function-based

    Misgivings about Computer Metaphors of the Human Brain

   Within the AI community there is a growing dissatisfaction concerning the adequacy of sequential models to simulate the cognitive processes....

   For an example of the dissimilarity between computers and nervous systems, consider that in conventional computers... each piece of data [is] located in its own special space in the memory bank [and] can be retrieved only by a central processor that knows the address in the memory bank for each datum. Human memory appears to be organized along entirely different lines. For one thing, from a partial or a degraded stimulus human memory can "reconstruct" the rest, and there are associative relationships among stored pieces of information based on considerations of context rather than on considerations of location.... t now appears doubtful that individual neurons are so specific that they are tuned to respond to a single item and nothing else. Thus, connectionist models tend to devise and use distributed principles, which means that elements may be selective to a range of stimuli and there are no "grandmother cells."...

   Information storage, it appears, is in some ill-defined sense a function of connectivity among sets of neurons. This implies that there is something fundamentally wrong in understanding the brain's memory on the model of individual symbols stored at unique addresses in a data bank....

   A further source of misgivings about the computer metaphor concerns real-time constraints. Although the signal velocities in nervous systems are quite slow in comparison to those in computers, brains are nonetheless far, far faster than electronic devices in the execution of their complex tasks. For example, human brains are incomparably faster than any computer in word-nonword recognition tasks. (P. S. Churchland, 1986, pp. 458-459)

   1) A Unitary Search Process for All the Phenomena of Memory

   To what extent can we lump together what goes on when you try to recall: (1) your name; (2) how you kick a football; and (3) the present location of your car keys? If we use introspective evidence as a guide, the first seems an immediate automatic response. The second may require constructive internal replay prior to our being able to produce a verbal description. The third... quite likely involves complex operational responses under the control of some general strategy system. Is any unitary search process, with a single set of characteristics and inputoutput relations, likely to cover all these cases? (Reitman, 1970, p. 485)

   2) Semantic Memory Is a Mental Thesaurus

   [Semantic memory] Is a mental thesaurus, organized knowledge a person possesses about words and other verbal symbols, their meanings and referents, about relations among them, and about rules, formulas, and algorithms for the manipulation of these symbols, concepts, and relations. Semantic memory does not register perceptible properties of inputs, but rather cognitive referents of input signals. (Tulving, 1972, p. 386)

   3) The Development of Mnemonic Codes

   The mnemonic code, far from being fixed and unchangeable, is structured and restructured along with general development. Such a restructuring of the code takes place in close dependence on the schemes of intelligence. The clearest indication of this is the observation of different types of memory organisation in accordance with the age level of a child so that a longer interval of retention without any new presentation, far from causing a deterioration of memory, may actually improve it. (Piaget & Inhelder, 1973, p. 36)

   4) The Logic of Some Memory Theorization Is of Dubious Worth in the History of Psychology

   If a cue was effective in memory retrieval, then one could infer it was encoded; if a cue was not effective, then it was not encoded. The logic of this theorization is "heads I win, tails you lose" and is of dubious worth in the history of psychology. We might ask how long scientists will puzzle over questions with no answers. (Solso, 1974, p. 28)

   5) The Constituent Elements of Memory Theory

   We have iconic, echoic, active, working, acoustic, articulatory, primary, secondary, episodic, semantic, short-term, intermediate-term, and longterm memories, and these memories contain tags, traces, images, attributes, markers, concepts, cognitive maps, natural-language mediators, kernel sentences, relational rules, nodes, associations, propositions, higher-order memory units, and features. (Eysenck, 1977, p. 4)

   6) The Problem with the Memory Metaphor

   The problem with the memory metaphor is that storage and retrieval of traces only deals [ sic] with old, previously articulated information. Memory traces can perhaps provide a basis for dealing with the "sameness" of the present experience with previous experiences, but the memory metaphor has no mechanisms for dealing with novel information. (Bransford, McCarrell, Franks & Nitsch, 1977, p. 434)

   7) The Results of a Hundred Years of the Psychological Study of Memory Are Somewhat Discouraging

   The results of a hundred years of the psychological study of memory are somewhat discouraging. We have established firm empirical generalisations, but most of them are so obvious that every ten-year-old knows them anyway. We have made discoveries, but they are only marginally about memory; in many cases we don't know what to do with them, and wear them out with endless experimental variations. We have an intellectually impressive group of theories, but history offers little confidence that they will provide any meaningful insight into natural behavior. (Neisser, 1978, pp. 12-13)

   8) The Structure and Function of a Schema in Memory

   A schema, then is a data structure for representing the generic concepts stored in memory. There are schemata representing our knowledge about all concepts; those underlying objects, situations, events, sequences of events, actions and sequences of actions. A schema contains, as part of its specification, the network of interrelations that is believed to normally hold among the constituents of the concept in question. A schema theory embodies a prototype theory of meaning. That is, inasmuch as a schema underlying a concept stored in memory corresponds to the mean ing of that concept, meanings are encoded in terms of the typical or normal situations or events that instantiate that concept. (Rumelhart, 1980, p. 34)

   9) Competence and Performance in Theories of Memory

   Memory appears to be constrained by a structure, a "syntax," perhaps at quite a low level, but it is free to be variable, deviant, even erratic at a higher level....

   Like the information system of language, memory can be explained in part by the abstract rules which underlie it, but only in part. The rules provide a basic competence, but they do not fully determine performance. (Campbell, 1982, pp. 228, 229)

    10) Metaphors of Memory

   When people think about the mind, they often liken it to a physical space, with memories and ideas as objects contained within that space. Thus, we speak of ideas being in the dark corners or dim recesses of our minds, and of holding ideas in mind. Ideas may be in the front or back of our minds, or they may be difficult to grasp. With respect to the processes involved in memory, we talk about storing memories, of searching or looking for lost memories, and sometimes of finding them. An examination of common parlance, therefore, suggests that there is general adherence to what might be called the spatial metaphor. The basic assumptions of this metaphor are that memories are treated as objects stored in specific locations within the mind, and the retrieval process involves a search through the mind in order to find specific memories....

