icт. облогова війна; блокада

    he fought in the Second World War /in World War Two/ — він учасник другої світової війни

    War between the States — aмep.; icт.;громадянська війна в США (між Північчю та Півднем 1861-1865 pp.)

    W. of Independence, Revolutionary W. — aмep.; icт. війна за незалежність (1775-1783 pp.)

    the Thirty Years' War — icт. Тридцятирічна війна

    War of the Roses — icт. війна Червоної, Білої троянди

    war of nerves — війна нервів, психологічна війна

    war of the elements — боротьба стихій; буря, стихійне лихо

    3) ворожнеча, антагонізм
    4) icт. війська

    war to the knife — вiйcьк. війна на винищування; боротьба не на життя, а на смерть

    private war — кровна помста; самочинні військові дії ( без санкції уряду)

    to carry the war into the enemy's camp — переносити війну на територію супротивника; наступати; переходити в натиск ( у спорі)

    II [wxː] v
    1) книжн. воювати, вести війну

    to war down — завоювати, підкорити

    2) (with, against) боротися (з кимось, чимось)
    3) ворогувати, конфліктувати
    III = worse III IV = worse I V = worst IV

    English-Ukrainian dictionary > war

  • 89 war

    [wo:] 1. noun
    ((an) armed struggle, especially between nations: Their leader has declared war on Britain; The larger army will win the war; the horrors of war; ( also adjective) He is guilty of war crimes.) vojna; vojen
    2. verb
    (to fight: The two countries have been warring constantly for generations.) vojskovati se
    - warrior
    - war correspondent
    - war-cry
    - war-dance
    - warfare
    - warhead
    - warhorse
    - warlord
    - warmonger
    - warpaint
    - warship
    - wartime
    - war of nerves
    * * *
    I [wɔ:]
    noun
    vojna; boj, borba; prepir, razprtija, mržnja, sovraštvo, sovražnost; vojna umetnost, vojništvo; colloquially orožje, vojna oprema, vojna moč, čete
    in the war — v vojni, v vojnem času
    the War — 1. svetovna vojna
    war of the elements — naravne katastrofe, hude nevihte
    war to the knife — boj na nož, vojna do iztrebljenja
    the dogs of war poetically figuratively vojne strahote
    perfect (imperfect) war juridically military splošna (omejena) vojna
    laws plural of war — vojno pravo
    war baby colloquially nezakonsko vojaško dete (rojeno v času vojne); humorously mornariški kadet, ki je opravljal službo mornariškega častnika v 1. svetovni vojni; American slang vojni proizvod; delnica, katere vrednost se je dvignila v vojni
    war bond — vojna obveznica, zadolžnica
    war cloud colloquially grožnja vojne, vojna nevarnost
    war crime, war criminal — vojni zločin, vojni zločinec
    war footing — vojno stanje, vojna pripravljenost
    war grave — vojni, vojaški grob
    war horse — bojni konj; colloquially star vojščak, veteran (tudi figuratively) war of liberation — osvobodilna vojna
    war lord — najvišji poveljnik vojske, vojaški diktator, generalisim
    War Office British English vojno ministrstvo (do leta 196ɔ)
    War of the Nations history 1. svetovna vojna
    war paint — barva, s katero si Indijanci prebarvajo obraz in telo pred bojem; figuratively svečana obleka; American colloquially našminkanost
    colloquially to be on the war — biti napadalen, biti pasje volje
    war song — bojevito petje; bojna pesem
    he's been in the wars figuratively pošteno ga je zdelalo
    to carry the war into the enemy's country — prenesti vojno v sovražnikovo deželo, figuratively preiti v protinapad, tolči sovražnika z njegovim lastnim orožjem
    to declare war upon s.o. — napovedati vojno komu
    to drift into war — biti vpleten (potegnjen) v vojno, figuratively priti v spor z
    to go to war — spustiti se v vojno, začeti vojno
    to go to the wars — iti v vojsko, v vojno
    to make war — biti v vojni, vojskovati se
    to wage war — voditi vojno, biti v vojni, vojskovati se
    II [wɔ:]
    intransitive verb
    vojskovati se ( against proti), voditi vojno, boriti se ( with z); biti v konfliktu
    warring principles — nasprotujoča si načela; transitive verb obsolete vojskovati se (z); figuratively boriti se z, pobijati

