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1 established diplomatic practice
Универсальный англо-русский словарь > established diplomatic practice
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2 established diplomatic practice
English-russian dctionary of diplomacy > established diplomatic practice
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3 established diplomatic practice
English-Russian combinatory dictionary > established diplomatic practice
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4 practice
['præktɪs]n1) практика, упражнение, тренировкаI haven't done much practice. — Я мало тренировался/упражнялся.
It takes a great deal of practice. — Это требует большой тренировки.
Correct spelling will only come from extensive practice. — Правописание нельзя усвоить без длительных упражнений.
- good practiceThe first requirement in the study of a language is constant practice. — При изучении языка необходимо постоянно упражняться.
- group practice
- daily target practice
- teaching practice
- nursing practice
- daily piano practice
- regular practice
- practice ground
- practice lesson
- practice in music
- opportunity for practice in a language
- practice upon a music instrument
- theory and practice
- lack of practice
- without considerable practice
- be out of practice
- have much practice
- make a practice of daily exercise
- need much practice
- improve smth by practice
- relate theory and practice
- teach through practice2) практика, бизнес, деятельностьHis practice drops off. — Его практика/клиентура уменьшается.
It is nota usual practice for shops to stay open after 6 o'clock. — Магазины, как правило, после шести часов уже не работают.
- honest commercial practiceI'll lend you the money this time, but I don't intend to make a practice of it. — На этот раз я дам тебе денег взаймы, но в дальнейшем на это не рассчитывай.
- entirely new practice
- dishonest practices
- established diplomatic practice
- present-day practice
- law practice
- dental practice
- one's practice
- smb's practice
- established practice
- corrupt practice
- common practice among students
- practice of getting up early
- practice of shaking hands
- bad practice to allow a boy much pocket-money
- practice of advertising
- contrary to modern practice
- series of unfair practices
- example of this principle in practice
- birth control through contraceptive practices
- according to European practice
- in actual practice
- in theory and in practice
- enter into private practice
- begin the practice of dentistry
- defend the practice on the ground that...
- do away with the practice
- forbid a practice
- have a poor practice
- have a large practice
- have an extensive practice
- have practice in dealing with such people
- have practice in cooking this meal
- introduce an entirely new practice
- lack practice
- make it a practice to do smth
- observe the practice
- obtain practice in nursing the sick
- put one's plan into practice
- put a plan in practice
- put a theory into practice
- see how smth works in practice
- set up practice
- settle in the practice of law
- turn to medical practice3) обычай, обряд, ритуал, манера поведения, проискиIt is not the practice here for women to appear in the street in shorts. — Здесь не принято, чтобы женщины появлялись на улице в шортах.
Practice is the best master. — ◊ Делу дело учит.
- magical practicesPractice makes perfect. — ◊ Навык мастера ставит
- black-market practices
- unethical practices
- artful practices
- discreditable practices
- sharp practice
- corrupt practices
- charlatan practices
- practice of trade
- shameful practices of a blackmailer
- open practice of vice
- practice of rising early
- observe the practice of smth
- break smb of some practice
- return to fprmer practices -
5 established
встановлений, доведений; загальновизнаний, офіційно визнаний, широко відомий; запроваджений, усталений, вкоренілий; інкорпорований- established authorities
- established by law
- established church
- established circumstantially
- established criminal
- established delinquent