   However, while the spatial metaphor has shown extraordinary longevity, there have been some interesting changes over time in the precise form of analogy used. In particular, technological advances have influenced theoretical conceptualisations.... The original Greek analogies were based on wax tablets and aviaries; these were superseded by analogies involving switchboards, gramophones, tape recorders, libraries, conveyor belts, and underground maps. Most recently, the workings of human memory have been compared to computer functioning... and it has been suggested that the various memory stores found in computers have their counterparts in the human memory system. (Eysenck, 1984, pp. 79-80)

    11) Comparison of Primary Memory and Secondary Memory

   Primary memory [as proposed by William James] relates to information that remains in consciousness after it has been perceived, and thus forms part of the psychological present, whereas secondary memory contains information about events that have left consciousness, and are therefore part of the psychological past. (Eysenck, 1984, p. 86)

    12) Semantic Memory and Episodic Memory

   Once psychologists began to study long-term memory per se, they realized it may be divided into two main categories.... Semantic memories have to do with our general knowledge about the working of the world. We know what cars do, what stoves do, what the laws of gravity are, and so on. Episodic memories are largely events that took place at a time and place in our personal history. Remembering specific events about our own actions, about our family, and about our individual past falls into this category. With amnesia or in aging, what dims... is our personal episodic memories, save for those that are especially dear or painful to us. Our knowledge of how the world works remains pretty much intact. (Gazzaniga, 1988, p. 42)

    13) The Relation of Memory to Thinking

   The nature of memory... provides a natural starting point for an analysis of thinking. Memory is the repository of many of the beliefs and representations that enter into thinking, and the retrievability of these representations can limit the quality of our thought. (Smith, 1990, p. 1)

   1) To Know the Different Operations of the Mind

   It becomes, therefore, no inconsiderable part of science... to know the different operations of the mind, to separate them from each other, to class them under their proper heads, and to correct all that seeming disorder in which they lie involved when made the object of reflection and inquiry.... It cannot be doubted that the mind is endowed with several powers and faculties, that these powers are distinct from one another, and that what is really distinct to the immediate perception may be distinguished by reflection and, consequently, that there is a truth and falsehood which lie not beyond the compass of human understanding. (Hume, 1955, p. 22)

   2) The Mind Is Furnished by Experience

   Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white Paper, void of all Characters, without any Ideas: How comes it to be furnished? Whence comes it by that vast store, which the busy and boundless Fancy of Man has painted on it, with an almost endless variety? Whence has it all the materials of Reason and Knowledge? To this I answer, in one word, from Experience. (Locke, quoted in Herrnstein & Boring, 1965, p. 584)

   3) Mythical Thought Is as Rigorous as That of Modern Science

   The kind of logic in mythical thought is as rigorous as that of modern science, and... the difference lies, not in the quality of the intellectual process, but in the nature of things to which it is applied.... Man has always been thinking equally well; the improvement lies, not in an alleged progress of man's mind, but in the discovery of new areas to which it may apply its unchanged and unchanging powers. (Leґvi-Strauss, 1963, p. 230)

   4) The Mind Has Nothing But Itself to Know Itself

   MIND. A mysterious form of matter secreted by the brain. Its chief activity consists in the endeavor to ascertain its own nature, the futility of the attempt being due to the fact that it has nothing but itself to know itself with. (Bierce, quoted in Minsky, 1986, p. 55)

   5) To Know Is to Represent Accurately

   [Philosophy] understands the foundations of knowledge and it finds these foundations in a study of man-as-knower, of the "mental processes" or the "activity of representation" which make knowledge possible. To know is to represent accurately what is outside the mind, so to understand the possibility and nature of knowledge is to understand the way in which the mind is able to construct such representation.... We owe the notion of a "theory of knowledge" based on an understanding of "mental processes" to the seventeenth century, and especially to Locke. We owe the notion of "the mind" as a separate entity in which "processes" occur to the same period, and especially to Descartes. We owe the notion of philosophy as a tribunal of pure reason, upholding or denying the claims of the rest of culture, to the eighteenth century and especially to Kant, but this Kantian notion presupposed general assent to Lockean notions of mental processes and Cartesian notions of mental substance. (Rorty, 1979, pp. 3-4)

   6) The Question of Mind in Relation to Machine

   Under pressure from the computer, the question of mind in relation to machine is becoming a central cultural preoccupation. It is becoming for us what sex was to Victorians-threat, obsession, taboo, and fascination. (Turkle, 1984, p. 313)

   7) Understanding the Mind Remains as Resistant to Neurological as to Cognitive Analyses

   Recent years have been exciting for researchers in the brain and cognitive sciences. Both fields have flourished, each spurred on by methodological and conceptual developments, and although understanding the mechanisms of mind is an objective shared by many workers in these areas, their theories and approaches to the problem are vastly different....

   Early experimental psychologists, such as Wundt and James, were as interested in and knowledgeable about the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system as about the young science of the mind. However, the experimental study of mental processes was short-lived, being eclipsed by the rise of behaviorism early in this century. It was not until the late 1950s that the signs of a new mentalism first appeared in scattered writings of linguists, philosophers, computer enthusiasts, and psychologists.