    English-Slovenian dictionary > war

  • 90 Armed Forces Movement / Movimento das Forças Armadas

       (MFA)
       The organization of career military who overthrew the Estado Novo in a virtually bloodless military coup or pronunciamento generating the Revolution of 25 April 1974. This organization began as a clandestine group of junior career officers, largely from the army, but later including air force and navy officers, who had a series of secret meetings in Évora and other cities beginning in the summer and fall of 1973. The general grievances of these officers, who tended to be junior officers in their thirties and forties with the ranks of lieutenant, captain, and major, centered on the colonial wars in Portugal's African Empire. By 1973, these conflicts were more than a decade old, and in two of the wars, namely Guinea- Bissau and Mozambique, the Portuguese forces were taking heavy losses and losing ground. The catalyst for organizing a formal protest at first was not political but professional and corporate: a July 1973 law passed by the Marcello Caetano government that responded to a shortage of officer candidates in the African wars by lowering the professional qualifications for officer candidates for militia officers, something deeply resented by the career officers. The MFA organized the military coup of 1974 that met little resistance.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Armed Forces Movement / Movimento das Forças Armadas

  • 91 war

    I
    1. [wɔ:] n
    1. война; боевые действия

    shooting war - «горячая война», настоящая война (в противоп. холодной войне)

    war of movement - воен. манёвренная война

    war of position - воен. позиционная война

    war of siege - а) позиционная война; б) ист. осадная война; блокада

    he fought in the Second World War /in World War Two/ - он участник второй мировой войны

    War between the States - амер. ист. гражданская война в США (между Севером и Югом; 1861-1865 гг.)

    War of Independence, Revolutionary War - амер. ист. война за независимость (1775-1783 гг.)

    the Thirty Years' War - ист. Тридцатилетняя война

    War of the Roses - ист. война Алой и Белой розы

    luck of war - военное счастье; превратности войны

    in the war - а) на войне; б) во время войны

    to wage /to make/ war on /against/ smb. - вести войну /воевать/ с кем-л.

    to go to war - а) (against) прибегать к оружию (против кого-л.); начинать войну (с кем-л.); б) идти на войну /на фронт/

    2. борьба

    war of nerves - война нервов, психологическая война

    war of the elements - борьба стихий; буря, стихийное бедствие

    3. вражда, антагонизм
    4. арх. войска

    ♢ war to the knife - а) воен. война на истребление; б) ≅ борьба не на живот, а на смерть

    private war - а) кровная месть; б) самочинные военные действия ( без санкции правительства)

    to carry the war into the enemy's camp - а) переносить войну на территорию противника; наступать; б) переходить в наступление ( в споре)

    to have been in the wars - разг. побывать в переделке

    2. [wɔ:] v
    1. книжн. воевать, вести войну

    to war down - завоевать, покорить

    2. (with, against) бороться (с кем-л., чем-л.)
    3. враждовать, конфликтовать
    II
    1. [wɑ:,wɔ:] шотл. = worse II и III
    2. [wɑ:,wɔ:] шотл. = worse II и III
    3. [wɑ:,wɔ:] шотл. = worst IV

    НБАРС > war

  • 92 war

    I [wxː] n
    1) війна; бойові дії

    war of siege — позиційна війна; icт. облогова війна; блокада

    he fought in the Second World War /in World War Two/ — він учасник другої світової війни

    War between the States — aмep.; icт.;громадянська війна в США (між Північчю та Півднем 1861-1865 pp.)