- established directly
- established fact
- established faith
- established insanity
- established law
- established malice
- established matter
- established order
- established place of business
- established practice
- established religion
- established rule
- established rule of law
- established standard
- established usage -
6 practice
1. n практика; применение, осуществление на практикеto put in practice — осуществлять, проводить в жизнь
2. n обычай; обыкновение; привычка; установившийся порядокusual practice — обычная практика, обычное дело
practice of trade — торговый обычай, торговая практика
3. n ритуал; церемониал4. n тренировка, упражнениеdry rowing practice — «сухой» курс гребли
to be out of practice — разучиться, давно не заниматься
5. n учебная стрельба6. n практика, деятельность7. n практика, клиентураlaw of practice — судебная практика, прецедентное право
8. n юр. процессуальная норма; процессуальное право9. n арх. делишки, махинации10. n арх. происки, интригаСинонимический ряд:1. exercise (noun) action; application; drill; drilling; execution; exercise; experience; operation; preparation; recitation; rehearsal; repetition; study; training; workout2. habit (noun) consuetude; convention; custom; habit; habitude; manner; mode; praxis; procedure; routine; trick; usage; use; way; wont3. occupation (noun) occupation; pursuit4. plot (noun) cabal; conspiracy; covin; intrigue; machination; plot; scheme5. exercise (verb) drill; exercise; prepare; rehearse; repeat -
7 practice
1. [ʹpræktıs] n1. практика; применение, осуществление на практикеin practice - а) на практике, на деле, фактически; б) на поверку
to put in(to) practice - осуществлять, проводить в жизнь
theory without practice is useless - теория без практики бессмысленна /мертва/
2. 1) обычай; обыкновение; привычка; установившийся порядокestablished diplomatic practice - установившаяся /общепринятая/ дипломатическая практика
usual /routine/ practice - обычная /установившаяся/ практика, обычное дело
practice of trade - торговый обычай, торговая практика
to make a practice of daily exercise - взять себе за правило ежедневно делать физзарядку
2) ритуал; церемониал3. 1) тренировка, упражнениеdry rowing practice - спорт. «сухой» курс гребли
practice ground - а) воен. учебный плац; б) с.-х. опытное поле
practice jump - спорт. а) учебный прыжок; б) пробный прыжок
to be out of practice - разучиться, давно не заниматься (чем-л.)
to keep in practice - держать себя в форме, не прекращать тренировок /занятий/
I haven't done much practice - я мало упражнялся /тренировался/
practice makes perfect - ≅ навык мастера ставит
2) учебная стрельба (тж. instruction practice)practice ammunition - воен. учебные боеприпасы
practice dummy - воен. учебный патрон
4. 1) практика, деятельность (врача, адвоката)2) практика, клиентураhe has a large practice - он имеет большую практику /клиентуру/
5. юр. процессуальная норма; процессуальное право6. pl арх.1) делишки, махинации2) происки, интрига2. [ʹpræktıs] амер. = practise -
8 practice
n1) практика; применение, осуществление на практике2) установившийся порядок; обычай, обыкновение• -
9 practice
n1. практика, застосування на практиці3. звичай- established diplomatic practice встановлена дипломатична практика- international practice міжнародна практика; практика міжнародних відносин- treaty practice договірна практика -
10 practice
ˈpræktɪs
1. сущ.
1) а) практика;
выполнение, осуществление (на практике) to put in(to) practice ≈ осуществлять in practice Syn: performance, execution;
working, operation б) уст., мн. дела, действия, поступки
2) а) привычка, обычай;
установленный порядок to make a practice of smth. ≈ взять что-л. за правило common, usual practice ≈ обычное дело, обычная практика universal practice ≈ общее правило It was her practice to drink a glass of wine every evening. ≈ У нее была привычка выпивать стакан вина каждый вечер. Syn: procedure, tradition, habit, custom б) обыденность, рутинность It was with difficulty that he was induced to stoop from speculation to practice. ≈ Его с трудом убедили снизойти от размышлений до прозы жизни.