   In this new incarnation, the science of mind had a specific mission: to challenge and replace behaviorism. In the meantime, brain science had in many ways become allied with a behaviorist approach.... While behaviorism sought to reduce the mind to statements about bodily action, brain science seeks to explain the mind in terms of physiochemical events occurring in the nervous system. These approaches contrast with contemporary cognitive science, which tries to understand the mind as it is, without any reduction, a view sometimes described as functionalism.

   The cognitive revolution is now in place. Cognition is the subject of contemporary psychology. This was achieved with little or no talk of neurons, action potentials, and neurotransmitters. Similarly, neuroscience has risen to an esteemed position among the biological sciences without much talk of cognitive processes. Do the fields need each other?... [Y]es because the problem of understanding the mind, unlike the wouldbe problem solvers, respects no disciplinary boundaries. It remains as resistant to neurological as to cognitive analyses. (LeDoux & Hirst, 1986, pp. 1-2)

   8) Approaches to the Study of the Mind

   Since the Second World War scientists from different disciplines have turned to the study of the human mind. Computer scientists have tried to emulate its capacity for visual perception. Linguists have struggled with the puzzle of how children acquire language. Ethologists have sought the innate roots of social behaviour. Neurophysiologists have begun to relate the function of nerve cells to complex perceptual and motor processes. Neurologists and neuropsychologists have used the pattern of competence and incompetence of their brain-damaged patients to elucidate the normal workings of the brain. Anthropologists have examined the conceptual structure of cultural practices to advance hypotheses about the basic principles of the mind. These days one meets engineers who work on speech perception, biologists who investigate the mental representation of spatial relations, and physicists who want to understand consciousness. And, of course, psychologists continue to study perception, memory, thought and action.

... [W]orkers in many disciplines have converged on a number of central problems and explanatory ideas. They have realized that no single approach is likely to unravel the workings of the mind: it will not give up its secrets to psychology alone; nor is any other isolated discipline-artificial intelligence, linguistics, anthropology, neurophysiology, philosophy-going to have any greater success. (Johnson-Laird, 1988, p. 7)

    The Characteristics of Neural Networks That Make Them So Useful

   1. A neural network is composed of a number of very simple processing elements [("neurodes")] that communicate through a rich set of interconnections with variable weights or strengths.

   2. Memories are stored or represented in a neural network in the pattern of variable interconnection weights among the neurodes. Information is processed by a spreading, constantly changing pattern of activity distributed across many neurodes.

   3. A neural network is taught or trained rather than programmed. It is even possible to construct systems capable of independent or autonomous learning....

   4. Instead of having a separate memory and controller, plus a stored external program that dictates the operation of the system as in a digital computer, the operation of a neural network is implicitly controlled by three properties: the transfer function of the neurodes, the details of the structure of the connections among the neurodes, and the learning law the system follows.

   5. A neural network naturally acts as an associative memory. That is, it inherently associated items it is taught, physically grouping similar items together in its structure. A neural network operated as a memory is content addressable; it can retrieve stored information from incomplete, noisy, or partially incorrect input cues.

   6. A neural network is able to generalize; it can learn the characteristics of a general category of objects based on a series of specific examples from that category.

   7. A neural network keeps working even after a significant fraction of its neurodes and interconnections have become defective.

   8. A neural network innately acts as a processor for time-dependent spatial patterns, or spatiotemporal patterns. (Caudill & Butler, 1990, pp. 7-8)

    Modern Existentialism Is Captured in the Personal Essay

   The hallmark of the personal essay is its intimacy. The writer seems to be speaking directly into your ear, confiding everything from gossip to wisdom. Through sharing thoughts, memories, desires, complaints, and whimsies, the personal essayist sets up a relationship with the reader, a dialogue-a friendship, if you will, based on identification, understanding, testiness, and companionship.

   At the core of the personal essay is the supposition that there is a certain unity to human experience. As Michel de Montaigne, the great innovator and patron saint of personal essayists, put it, "Every man has within himself the entire human condition."...

   In the final analysis, the personal essay represents a mode of being. It points a way for the self to function with relative freedom in an uncertain world. Skeptical yet gyroscopically poised, undeceived but finally tolerant of flaws and inconsistencies, this mode of being suits the modern existential situation, which Montaigne first diagnosed. His recognition that human beings were surrounded by darkness, with nothing particularly solid to cling to, led to a philosophical acceptance that one had to make oneself up from moment to moment. (Lopate, 1994, pp. xxiii, xliv)

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 ■ Rumelhart, D. E. (1980). Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In R. J. Spiro, B. Bruce & W. F. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

 ■ Rumelhart, D. E., & J. L. McClelland (1986). On learning the past tenses of English verbs. In J. L. McClelland & D. E. Rumelhart (Eds.), Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition (Vol. 2). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

 ■ Rumelhart, D. E., P. Smolensky, J. L. McClelland & G. E. Hinton (1986). Schemata and sequential thought processes in PDP models. In J. L. McClelland, D. E. Rumelhart & the PDP Research Group (Eds.), Parallel Distributed Processing (Vol. 2, pp. 7-57). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

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 ■ Sagan, C. (1978). The dragons of Eden: Speculations on the evolution of human intel ligence. New York: Ballantine Books.

 ■ Salthouse, T. A. (1992). Expertise as the circumvention of human processing limitations. In K. A. Ericsson & J. Smith (Eds.), Toward a general theory of expertise: Prospects and limits (pp. 172-194). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

 ■ Sanford, A. J. (1987). The mind of man: Models of human understanding. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

 ■ Sapir, E. (1921). Language. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World.

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 ■ Sapir, E. (1985). The status of linguistics as a science. In D. G. Mandelbaum (Ed.), Selected writings of Edward Sapir in language, culture and personality (pp. 160166). Berkeley: University of California Press. (Originally published in 1929).