    W. of Independence, Revolutionary W. — aмep.; icт. війна за незалежність (1775-1783 pp.)

    the Thirty Years' War — icт. Тридцятирічна війна

    War of the Roses — icт. війна Червоної, Білої троянди

    war of nerves — війна нервів, психологічна війна

    war of the elements — боротьба стихій; буря, стихійне лихо

    3) ворожнеча, антагонізм
    4) icт. війська

    war to the knife — вiйcьк. війна на винищування; боротьба не на життя, а на смерть

    private war — кровна помста; самочинні військові дії ( без санкції уряду)

    to carry the war into the enemy's camp — переносити війну на територію супротивника; наступати; переходити в натиск ( у спорі)

    II [wxː] v
    1) книжн. воювати, вести війну

    to war down — завоювати, підкорити

    2) (with, against) боротися (з кимось, чимось)
    3) ворогувати, конфліктувати
    III = worse III IV = worse I V = worst IV

    English-Ukrainian dictionary > war

  • 93 rose

    I 1. noun
    1) (plant, flower) Rose, die

    no bed of roses — (fig.) kein Honigschlecken

    it's not all roses — es ist nicht alles [so] rosig

    everything's [coming up] roses — alles ist bestens

    2) (colour) Rosa, das
    2. adjective
    rosa[farben]
    II
    see academic.ru/62531/rise">rise 2.
    * * *
    [rouz]
    past tense; = rise
    * * *
    rose1
    [rəʊz, AM roʊz]
    I. n
    1. (flower) Rose f; (bush) Rosenbusch m; (tree) Rosenbäumchen nt
    the Wars of the R\roses die Rosenkriege
    red \roses rote Rosen
    2. (nozzle) Brause f
    3. no pl (colour) Rosa nt, Rosenrot nt liter
    4. usu pl (complexion) rosige Wangen
    a brisk walk will put the \roses [back] into your cheeks bei einem flotten Spaziergang kriegst du wieder etwas Farbe [im Gesicht]
    5.
    ▶ not a bed of [or not all] \roses nicht immer [nur] rosig
    being an actress is not all \rose als Schauspielerin ist man [auch] nicht immer auf Rosen gebettet
    ▶ to come up [or out] [smelling of] \roses bestens laufen fam
    II. adj inv rosa
    III. vt ( liter)
    to \rose sb's cheeks jds Wangen röten [o Farbe verleihen]
    rose2
    [rəʊz, AM roʊz]
    * * *
    I [rəʊz] pret See: of rise II
    1. n
    1) Rose f

    my life isn't all roses (inf) — ich bin auch nicht auf Rosen gebettet

    life/marriage isn't all roses (inf) — das Leben/die Ehe hat auch seine/ihre Schattenseiten

    under the rose (fig liter) — unter dem Siegel der Verschwiegenheit

    2) (= nozzle) Brause f; (= rosette, ARCHIT) Rosette f
    3) (= colour) Rosarot nt, Rosenrot nt
    2. adj
    rosarot, rosenrot
    * * *
    rose1 [rəʊz]
    A s
    1. BOT Rose f:
    rose of Jericho Jerichorose, Rose von Jericho;
    a) Roseneibisch m,
    b) Großblumiges Johanniskraut;
    the rose of fig die Rose (das schönste Mädchen) von (od gen);
    everything’s coming up roses alles macht sich oder ist bestens;
    gather (life’s) roses obs oder poet die Rosen des Lebens pflücken, sein Leben genießen;
    it is not all roses es ist nicht so rosig, wie es aussieht;
    his job is not all roses seine Arbeit besteht nicht nur aus Annehmlichkeiten;
    under the rose sub rosa, unter dem Siegel der Verschiegenheit;
    no rose without a thorn (Sprichwort) keine Rose ohne Dornen; → bed Bes Redew
    2. Rosette f, Röschen n (Zierrat)
    4. GEOG, SCHIFF, PHYS Wind-, Kompassrose f
    5. PHYS, TECH Kreisskala f
    6. Brause f (einer Gießkanne etc)
    7. Rosette f, Rose f (Edelsteinschliff oder so geschliffener Stein)
    8. TECH Rosette f, Manschette f
    9. ZOOL Rose f (Ansatzfläche des Geweihs)
    10. Heraldik, HIST Br Rose f (Wappenblume):
    B adj
    1. Rosen…
    2. rosarot
    rose2 [rəʊz] prät von rise
    * * *
    I 1. noun
    1) (plant, flower) Rose, die

    no bed of roses — (fig.) kein Honigschlecken

    it's not all roses — es ist nicht alles [so] rosig

    everything's [coming up] roses — alles ist bestens

    2) (colour) Rosa, das
    2. adjective
    rosa[farben]
    II
    see rise 2.
    * * *
    n.
    Rose -n f.