3) практика, деятельность( юриста, врача) group practice ≈ совместная деятельность lucrative practice ≈ выгодное дело professional practice ≈ профессиональная деятельность legal practice ≈ юридическая практика medical practice ≈ врачебная/лечебная практика private practice ≈ частная деятельность;
частный бизнес
4) практика, тренировка, упражнение practice ground Syn: training
5) воен. учебная боевая стрельба practice ammunition ≈ учебные боеприпасы Syn: instruction practice
6) а) обыкн. мн. интриги, козни, происки corrupt practices ≈ взяточничество sharp practice ≈ мошенничество Syn: machination, treachery;
trickery, artifice б) тайный сговор, тайное соглашение( с отрицательными целями) Syn: collusion, conspiracy в) уловка, маневр (как элемент сплетенной интриги)
2. гл.;
= practise практика;
применение, осуществление на практике - in * на практике, на деле, фактически;
на поверку - to put in(to) * осуществлять, проводить в жизнь - theory without * is useless теория без практики бессмысленна /мертва/ обычай;
обыкновение;
привычка;
установившийся порядок - international * международная практика - established diplomatic * установившаяся /общепринятая/ дипломатическая практика - usual /routine/ * обычная /установившаяся/ практика;
обычное дело - * of trade торговый обычай, торговая практика - to make a * of daily exercise взять себе за правило ежедневно делать физзарядку - my usual * is to tip the waiter я имею обыкновение давать чаевые - it was then the * тогда это было принято - the * of going to bed late привычка поздно ложиться спать ритуал;
церемониал тренировка, упражнение - choir * репетиция хора - dry rowing * (спортивное) "сухой" курс гребли - * ground (военное) учебный плац;
(сельскохозяйственное) опытное поле - * jump (спортивное) учебный прыжок;
пробный прыжок - to be out of * разучиться, давно не заниматься( чем-л.) - to keep in * держать себя в форме, не прекращать тренировок /занятий/ - she's doing her * at the piano она упражняется в игре на рояле - I haven't done much * я мало упражнялся /тренировался/ - it takes years of * нужны годы /упорных/ занятий - * makes perfect навык мастера ставит учебная стрельба (тж. instruction *) - * ammunition (военное) учебные боеприпасы - * dummy( военное) учебный патрон практика, деятельность (врача, адвоката) - dental * зубоврачебная практика - to be in * практиковать - he has retired from * он бросил практику практика, клиентура - he has a large * он имеет большую практику /клиентуру/ (юридическое) процессуальная норма;
процессуальное право pl (устаревшее) делишки, махинации - corrupt *s ловкие происки - discreditable *s темные дела - sharp *s мошенничество происки, интрига (американизм) тренироваться, упражняться, практиковаться( американизм) тренировать, обучать( американизм) практиковать, заниматься (какой-л.) деятельностью профессионально( американизм) осуществлять, применять на практике (американизм) (on, upon) пользоваться, злоупотреблять( чем-л.) ;
играть( на чем-л.) (американизм) делать (что-л.) по привычке, иметь обыкновение accounting ~ практика отчетности auditing ~ порядок проведения ревизии banking ~ банковская практика ~ практика, упражнение, тренировка;
to be out of practice не упражняться, не иметь практики business ~ практика ведения торгово-промышленной деятельности business ~ практика деловых отношений commercial ~ торговая практика common ~ обычай court ~ судебная практика customary ~ обычная практика ~ (обыкн. pl) происки, интриги;
corrupt practices взяточничество;
discreditable practices темные дела;
sharp practice мошенничество illegal ~ запрещенная практика in ~ на поверку;
to put in(to) practice осуществлять in ~ на практике, на деле investment ~ практика инвестирования ~ привычка, обычай;
установленный порядок;
it was then the practice это было тогда принято;
to put into practice ввести в обиход, в обращение legal ~ юридическая практика marketing ~ метод сбыта medical ~ врачебная практика official ~ официальная практика practice v = practise ~ клиентура ~ круг занятий ~ нормы процесса, процессуальные нормы, процессуальное право ~ обыкновение ~ обычай, обыкновение ~ обычай ~ практика, деятельность (юриста, врача) ~ практика, упражнение, тренировка;
to be out of practice не упражняться, не иметь практики ~ практика;
применение;
осуществление на практике;
established practice установившаяся практика ~ практика ~ привычка, обычай;
установленный порядок;
it was then the practice это было тогда принято;
to put into practice ввести в обиход, в обращение ~ (обыкн. pl) происки, интриги;