 ■ Scardmalia, M., & C. Bereiter (1992). Literate expertise. In K. A. Ericsson & J. Smith (Eds.), Toward a general theory of expertise: Prospects and limits (pp. 172-194). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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 ■ Schank, R. C. (1976). The role of memory in language processing. In C. N. Cofer (Ed.), The structure of human memory. (pp. 162-189) San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.

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 ■ Simon, H. A. (1979). Models of thought. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

 ■ Simon, H. A. (1989). The scientist as a problem solver. In D. Klahr & K. Kotovsky (Eds.), Complex information processing: The impact of Herbert Simon. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

 ■ Simon, H. A., & C. Kaplan (1989). Foundations of cognitive science. In M. Posner (Ed.), Foundations of cognitive science (pp. 1-47). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

 ■ Simonton, D. K. (1988). Creativity, leadership and chance. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), The nature of creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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 ■ Smith, E. E. (1988). Concepts and thought. In J. Sternberg & E. E. Smith (Eds.), The psychology of human thought (pp. 19-49). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

 ■ Smith, E. E. (1990). Thinking: Introduction. In D. N. Osherson & E. E. Smith (Eds.), Thinking. An invitation to cognitive science. (Vol. 3, pp. 1-2). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

 ■ Socrates. (1958). Meno. In E. H. Warmington & P. O. Rouse (Eds.), Great dialogues of Plato W.H.D. Rouse (Trans.). New York: New American Library. (Original publication date unknown.)

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 ■ Steiner, G. (1975). After Babel: Aspects of language and translation. New York: Oxford University Press.

 ■ Sternberg, R. J. (1977). Intelligence, information processing, and analogical reasoning. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

 ■ Sternberg, R. J. (1994). Intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg, Thinking and problem solving. San Diego: Academic Press.

 ■ Sternberg, R. J., & J. E. Davidson (1985). Cognitive development in gifted and talented. In F. D. Horowitz & M. O'Brien (Eds.), The gifted and talented (pp. 103-135). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

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 ■ Thorndike, E. L. (1906). Principles of teaching. New York: A. G. Seiler.

 ■ Thorndike, E. L. (1970). Animal intelligence: Experimental studies. Darien, CT: Hafner Publishing Co. (Originally published in 1911.)

 ■ Titchener, E. B. (1910). A textbook of psychology. New York: Macmillan.

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 ■ Tyler, S. A. (1978). The said and the unsaid: Mind, meaning, and culture. New York: Academic Press.

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 ■ Wagman, M. (1998a). Cognitive science and the mind- body problem: From philosophy to psychology to artificial intelligence to imaging of the brain. Westport, CT: Praeger.

 ■ Wagman, M. (1998b). Language and thought in humans and computers: Theory and research in psychology, artificial intelligence, and neural science. Westport, CT: Praeger.

 ■ Wagman, M. (1998c). The ultimate objectives of artificial intelligence: Theoretical and research foundations, philosophical and psychological implications. Westport, CT: Praeger.

 ■ Wagman, M. (1999). The human mind according to artificial intelligence: Theory, re search, and implications. Westport, CT: Praeger.

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возможности использования
-
[Интент]

EN

• availability

 

готовность
Свойство объекта быть в состоянии выполнять требуемую функцию при заданных условиях в данный момент времени или в течение заданного интервала времени при условии обеспечения необходимыми внешними ресурсами.
Примечания
1 Это свойство зависит от сочетания свойств безотказности, ремонтопригодности и обеспеченности технического обслуживания и ремонта.
2 Внешние факторы, не являющиеся ресурсами технического обслуживания и ремонта, не учитываются при оценке готовности объекта.
[ОСТ 45.153-99 ]

Тематики

• надежность средств электросвязи

EN

• availability

 

доступность (в информационных технологиях)
Способность конфигурационной единицы или ИТ-услуги выполнять согласованную функцию, когда это требуется. Доступность определяется через надежность, сопровождаемость, обслуживамость, производительность и безопасность. Доступность обычно измеряется в процентах. Это измерение часто базируется на согласованном времени предоставления услуги и простое. Лучшей практикой является вычисление доступности через измерение результатов ИТ-услуги, значимых для бизнеса.
[ http://www.dtln.ru/slovar-terminov]

доступность
(ITIL Service Design)
Способность ИТ-услуги или другой конфигурационной единицы выполнять согласованную функцию, когда это требуется. Доступность определяется надёжностью, сопровождаемостью, обслуживаемостью, производительностью и безопасностью. Доступность обычно расчитывается в процентах. Этот расчёт часто основывается на согласованном времени предоставления услуги и простое. Лучшей практикой является вычисление доступности ИТ-услуги на основании значимых для Бизнеса показателей.
[Словарь терминов ITIL версия 1.0, 29 июля 2011 г.]

доступность
1. Возможность использования каналов или линий связи.
2. Вероятность получения потребителем навигационной информации в заданном интервале времени с требуемой точностью.
[Л.М. Невдяев. Телекоммуникационные технологии. Англо-русский толковый словарь-справочник. Под редакцией Ю.М. Горностаева. Москва, 2002]

EN

availability
(ITIL Service Design)
Ability of an IT service or other configuration item to perform its agreed function when required. Availability is determined by reliability, maintainability, serviceability, performance and security. Availability is usually calculated as a percentage. This calculation is often based on agreed service time and downtime. It is best practice to calculate availability of an IT service using measurements of the business output.
[Словарь терминов ITIL версия 1.0, 29 июля 2011 г.]