    English-german dictionary > rose

  • 94 war

    war
    A n
    1 ( armed conflict) guerre f ; the horrors of war les horreurs de la guerre ; the day war broke out le jour où la guerre a éclaté ; in the war à la guerre ; between the wars ( world wars) entre les deux guerres ; a state of war now exists between our two countries nos deux pays sont désormais en état de guerre ; to win/lose a war gagner/perdre une guerre ; to go off to the war partir à la guerre ; to go to war against entrer en guerre contre [country] ; to wage war on faire la guerre contre [country] ; to be at war with a country être en guerre avec un pays ; a war over ou about une guerre pour [land, independence] ; une guerre sur [issue, problem] ;
    2 fig ( fierce competition) guerre f ; price/trade war guerre des prix/commerciale ; a state of war now exists between the two departments/companies c'est la guerre entre les deux services/sociétés ; a war of words un conflit verbal ;
    3 fig ( to eradicate sth) lutte f (against contre) ; the war against drug traffickers la lutte contre les narco-trafiquants ; to wage war on ou against mener une lutte contre [poverty, crime].
    B modif [debts, correspondent, crime, criminal, effort, film, historian, medal, photographer, widow, wound] de guerre ; [cemetery, leader, grave, zone] militaire ; [hero] de la guerre ; war deaths victimes fpl de la guerre ; he has a good war record il a de bons états de service.
    C vi ( p prés etc - rr-) to war with a country/one's neighbours être en guerre contre un pays/ses voisins (over à cause de).
    you look as if you've been in the wars on dirait qu'il t'est arrivé des malheurs.

    Big English-French dictionary > war

  • 95 מלחמה

    מִלְחָמָהf. (b. h.; לָחַם II) war, contest. Sot.VIII, 1, a. fr. משוח מ׳ chaplain of the army (Deut. 20:2), v. מָשַׁח I. Ib. 7 מִלְחֶמֶת הרשות (Bab. ed. 44b, pl.) secular (political) warfare; מ׳ מצוה a war for religious causes; מ׳ חובהוכ׳ a war of duty. Ib. 44b מ׳ יהושעוכ׳ the war of conquest under Joshua, all agree, is a war of duty Meg.15b מִלְחַמְתָּהּ של תורה disputes about the Law; a. fr.Pl. מִלְחָמוֹת. Sot. l. c. מִלְחֲמוֹת בית דוד לרווחה the wars of the house of David for extending the dominion. M. Kat. 25b (in a eulogy) גזע … ועמו ספר מ׳ an offspring of worthies came up from Babylonia and with him came the book of wars (allegorically for knowledge of the Law; oth. interpret. R. Hamnuna who came with Rabbah). Snh.97a בשביעית מ׳ in the seventh Messianic year there will be wars; a. fr.

    Jewish literature > מלחמה

  • 96 מִלְחָמָה

    מִלְחָמָהf. (b. h.; לָחַם II) war, contest. Sot.VIII, 1, a. fr. משוח מ׳ chaplain of the army (Deut. 20:2), v. מָשַׁח I. Ib. 7 מִלְחֶמֶת הרשות (Bab. ed. 44b, pl.) secular (political) warfare; מ׳ מצוה a war for religious causes; מ׳ חובהוכ׳ a war of duty. Ib. 44b מ׳ יהושעוכ׳ the war of conquest under Joshua, all agree, is a war of duty Meg.15b מִלְחַמְתָּהּ של תורה disputes about the Law; a. fr.Pl. מִלְחָמוֹת. Sot. l. c. מִלְחֲמוֹת בית דוד לרווחה the wars of the house of David for extending the dominion. M. Kat. 25b (in a eulogy) גזע … ועמו ספר מ׳ an offspring of worthies came up from Babylonia and with him came the book of wars (allegorically for knowledge of the Law; oth. interpret. R. Hamnuna who came with Rabbah). Snh.97a בשביעית מ׳ in the seventh Messianic year there will be wars; a. fr.