corrupt practices взяточничество;
discreditable practices темные дела;
sharp practice мошенничество ~ процессуальная норма ~ процессуальное право ~ ритуал ~ тренировка ~ воен. учебная боевая стрельба ~ attr. учебный, практический;
опытный ~ for granting loans практика предоставления ссуд ~ for granting permits практика выдачи разрешений ~ ground с.-х. опытное поле;
practice march учебный марш;
practice makes perfect посл. = навык мастера ставит ~ ground воен. учебный плац ~ ground с.-х. опытное поле;
practice march учебный марш;
practice makes perfect посл. = навык мастера ставит ~ ground с.-х. опытное поле;
practice march учебный марш;
practice makes perfect посл. = навык мастера ставит practice v = practise practise: practise заниматься (чем-л.), практиковать ~ практиковать(ся), упражнять(ся) ;
тренировать(ся) ;
practise upon обманывать;
злоупотреблять (чем-л.) ~ применять, осуществлять;
to practise what one preaches жить согласно своим взглядам;
to practise (smb.'s) teachings следовать( чьему-л.) учению in ~ на поверку;
to put in(to) practice осуществлять ~ привычка, обычай;
установленный порядок;
it was then the practice это было тогда принято;
to put into practice ввести в обиход, в обращение sales ~ торговая практика selling ~ торговая деятельность ~ (обыкн. pl) происки, интриги;
corrupt practices взяточничество;
discreditable practices темные дела;
sharp practice мошенничество sharp: ~ продувной, хитрый;
недобросовестный;
he was too sharp for me он меня перехитрил;
sharp practice мошенничество sound business ~ разумная практика деловых отношений trade ~ торговая практика vocational ~ профессиональная практикаБольшой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > practice
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11 practice
1. n1) практика; опыт; навык2) деятельность, занятие; метод; система•- administrative practice
- anticompetitive practice
- business practice
- commercial practice
- common practice
- concerted practice
- contractual practice
- corrupt practice
- current practice
- diplomatic practice
- economic practices
- established practice
- fair employment practice
- financial practice
- foreign exchange practice
- general practice
- generally accepted international practice
- human rights practices
- improved agricultural practices
- in practice
- in world practice
- international practice
- judicial practice
- management practices
- monopoly practice
- predatory practices
- prevalent practice
- restrictive practices in industry
- revolutionary practice
- running practice
- sharp practice
- social practice
- standard practice
- trade practice
- trading practice
- traditional practice
- treaty practice
- unacceptable practice
- unfair competitive practices
- unfair employment practice
- unlawful practice
- wide practice
- working practice 2. v1) применять; практиковать2) действовать; заниматься чем-л. -
12 law
1) право ( в объективном смысле)2) закон3) общее право5) юстиция; юристы•according to law — в соответствии с правом, с законом; правомерно | соответствующий праву, закону; правомерный, законный;
law and order — правопорядок;
law and usage of Parliament — парламентский обычай;
law as amended — закон в изменённой редакции;
law as fact — право как факт, право как сущее;
law as norm — право как норма, право как должное;
at law — в соответствии с правом, в силу права, в области права; в рамках общего права;
law Christian — церковное право;
contrary to law — в противоречии с правом; в противоречии с законом | противоречащий праву; противоречащий закону;
law due to expire — закон с истекающим сроком действия;
law for the time being — закон, действующий в настоящее время;
law in force — 1. действующее право 2. действующий закон;
in law — по закону;
contemplation in law — 1. юридически значимые намерения, цель 2. точка зрения закона;
law in vigour — действующий закон;
law martial — военное положение;
law merchant — торговое право; обычное торговое право;
law spiritual — церковное право;
to be in trouble with the law — вступить в конфликт с законом;
to carry law into effect — ввести закон в действие;
to clarify the law — разъяснить смысл правовой нормы, закона;
to consult the law — обратиться за разъяснением к закону; обратиться за консультацией к юристу, к адвокату;
to continue existing law — продлевать действие существующей правовой нормы, закона;
to create new law — создавать новую правовую норму; принимать (новый) закон;
to elaborate the law — разрабатывать закон;