Тематики

• информационные технологии в целом

EN

• availability

 

доступность информации [ресурсов информационной системы]
Состояние информации [ресурсов информационной системы], при котором субъекты, имеющие права доступа, могут реализовать их беспрепятственно [1].
Примечание
К правам доступа относятся право на чтение, изменение, копирование, уничтожение информации, а также право на изменение, использование, уничтожение ресурсов [1].
[Р 50.1.056-2005 ]

Тематики

• защита информации

EN

• availability

 

доступость
Доступность или недоступность данных в зависимости от привилегий пользователя. На этой основе разрабатываются требования к защите от случайных или намеренных попыток уничтожения или вывода из строя сервисов и информации. Свойство быть доступным и годным к эксплуатации по запросу имеющего полномочия объекта.
Рекомендация МСЭ-Т X.800.
[http://www.rfcmd.ru/glossword/1.8/index.php?a=index&d=23]

Тематики

• защита информации

EN

• availability

 

приспособленность (конструкции) к техническому обслуживанию и ремонту
—
[ http://slovarionline.ru/anglo_russkiy_slovar_neftegazovoy_promyishlennosti/]

Тематики

• нефтегазовая промышленность

EN

• availability

 

работоспособность
Состояние, при котором транспортное средство или его компоненты могут выполнять свои функции в соответствии с конструкторской или эксплуатационной документацией.
[Технический регламент о безопасности колесных транспортных средств]

работоспособность
-
[Интент]

Тематики

• автотранспортная техника
• общая техническая лексика

EN

• ability to work
• availability
• capacity for work
• efficiency
• fitness
• functionality
• healthy
• integrity
• operability
• operating capacity
• operational capability
• operational integrity
• operativeness
• performance
• performance ability
• performance capability
• service ability
• serviceability
• state of serviceability
• workability
• working ability
• working capacity
• working efficiency
• working-capacity

 

эксплуатационная готовность
Способность системы функционировать надлежащим образом в данный момент времени в течение заданного интервала времени. Коэффициент готовности выражается количественно как отношение времени, в течение которого система функционирует, к заданному полному времени. При расчете коэффициента готовности не учитываются перерывы в работе системы, вызванные неисправностями, требующими значительного ремонта
[МСЭ-R F.1499, МСЭ-Т G.972]

Тематики

• надежность, основные понятия

EN

• availability

2.4 доступность (availability): Свойство объекта находиться в состоянии готовности и используемости по запросу авторизованного логического объекта.

[ИСО/МЭК 7498-2]

Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО/МЭК 13335-1-2006: Информационная технология. Методы и средства обеспечения безопасности. Часть 1. Концепция и модели менеджмента безопасности информационных и телекоммуникационных технологий оригинал документа

2.1 доступность (availability): Способность компонента или услуги выполнять требуемые функции в определенный момент или в течение заданного интервала времени.

Примечание - Доступность обычно выражается как отношение интервала времени, в течение которого услуга является фактически доступной для реализации, к установленному соглашением периоду предоставления услуги.

Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО/МЭК 20000-1-2010: Информационная технология. Менеджмент услуг. Часть 1. Спецификация оригинал документа

2.8 доступность (availability): Свойство быть доступным и годным к использованию по запросу авторизованного субъекта [8].

Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО/ТС 22600-2-2009: Информатизация здоровья. Управление полномочиями и контроль доступа. Часть 2. Формальные модели

3.9 доступность (availability): Характеристика, определяющая доступность и используемость по запросу со стороны авторизованного логического объекта [1], [2].

Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО/ТО 13569-2007: Финансовые услуги. Рекомендации по информационной безопасности

3.9 доступность (availability): Характеристика, определяющая доступность и используемость по запросу со стороны авторизованного логического объекта [1], [2].

Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО ТО 13569-2007: Финансовые услуги. Рекомендации по информационной безопасности

2.6 доступность (availability): Степень, в которой инфраструктура (2.17), активы (2.4), ресурсы и работники системы коммунального водоснабжения (2.53) могут эффективно предоставлять услуги (2.44) потребителям (2.50) в соответствии с определенными видами деятельности (2.24).

Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 24511-2009: Деятельность, связанная с услугами питьевого водоснабжения и удаления сточных вод. Руководящие указания для менеджмента коммунальных предприятий и оценке услуг удаления сточных вод оригинал документа

2.6 доступность (availability): Степень, в которой инфраструктура (2.17), активы (2.4), ресурсы и работники системы коммунального водоснабжения (2.53) могут эффективно предоставлять услуги (2.44) потребителям (2.50) в соответствии с определенными видами деятельности (2.24).

Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 24512-2009: Деятельность, связанная с услугами питьевого водоснабжения и удаления сточных вод. Руководящие указания для менеджмента систем питьевого водоснабжения и оценке услуг питьевого водоснабжения оригинал документа

2.6 доступность (availability): Степень, в которой инфраструктура (2.17), активы (2.4), ресурсы и работники системы коммунального водоснабжения (2.53) могут эффективно предоставлять услуги (2.44) потребителям (2.50) в соответствии с определенными видами деятельности (2.24).

Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 24510-2009: Деятельность, связанная с услугами питьевого водоснабжения и удаления сточных вод. Руководящие указания по оценке и улучшению услуги, оказываемой потребителям оригинал документа

3.3.18 доступность (availability): Характеристика, определяющая доступность и используемость по запросу со стороны авторизованного логического объекта.