    Jewish literature > מִלְחָמָה

  • 97 Befreiungskrieg

    m war of independence ( oder liberation)
    * * *
    Be|frei|ungs|krieg
    m
    war of liberation
    * * *
    Be·frei·ungs·krieg
    m war of liberation
    die \Befreiungskriege HIST the Wars of Liberation
    * * *
    der war of liberation

    die Befreiungskriege — (hist.) the Wars of Liberation (1813-1815)

    * * *
    Befreiungskrieg m war of independence ( oder liberation)
    * * *
    der war of liberation

    die Befreiungskriege — (hist.) the Wars of Liberation (1813-1815)

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > Befreiungskrieg

  • 98 período

    m.
    1 period, period of time, length of time, time.
    2 period, epoch, age.
    3 period, menses, menstruation period, menstruation.
    4 period, cycle.
    5 stage in a process, stadium.
    * * *
    1 period
    * * *
    noun m.
    * * *
    periodo masculino
    1)
    a) ( de tiempo) period
    b) (Geol, Mat, Fís) period
    2) ( menstruación) period
    * * *
    periodo masculino
    1)
    a) ( de tiempo) period
    b) (Geol, Mat, Fís) period
    2) ( menstruación) period
    * * *
    período1
    1 = period, phase, stage, term, chapter, interregnum, span, spell, stint, stretch.

    Ex: Library use declines during the June-October period when examinations have finished and the students are on vacation.