to emerge as law — обретать силу закона;
to get into difficulty with the law — вступить в конфликт с законом;
to go to law — обратиться к правосудию;
to keep law current — модернизировать право, закон;
to make laws — законодательствовать;
to practice law — заниматься юридической [адвокатской] практикой;
to provide for by law — предусмотреть законом, узаконить;
to restate the law — переформулировать, перередактировать правовую норму, закон;
to stand to the law — предстать перед судом;
to strain the law — допустить натяжку в истолковании закона;
to teach law — преподавать право;
law unacted upon — закон, который не соблюдается;
within the law — в рамках закона, в пределах закона
- law of armslaw of international organizations — право, регулирующее деятельность международных организаций
- law of civil procedure
- law of conflict of laws
- law of conflict
- law of contract
- law of copyright
- law of corrections
- law of crimes
- law of crime
- law of criminal procedure
- law of domestical relations
- law of domestic relations
- law of employment
- law of equity
- law of evidence
- law of God
- law of honour
- law of industrial relations
- law of international trade
- law of landlord and tenant
- law of marriage
- law of master and servant
- law of merchants
- law of merchant shipping
- law of nations
- law of nature
- law of neighbouring tenements
- law of obligation
- law of outer space
- law of peace
- law of personal property
- law of persons
- law of power
- law of practice
- law of prize
- law of procedure
- law of property
- law of quasi-contract
- law of real property
- law of shipping
- law of substance
- law of succession
- law of taxation
- law of the air
- law of the case
- law of the church
- law of the Constitution
- law of the court
- law of the flag
- law of the land
- law of the sea
- law of the situs
- law of the staple
- law of torts
- law of treaties
- law of trusts
- law of war
- abnormal law
- absolute law
- actual law
- adjective law
- adjective patent law
- administrative law
- admiralty law
- admitted law
- agrarian law
- air carriage law
- ambassadorial law
- American Indian law
- American international law
- Antarctic law
- anti-corrupt practices laws
- antipollution laws
- anti-trust laws
- antiunion laws
- applicable law
- applied law
- bad law
- banking law
- basic law
- binding law
- blue law
- blue sky laws
- Brehon laws
- broken law
- business law
- canon law
- case law
- census disclosure law
- church law
- cited law
- civil law
- club law
- commercial law
- commitment law
- common law
- company law
- comparative law
- compiled laws
- congressional law
- conservation laws
- consolidated laws
- conspiracy law
- constitutional law
- consuetudinary law
- consular law
- continental law
- contract law
- conventional law
- conventional international law
- copyright law
- corporate law
- criminal law
- crown law
- current law
- customary law
- customary international law
- customs law
- decisional law
- diplomatic law
- discriminating law
- discriminatory law
- domestic law
- domiciliary law
- dormant law
- draft law
- dry law
- ecclesiastical law
- economic law
- educational law
- effective law
- efficacious law
- election law
- emergency laws
- employment law
- enacted law
- enforceable law
- enrolled law
- environmental law
- equity law
- established law
- exchange law
- exclusion laws
- executive law
- executively inspired law
- existing law
- ex post facto law
- extradition laws
- extradition law
- factory laws
- factory law
- fair employment practices law
- fair trade laws
- family law
- fecial law
- federal law
- feudal law
- finance law
- fiscal law
- foreign law
- formal law
- free law
- French Canadian law
- fundamental law
- game laws
- general law
- generally applicable law
- gibbet law
- good law
- group law
- Halifax law
- harsh law
- health laws
- highway laws
- highway traffic law
- homestead laws
- housing law
- hovering laws
- humanitarian law
- immutable law
- industrial law
- industrial property case law
- inheritance law
- inner comparative law
- insurance law
- interlocal criminal law
- internal law
- internal-revenue law
- international law
- international law of the sea
- international administrative law
- international conventional law
- international criminal law
- international fluvial law
- international public law
- interpersonal law
- interstate law
- intertemporal law
- intestate laws
- introduced law
- Jim Crow laws
- judaic law
- judge-made law
- judicial law
- judiciary law
- labour relations law