Источник: ГОСТ Р 54147-2010: Стратегический и инновационный менеджмент. Термины и определения оригинал документа

 

встроенная защита
-
[Интент]

Параллельные тексты EN-RU

Automatic circuit-breakers with microprocessor-based electronic relay with integrated protection against earth fault (function G)
[ABB]

Автоматические выключатели с микропроцессорным электронным реле со встроенной защитой от замыкания на землю (функция G)
[Перевод Интент]

Тематики

• выключатель автоматический

EN

• integrated protection

 

избыток
—
[ http://www.dunwoodypress.com/148/PDF/Biotech_Eng-Rus.pdf]

Тематики

• биотехнологии

EN

• redundancy

 

избыточность
Существование средств в дополнение к средствам, которые могут быть достаточны функциональному блоку для выполнения требуемой операции, данным для представления информации.
Пример
Примерами избыточности являются дублирование функциональных компонентов и добавление битов четности.
Примечания
1. Избыточность используется в первую очередь для повышения надежности или работоспособности.
2. Определение в МЭС 191-15-01 является менее полным [ИСО/МЭК 2382-14-01-12].
[ ГОСТ Р МЭК 61508-4-2007]

Тематики

• электробезопасность

EN

• redundancy

 

избыточность (кодирования)
Характеристика кодирования информации, обеспечивающая повышение вероятности безошибочного считывания штрихового кода или передачи информации.
Примечание
В символе штрихового кода высота штрихов обеспечивает вертикальную избыточность, допуская существование множества возможных путей поперечного сканирования символа, из которых теоретически достаточно лишь одного для полного декодирования символа.
[ ГОСТ 30721-2000]
[ ГОСТ Р 51294.3-99]

Тематики

• кодирование штриховое

EN

• redundancy

DE

• Redundanz

FR

• redondance

 

избыточность резервирование
Наличие в объекте более чем одного средства, необходимого для выполнения требуемой функции.
[Разработка типовых структурных схем микропроцессорных устройств РЗА на объектах ОАО "ФКС ЕЭС". Пояснительная записка. Новосибирск 2006 г.]

EN

redundancy
in an item, the existence of more than one means for performing a required function
[SOURCE: 191-15-01]
[IEV ref 448-12-08]

FR

redondance
existence, dans une entité, de plus d'un moyen pour accomplir une fonction requise
[SOURCE: 191-15-01]
[IEV ref 448-12-08]

Тематики

• релейная защита

EN

• redundancy

DE

• Redundanz, f

FR

• redondance

 

резервирование
Применение дополнительных устройств и систем или элементов устройств и систем оборудования для того, чтобы в случае отказа одного из них выполнять требуемую функцию в распоряжении имелось другое устройство (или элемент устройства), готовое выполнять эту функцию.
[ГОСТ ЕН 1070-2003]

резервирование
Способ обеспечения надежности объекта за счет использования дополнительных средств и (или) возможностей, избыточных по отношению к минимально необходимым для выполнения требуемых функции.
[ ГОСТ 27.002-89]
[ОСТ 45.153-99]
[СО 34.21.307-2005]

резервирование
Использование более чем одного устройства или системы, или одной части (узла) устройства или системы для того, чтобы в случае возможного отказа одного из них в ходе выполнения своей функции в распоряжении находился другой, для обеспечения продолжения вышеупомянутой функции.
[ ГОСТ Р МЭК 60204-1-2007]

В первый период эксплуатации при постепенном росте нагрузки допускается установка одного трансформатора при условии обеспечения резервирования питания потребителей по сетям низшего напряжения.

Однотрансформаторные подстанции могут быть также применены для питания электроприемников II категории, если обеспечивается требуемая степень резервирования питания по стороне низшего напряжения при отключении трансформатора
[НТП ЭПП-94]

Тематики

• безопасность в целом
• безопасность гидротехнических сооружений
• надежность средств электросвязи
• надежность, основные понятия
• электробезопасность

Действия

• обеспечение резервирования

Сопутствующие термины

• 100 %-ное резервирование
• взаимное резервирование
• объем резервирования
• степень резервирования

EN

• redundancy

DE

• Redundanz

FR

• redondance

 

резервирование (дублирование)
(ITIL Service Design)
Использование одной или нескольких конфигурационных едениц для обеспечения отказоустойчивости.
[Словарь терминов ITIL версия 1.0, 29 июля 2011 г.]

EN

redundancy
(ITIL Service Design)
Use of one or more additional configuration items to provide fault tolerance. The term also has a generic meaning of obsolescence, or no longer needed.
[Словарь терминов ITIL версия 1.0, 29 июля 2011 г.]

Тематики

• информационные технологии в целом

EN

• redundancy

 

резервирование ИБП
Методы построения системы бесперебойного питания, направленные на обеспечение бесперебойного электроснабжения нагрузки даже при возникновении неисправности ИБП или какой-либо его функциональной части. ИБП может иметь резервированные внутренние блоки (модульный ИБП) или резервирование достигается благодаря использованию нескольких ИБП, включаемых параллельно или последовательно
[ http://www.radistr.ru/misc/document423.phtml с изменениями]

EN

redundancy
A method based on using one or more extra backup modules, which enable normal system performance even in case of system failures. For example, redundancy is achieved by feeding a consumer of 1KVA by means of two 1KVA rated UPS systems connected in parallel, hence single unit failure does not affect load performance.
[ http://www.upsonnet.com/UPS-Glossary/]

Тематики

• источники и системы электропитания

Синонимы

• резервирование ИБП

EN

• redundancy

 

резервные компоненты
Резервные компоненты, используемые для обеспечения бесперебойной работы устройства или системы. При выходе из строя основного модуля, его функции автоматически берет на себя резервный. 
[ http://www.lexikon.ru/dict/net/index.html]

Тематики

• сети вычислительные

EN

• redundancy
• redundant card (power)

 

физическое резервирование
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]

Тематики

• энергетика в целом

EN

• redundancy

3.4 избыточность (redundancy): Наличие средств в дополнение к средствам, которые могут быть достаточны функциональному блоку, для выполнения требуемой операции или данным для представления информации.

ПРИМЕР - Примерами избыточности являются дублирование функциональных компонентов и добавление битов четности.