    Ex: This planning phase involves moving from a vague impression that a thesaurus might be useful to a fairly precise profile for the thesaurus.
    Ex: The first stage in the choice of access points must be the definition of an author.
    Ex: The board consists of seven members elected by popular ballot for three-year terms.
    Ex: The late 18th century heyday of aristocratic libraries was a brief but important chapter in Hungarian library history.
    Ex: In American higher education the interregnum between world wars was a time of drift and disappointment.
    Ex: The disc held an 18-month span of data from CAB ABSTRACTS.
    Ex: The outstanding example is Ian Sillitoe, who started writing seriously only after reading undisturbed during a lengthy spell in hospital.
    Ex: Evidence for identification is rarely available, but in a few cases very full printers' records have survived in which individual stints are accounted for.
    Ex: After all, who has not felt dog-tired and drained, sometimes for long stretches, at one time or another?.
    * breve período de tiempo = while.
    * durante este período = in the course of events, during the course of events.
    * durante largos períodos de tiempo = over long periods of time.
    * durante un largo período de tiempo = over a long time scale, over a long period of time, for a long period of time, over a long period.
    * durante un período de + Expresión Temporal = over a period of + Expresión Temporal.
    * durante un período de prueba = on a trial basis.
    * durante un período de tiempo = for a number of years.
    * durante un periodo de tiempo determinado = over a period of time.
    * durante un período de tiempo indefinido = over an indefinite period of time, over an indefinite span of time.
    * durante un período indefinido = for an indefinite period.
    * en el período penoso de = in the throes of.
    * en el período previo a = in the run up to, during the run up to.
    * en este período = in the course of events, during the course of events.
    * en período de = in the throes of.
    * en período de desarrollo = in ascendancy.
    * en un corto período de tiempo = in a short period of time.
    * en un período de = at a time of.
    * en un período de transición = in a period of transition.
    * en un período más o menos lejano = in the near future, in the near future.
    * largos períodos de tiempo = long periods of time.
    * madre en período de lactancia = nursing mother.
    * mujer en período de lactancia = nursing woman.
    * pasar por un período de = go through + a period of.
    * período bajo = dry spell.
    * período culminante = peak period.
    * período de baja actividad = dry spell.
    * período de calma = lull.
    * período de cinco años = five-year period, period of five years.
    * período de cobertura = date of coverage, period of coverage.
    * período de cultivo = growing season.
    * período de descanso = rest time.
    * período de descuento por inscripción anticipada = early bird period.
    * período de entreguerras, el = interwar period, the.
    * período de espera = waiting period.
    * período de estancamiento = plateau [plateaux, -pl.].
    * período de financiación = funding period.
    * periodo de gracia = grace period, time of grace.
    * período de inactividad = doldrums.
    * período de incubación = incubation period.
    * período de la prensa manual, el = hand-press period, the.
    * período de la prensa mecánica, el = machine-press period, the.
    * período de lluvia = wet spell.
    * periodo de mandato = period of office.
    * período de mayor demanda = peak time.
    * período de McCarthy, el = McCarthy period, the.
    * período de observación = observation period.
    * período de poca actividad = slack time, slack period, slack activity time.
    * período de prácticas = work placement, training attachment.
    * período de prácticas en centros = practicum.
    * período de prácticas en la industria = industrial placement.
    * período de prueba = probationary period, trial period, trial run, probation, period of probation, probation period.
    * período de recortes presupuestarios = budget-slashing times.
    * período de reflexión = cooling-off period.
    * período de sequía = dry spell.
    * período de servicio = tour of duty.
    * período de tiempo = amount of time, time, time frame [timeframe], time lapse, time period, time span [time-span], time slot, period of time, date range.
    * período de vacaciones = vacation period.
    * período de validez = period of validity.
    * período de vigencia = time span [time-span].
    * período de votación = balloting period.
    * período escolar = school days.
    * período glacial = ice age.
    * periodo histórico = historical period.
    * período medieval = mediaeval period [medieval period, -USA], mediaeval times [medieval times, -USA].
    * período positivo = bonanza.
    * período previo = run-up.
    * período previo a la lectura = prereading.
    * período seco = dry spell.
    * período transitorio = transitional period, transition period.
    * período ventajoso = bonanza.
    * por un período de tiempo limitado = on a short-term basis.
    * préstamo de periodo fijo = fixed date loan period.
    * trabajar durante un período de tiempo = serve + stint.
    * un período de = a stretch of.
    * un período determinado = a frozen moment in time.
    * un periodo intenso de = a flurry of.

    período2
    2 = period.

    Ex: The debate on whether or not a woman can get pregnant during her period has been going on for decades now.

    * del período = menstrual.

    * * *
    período, periodo
    A
    1 (de tiempo) period
    un período de prueba de tres meses a three-month trial period
    el período de entreguerras the period o the time o the years between the wars
    2 ( Geol) period
    3 ( Mat) period
    4 ( Fís) period
    Compuestos:
    waiting period
    half-life
    * * *

     

    Multiple Entries:
    periodo    
    período
    período,
    ◊ periodo sustantivo masculino

    period
    periodo, período sustantivo masculino
    1 (espacio de tiempo) period
    2 (menstruación) tener el periodo, to have one's period
    periodo, período sustantivo masculino
    1 (espacio de tiempo) period
    2 (menstruación) tener el periodo, to have one's period