- labour law
- land law
- legislation law
- licensing law
- living law
- Lynch law
- magisterial law
- maritime law
- market law
- marriage law
- martial law
- matrimonial law
- mercantile law
- military law
- mining law
- mob law
- model law
- modern law
- Mohammedan law
- moral law
- municipal law
- national law
- nationality law
- natural law
- naval law
- naval prize law
- neutrality laws
- new law
- no-fault law
- nondiscriminating law
- nondiscriminatory law
- non-enacted law
- nuclear law
- obscenity law
- obsolete law
- occupational safety laws
- official law
- official session law volume
- old law
- organic law
- original law
- ostensible law
- outmoded law
- pamphlet laws
- parliamentary law
- pass law
- passed law
- patent law
- penal law
- permissive law
- personal law
- personal law of origin
- police law
- political law
- poor laws
- positive law
- present law
- prevailing law
- preventive martial law
- prima facie law
- primary law
- prior law
- prison laws
- privacy law
- private law
- private international law
- privilege law
- prize law
- procedural law
- procedural criminal law
- promulgated law
- proper law of the contract
- property law
- proposed law
- provincial law
- public law
- public contract law
- punitive law
- quarantine laws
- real property law
- real law
- regional international law
- relevant law
- remedial law
- retroactive law
- retrospective law
- revenue laws
- road laws
- road transport law
- Roman Civil law
- Roman law
- safety laws
- sea law
- secular law
- session law
- settled law
- slip law
- social security law
- social law
- sound law
- space law
- special law
- speed law
- standing law
- state law
- state-use law
- state-wide law
- statute law
- stringent law
- subsidiary law
- succession law
- sumptuary laws
- Sunday closing laws
- superior law
- supreme law of the land
- tacit law
- tariff law
- tax law
- territorial law
- trade laws
- traditional law
- traffic laws
- transnational law
- treaty law
- unalterable law
- unenforceable law
- unified laws
- uniform law
- ununified laws
- unwritten law
- unwritten constitutional law
- vagrancy laws
- wage and hour laws
- war law
- welfare laws
- wildlife law
- working law
- written law
- written constitutional law
- zoning law
- electoral law
- financial law
- indefeasible law
- merchant law
- statutory law -
13 Introduction
Portugal is a small Western European nation with a large, distinctive past replete with both triumph and tragedy. One of the continent's oldest nation-states, Portugal has frontiers that are essentially unchanged since the late 14th century. The country's unique character and 850-year history as an independent state present several curious paradoxes. As of 1974, when much of the remainder of the Portuguese overseas empire was decolonized, Portuguese society appeared to be the most ethnically homogeneous of the two Iberian states and of much of Europe. Yet, Portuguese society had received, over the course of 2,000 years, infusions of other ethnic groups in invasions and immigration: Phoenicians, Greeks, Celts, Romans, Suevi, Visigoths, Muslims (Arab and Berber), Jews, Italians, Flemings, Burgundian French, black Africans, and Asians. Indeed, Portugal has been a crossroads, despite its relative isolation in the western corner of the Iberian Peninsula, between the West and North Africa, Tropical Africa, and Asia and America. Since 1974, Portugal's society has become less homogeneous, as there has been significant immigration of former subjects from its erstwhile overseas empire.Other paradoxes should be noted as well. Although Portugal is sometimes confused with Spain or things Spanish, its very national independence and national culture depend on being different from Spain and Spaniards. Today, Portugal's independence may be taken for granted. Since 1140, except for 1580-1640 when it was ruled by Philippine Spain, Portugal has been a sovereign state. Nevertheless, a recurring theme of the nation's history is cycles of anxiety and despair that its freedom as a nation is at risk. There is a paradox, too, about Portugal's overseas empire(s), which lasted half a millennium (1415-1975): after 1822, when Brazil achieved independence from Portugal, most of the Portuguese who emigrated overseas never set foot in their overseas empire, but preferred to immigrate to Brazil or to other countries in North or South America or Europe, where established Portuguese overseas communities existed.Portugal was a world power during the