Источник: ГОСТ Р 53195.4-2010: Безопасность функциональная связанных с безопасностью зданий и сооружений систем. Часть 4. Требования к программному обеспечению оригинал документа

7.1. Резервирование

Redundancy

Способ обеспечения надежности объекта за счет использования дополнительных средств и (или) возможностей, избыточных по отношению к минимально необходимым для выполнения требуемых функции

Источник: ГОСТ 27.002-89: Надежность в технике. Основные понятия. Термины и определения оригинал документа

3.15 резервирование (redundancy): Использование альтернативных (одинаковых или неодинаковых) конструкций, систем и элементов таким образом, чтобы все они могли выполнять требующуюся функцию независимо от эксплуатационного состояния или отказа любого из них.

(Глоссарий МАГАТЭ по вопросам безопасности:2007)

Источник: ГОСТ Р МЭК 61226-2011: Атомные станции. Системы контроля и управления, важные для безопасности. Классификация функций контроля и управления оригинал документа

3.7 резервирование (redundancy): Использование альтернативных (одинаковых или неодинаковых) конструкций, систем или элементов таким образом, чтобы все они могли выполнять требующуюся функцию независимо от эксплуатационного состояния или отказа любого из них.

(МАГАТЭ NS-G-1.3)

Источник: ГОСТ Р МЭК 60709-2011: Атомные станции. Системы контроля и управления, важные для безопасности. Разделение оригинал документа

3.29 резервирование (redundancy): Использование альтернативных (одинаковых или неодинаковых) конструкций, систем или компонентов таким образом, чтобы все они могли выполнять требующуюся функцию независимо от эксплуатационного состояния или выхода из строя любого из них.

[Глоссарий МАГАТЭ NS-G-1.3]

Источник: ГОСТ Р МЭК 60880-2010: Атомные электростанции. Системы контроля и управления, важные для безопасности. Программное обеспечение компьютерных систем, выполняющих функции категории А оригинал документа

3.3.10 избыточность (redundancy): Существование средств в дополнение к средствам, которые могут быть достаточны функциональному блоку для выполнения требуемой операции, данным для представления информации.

ПРИМЕР - Примерами избыточности являются дублирование функциональных компонентов и добавление битов четности.

Примечания

1. Избыточность используется в первую очередь для повышения надежности или работоспособности.

2. Определение в МЭС 191-15-01 является менее полным [ИСО/МЭК 2382-14-01-12].

Источник: ГОСТ Р МЭК 61508-4-2007: Функциональная безопасность систем электрических, электронных, программируемых электронных, связанных с безопасностью. Часть 4. Термины и определения оригинал документа

3.49 резервирование (redundancy): Способ обеспечения надежности объекта за счет использования дополнительных средств и/или возможностей, избыточных по отношению к минимально необходимым для выполнения требуемых функций.

[МАГАТЭ 50-SG-D8]

Источник: ГОСТ Р МЭК 61513-2011: Атомные станции. Системы контроля и управления, важные для безопасности. Общие требования оригинал документа

3.15 резервирование (redundancy): Использование альтернативных (одинаковых или неодинаковых) конструкций, систем и элементов таким образом, чтобы все они могли выполнять требующуюся функцию независимо от эксплуатационного состояния или отказа (выхода из строя) любого из них.

[Глоссарий безопасности МАГАТЭ, Версия 2.0,2006]

Источник: ГОСТ Р МЭК 62385-2012: Атомные станции. Контроль и управление, важные для безопасности. Методы оценки рабочих характеристик измерительных каналов систем безопасности оригинал документа

04.02.27 долговременная маркировка [ permanent marking]: Изображение, полученное с помощью интрузивного или неинтрузивного маркирования, которое должно оставаться различимым, как минимум, в течение установленного срока службы изделия.

Сравнить с терминологической статьей «соединение» по ИСО/МЭК19762-1¹⁾.

______________

¹⁾Терминологическая статья 04.02.27 не связана с указанной терминологической статьей.

<2>4 Сокращения

ECI интерпретация в расширенном канале [extended channel interpretation]

DPM прямое маркирование изделий [direct part marking]

BWA коррекция ширины штриха [bar width adjustment]

BWC компенсация ширины штриха [barwidth compensation]

CPI число знаков на дюйм [characters per inch]

PCS сигнал контраста печати [print contrast signal]

ORM оптический носитель данных [optically readable medium]

FoV поле обзора [field of view]