    ' período' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    alquilar
    - antigüedad
    - clásica
    - clásico
    - confinamiento
    - día
    - durante
    - edad
    - entrada
    - entrado
    - época
    - era
    - espacio
    - glacial
    - mandato
    - mediar
    - momento
    - periodo
    - racha
    - restaurar
    - sementera
    - tarde
    - trienio
    - última
    - último
    - vida
    - abrir
    - ampliación
    - ampliar
    - año
    - aprendizaje
    - atravesar
    - auge
    - convocatoria
    - de
    - detenido
    - dividir
    - entrar
    - entretiempo
    - espera
    - hora
    - infancia
    - ir
    - lactancia
    - reemplazar
    - reemplazo
    - relajar
    - semana
    - siglo
    - temporada
    English:
    age
    - day
    - downtime
    - engagement
    - for
    - lapse
    - lead-up
    - lean
    - live through
    - midterm
    - out
    - pay out
    - period
    - probation
    - residence
    - short
    - solid
    - spell
    - spread
    - stint
    - stretch
    - tenancy
    - term
    - time
    - tour
    - transition
    - trial
    - unbroken
    - grow
    - interim
    - life
    - lull
    - run
    - sabbatical
    * * *
    periodo, período nm
    1. [espacio de tiempo] period;
    el primer periodo [de partido] the first half
    periodo contable accounting period;
    periodo de gestación gestation period;
    Com periodo de gracia days of grace;
    periodo de incubación incubation period;
    periodo de prácticas trial period;
    periodo de prueba trial period;
    Ind periodo de reflexión [en disputa] cooling-off period;
    periodo refractario refractory period;
    periodo de transición transition period
    2. Mat period
    3. Fís period
    4. Geol age
    periodo glacial ice age;
    periodo interglacial interglacial period
    5. [menstruación] period;
    estar con el periodo, tener el periodo to be having one's period
    6. Ling period
    * * *
    m period
    * * *
    : period
    * * *
    período n period

    Spanish-English dictionary > período

  • 99 Buçaco, Battle of

    (1810)
       An important battle in what is known as the Peninsular Wars in European history and the Wars of Independence in Portuguese history. In the third invasion by French forces under Emperor Napoleon, Marshal Masséna entered Portugal from Spain in August 1810. The allied forces under the Duke of Wellington were comprised of British and Portuguese troops. Masséna marched from Guarda, and moved to attack across the hills of Buçaco to Coimbra. Wellington's forces blocked the way to Coimbra and Lisbon and held an advantageous position. Against the advice of his council, Masséna decided to take the offensive. The battle of Buçaco commenced in the morning of 27 September 1810, and the French were defeated with considerable losses. The site of the battle in the woods and hills of Buçaco is marked by a commemorative obelisk, not far from the elegant Hotel-Palace of Buçaco, built originally for the last Braganza monarchs.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Buçaco, Battle of

  • 100 Costa Gomes, Francisco da

    (1914-2001)
       Career military officer, key personality, and authority in transition from dictatorship to democracy, and president of the republic. Born in the remote, poor, Trás-Os-Montes district, Costa Gomes was trained as an army officer and gained experience and promotions in many postings in Portugal's overseas empire from Macau, China, to Angola and Mozambique. As a lieutenant colonel in the post of undersecretary of the army in April 1961, he was implicated in a military coup plot to overthrow Prime Minister Antônio de Oliveira Salazar. Although he was fired, Costa Gomes rebuilt his bridges, was promoted to brigadier general in 1964, and soon was appointed to important commands in the colonial wars in Portuguese Africa: first in Mozambique (1965-69) and then in Angola (1970-72). In September 1972, he returned to Portugal as head of the joint chiefs of staff, a post he kept until he broke with Prime Minister Marcello Caetano in early 1974.
       During the last part of Caetano's governance, General Costa Gomes, in tandem with his senior, more famous and charismatic colleague in arms, General Antônio de Spínola, was involved in activities that led to the organization of a successful military coup on 25 April 1974, which overthrew the 48-year-old Estado Novo. Although younger officers did most of the work organizing this action, Costa Gomes played a key role, including authorizing the publication of the sensational book by General Spínola, Portugal e o Futuro, published only two months before the Revolution of Carnations in February 1974. Spinola's book acknowledged that Portugal had to find a political not a military solution to the wars in her African colonies, and the public reception of the work helped prepare the atmosphere for a bloodless coup.
       After the successful coup by the Armed Forces Movement and the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Costa Gomes was appointed chief of defense staff. When General Spínola resigned in September 1974, Costa Gomes became president, a post he ably filled until June 1976, when General Ramalho Eanes was elected president of the republic. Costa Gomes soon withdrew from the public eye, but in 1981 was promoted to Portugal's highest military rank of marshal.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Costa Gomes, Francisco da

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