period 1415-1550, the era of the Discoveries, expansion, and early empire, and since then the Portuguese have experienced periods of decline, decadence, and rejuvenation. Despite the fact that Portugal slipped to the rank of a third- or fourth-rate power after 1580, it and its people can claim rightfully an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions that assure their place both in world and Western history. These distinctions should be kept in mind while acknowledging that, for more than 400 years, Portugal has generally lagged behind the rest of Western Europe, although not Southern Europe, in social and economic developments and has remained behind even its only neighbor and sometime nemesis, Spain.Portugal's pioneering role in the Discoveries and exploration era of the 15th and 16th centuries is well known. Often noted, too, is the Portuguese role in the art and science of maritime navigation through the efforts of early navigators, mapmakers, seamen, and fishermen. What are often forgotten are the country's slender base of resources, its small population largely of rural peasants, and, until recently, its occupation of only 16 percent of the Iberian Peninsula. As of 1139—10, when Portugal emerged first as an independent monarchy, and eventually a sovereign nation-state, England and France had not achieved this status. The Portuguese were the first in the Iberian Peninsula to expel the Muslim invaders from their portion of the peninsula, achieving this by 1250, more than 200 years before Castile managed to do the same (1492).Other distinctions may be noted. Portugal conquered the first overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean in the early modern era and established the first plantation system based on slave labor. Portugal's empire was the first to be colonized and the last to be decolonized in the 20th century. With so much of its scattered, seaborne empire dependent upon the safety and seaworthiness of shipping, Portugal was a pioneer in initiating marine insurance, a practice that is taken for granted today. During the time of Pombaline Portugal (1750-77), Portugal was the first state to organize and hold an industrial trade fair. In distinctive political and governmental developments, Portugal's record is more mixed, and this fact suggests that maintaining a government with a functioning rule of law and a pluralist, representative democracy has not been an easy matter in a country that for so long has been one of the poorest and least educated in the West. Portugal's First Republic (1910-26), only the third republic in a largely monarchist Europe (after France and Switzerland), was Western Europe's most unstable parliamentary system in the 20th century. Finally, the authoritarian Estado Novo or "New State" (1926-74) was the longest surviving authoritarian system in modern Western Europe. When Portugal departed from its overseas empire in 1974-75, the descendants, in effect, of Prince Henry the Navigator were leaving the West's oldest empire.Portugal's individuality is based mainly on its long history of distinc-tiveness, its intense determination to use any means — alliance, diplomacy, defense, trade, or empire—to be a sovereign state, independent of Spain, and on its national pride in the Portuguese language. Another master factor in Portuguese affairs deserves mention. The country's politics and government have been influenced not only by intellectual currents from the Atlantic but also through Spain from Europe, which brought new political ideas and institutions and novel technologies. Given the weight of empire in Portugal's past, it is not surprising that public affairs have been hostage to a degree to what happened in her overseas empire. Most important have been domestic responses to imperial affairs during both imperial and internal crises since 1415, which have continued to the mid-1970s and beyond. One of the most important themes of Portuguese history, and one oddly neglected by not a few histories, is that every major political crisis and fundamental change in the system—in other words, revolution—since 1415 has been intimately connected with a related imperial crisis. The respective dates of these historical crises are: 1437, 1495, 1578-80, 1640, 1820-22, 1890, 1910, 1926-30, 1961, and 1974. The reader will find greater detail on each crisis in historical context in the history section of this introduction and in relevant entries.LAND AND PEOPLEThe Republic of Portugal is located