Алфавитный указатель терминов на английском языке

(n, k)symbology	04.02.13
add-on symbol	03.02.29
alignment pattern	04.02.07
aperture	02.04.09
auto discrimination	02.04.33
auxiliary character/pattern	03.01.04
background	02.02.05
bar	02.01.05
bar code character	02.01.09
bar code density	03.02.14
barcode master	03.02.19
barcode reader	02.04.05
barcode symbol	02.01.03
bar height	02.01.16
bar-space sequence	02.01.20
barwidth	02.01.17
barwidth adjustment	03.02.21
barwidth compensation	03.02.22
barwidth gain/loss	03.02.23
barwidth increase	03.02.24
barwidth reduction	03.02.25
bearer bar	03.02.11
binary symbology	03.01.10
characters per inch	03.02.15
charge-coupled device	02.04.13
coded character set	02.01.08
column	04.02.11
compaction mode	04.02.15
composite symbol	04.02.14
contact scanner	02.04.07
continuous code	03.01.12
corner marks	03.02.20
data codeword	04.02.18
data region	04.02.17
decodability	02.02.28
decode algorithm	02.02.01
defect	02.02.22
delineator	03.02.30
densitometer	02.02.18
depth of field (1)	02.04.30
depth of field (2)	02.04.31
diffuse reflection	02.02.09
direct part marking	04.02.24
discrete code	03.01.13
dot code	04.02.05
effective aperture	02.04.10
element	02.01.14
erasure	04.02.21
error correction codeword	04.02.19
error correction level	04.02.20
even parity	03.02.08
field of view	02.04.32
film master	03.02.18
finder pattern	04.02.08
fixed beam scanner	02.04.16
fixed parity	03.02.10
fixed pattern	04.02.03
flat-bed scanner	02.04.21
gloss	02.02.13
guard pattern	03.02.04
helium neon laser	02.04.14
integrated artwork	03.02.28
intercharacter gap	03.01.08
intrusive marking	04.02.25
label printing machine	02.04.34
ladder orientation	03.02.05
laser engraver	02.04.35
latch character	02.01.24
linear bar code symbol	03.01.01
magnification factor	03.02.27
matrix symbology	04.02.04
modular symbology	03.01.11
module (1)	02.01.13
module (2)	04.02.06
modulo	03.02.03
moving beam scanner	02.04.15
multi-row symbology	04.02.09
non-intrusive marking	04.02.26
odd parity	03.02.07
omnidirectional	03.01.14
omnidirectional scanner	02.04.20
opacity	02.02.16
optically readable medium	02.01.01
optical throw	02.04.27
orientation	02.04.23
orientation pattern	02.01.22
oscillating mirror scanner	02.04.19
overhead	03.01.03
overprinting	02.04.36
pad character	04.02.22
pad codeword	04.02.23
permanent marking	04.02.27
photometer	02.02.19
picket fence orientation	03.02.06
pitch	02.04.26
pixel	02.04.37
print contrast signal	02.02.20
printability gauge	03.02.26
printability test	02.02.21
print quality	02.02.02
quiet zone	02.01.06
raster	02.04.18
raster scanner	02.04.17
reading angle	02.04.22
reading distance	02.04.29
read rate	02.04.06
redundancy	03.01.05
reference decode algorithm	02.02.26
reference threshold	02.02.27
reflectance	02.02.07
reflectance difference	02.02.11
regular reflection	02.02.08
resolution	02.01.15
row	04.02.10
scanner	02.04.04
scanning window	02.04.28
scan, noun (1)	02.04.01
scan, noun (2)	02.04.03
scan reflectance profile	02.02.17
scan, verb	02.04.02
self-checking	02.01.21
shift character	02.01.23
short read	03.02.12
show through	02.02.12
single line (beam) scanner	02.04.11
skew	02.04.25
slot reader	02.04.12
speck	02.02.24
spectral response	02.02.10
spot	02.02.25
stacked symbology	04.02.12
stop character/pattern	03.01.02
structured append	04.02.16
substitution error	03.02.01
substrate	02.02.06
symbol architecture	02.01.04
symbol aspect ratio	02.01.19
symbol character	02.01.07
symbol check character	03.02.02
symbol density	03.02.16
symbology	02.01.02
symbol width	02.01.18
tilt	02.04.24
transmittance (l)	02.02.14
transmittance (2)	02.02.15
truncation	03.02.13
two-dimensional symbol (1)	04.02.01
two-dimensional symbol (2)	04.02.02
two-width symbology	03.01.09
variable parity encodation	03.02.09
verification	02.02.03
verifier	02.02.04
vertical redundancy	03.01.06
void	02.02.23
wand	02.04.08
wide: narrow ratio	03.01.07
X dimension	02.01.10
Y dimension	02.01.11
Z dimension	02.01.12
zero-suppression	03.02.17

<2>Приложение ДА¹⁾

______________

¹⁾

Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО/МЭК 19762-2-2011: Информационные технологии. Технологии автоматической идентификации и сбора данных (АИСД). Гармонизированный словарь. Часть 2. Оптические носители данных (ОНД) оригинал документа

 

миссия ФНД «Создание образа Игр»
Миссия ФНД «Создание образа Игр» заключается в разработке и представлении публичного образа Игр, основанного на суммарных ценностях бренда «Сочи-2014» и национальных российских ценностях, что позволит сделать Игры запоминающимися и обеспечит им поддержку и сопричастность со стороны зрителей.
[Департамент лингвистических услуг Оргкомитета «Сочи 2014». Глоссарий терминов]

EN

Look of the Games mission
Mission of the Look of the Games function is to develop and present to the public the Games’ Look based on overall Sochi 2014 brand and Russian values in order to create a memorable visual experience and inspire the public's support and participation in the Games.
[Департамент лингвистических услуг Оргкомитета «Сочи 2014». Глоссарий терминов]

Тематики

• спорт (образ Игр)

EN

• Look of the Games mission

 

этап операционного планирования
На данном этапе организаторы Игр постепенно проходят стадии все более детализированного планирования эксплуатационного периода Игр, в соответствии с согласованной структурой, сроками и методологией, нацеленными на продвижение организации к состоянию готовности Игр. Первоначально упор делается на клиентское и функциональное планирование, когда каждое функциональное подразделение разрабатывает первоначальную версию своего операционного плана. Затем акцент смещается на клиентское и пообъектное планирование, но при необходимости, сохраняется приоритет функционального планирования.
[Департамент лингвистических услуг Оргкомитета «Сочи 2014». Глоссарий терминов]

EN

operational planning phase
Within this phase, the Games organizers evolve through progressively more detailed phases of planning for Games operations, according to an agreed structure, timeline and methodology, designed to move the organization towards a state of readiness to deliver the Games. Initially, focus is on clients and functional planning, when each function develops the first version of its operational plan. The evolution moves on primarily to a client and venue-based focus, but retaining a functional focus where required.
[Департамент лингвистических услуг Оргкомитета «Сочи 2014». Глоссарий терминов]

Тематики

• спорт (управление Играми)

EN

• operational planning phase