on the western edge of the Iberian Peninsula. A major geographical dividing line is the Tagus River: Portugal north of it has an Atlantic orientation; the country to the south of it has a Mediterranean orientation. There is little physical evidence that Portugal is clearly geographically distinct from Spain, and there is no major natural barrier between the two countries along more than 1,214 kilometers (755 miles) of the Luso-Spanish frontier. In climate, Portugal has a number of microclimates similar to the microclimates of Galicia, Estremadura, and Andalusia in neighboring Spain. North of the Tagus, in general, there is an Atlantic-type climate with higher rainfall, cold winters, and some snow in the mountainous areas. South of the Tagus is a more Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry, often rainless summers and cool, wet winters. Lisbon, the capital, which has a fifth of the country's population living in its region, has an average annual mean temperature about 16° C (60° F).For a small country with an area of 92,345 square kilometers (35,580 square miles, including the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and the Madeiras), which is about the size of the state of Indiana in the United States, Portugal has a remarkable diversity of regional topography and scenery. In some respects, Portugal resembles an island within the peninsula, embodying a unique fusion of European and non-European cultures, akin to Spain yet apart. Its geography is a study in contrasts, from the flat, sandy coastal plain, in some places unusually wide for Europe, to the mountainous Beira districts or provinces north of the Tagus, to the snow-capped mountain range of the Estrela, with its unique ski area, to the rocky, barren, remote Trás-os-Montes district bordering Spain. There are extensive forests in central and northern Portugal that contrast with the flat, almost Kansas-like plains of the wheat belt in the Alentejo district. There is also the unique Algarve district, isolated somewhat from the Alentejo district by a mountain range, with a microclimate, topography, and vegetation that resemble closely those of North Africa.Although Portugal is small, just 563 kilometers (337 miles) long and from 129 to 209 kilometers (80 to 125 miles) wide, it is strategically located on transportation and communication routes between Europe and North Africa, and the Americas and Europe. Geographical location is one key to the long history of Portugal's three overseas empires, which stretched once from Morocco to the Moluccas and from lonely Sagres at Cape St. Vincent to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is essential to emphasize the identity of its neighbors: on the north and east Portugal is bounded by Spain, its only neighbor, and by the Atlantic Ocean on the south and west. Portugal is the westernmost country of Western Europe, and its shape resembles a face, with Lisbon below the nose, staring into theAtlantic. No part of Portugal touches the Mediterranean, and its Atlantic orientation has been a response in part to turning its back on Castile and Léon (later Spain) and exploring, traveling, and trading or working in lands beyond the peninsula. Portugal was the pioneering nation in the Atlantic-born European discoveries during the Renaissance, and its diplomatic and trade relations have been dominated by countries that have been Atlantic powers as well: Spain; England (Britain since 1707); France; Brazil, once its greatest colony; and the United States.Today Portugal and its Atlantic islands have a population of roughly 10 million people. While ethnic homogeneity has been characteristic of it in recent history, Portugal's population over the centuries has seen an infusion of non-Portuguese ethnic groups from various parts of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. Between 1500 and 1800, a significant population of black Africans, brought in as slaves, was absorbed in the population. And since 1950, a population of Cape Verdeans, who worked in menial labor, has resided in Portugal. With the influx of African, Goan, and Timorese refugees and exiles from the empire—as many as three quarters of a million retornados ("returned ones" or immigrants from the former empire) entered Portugal in 1974 and 1975—there has been greater ethnic diversity in the Portuguese population. In 2002, there were 239,113 immigrants legally residing in Portugal: 108,132 from Africa; 24,806 from Brazil; 15,906 from Britain; 14,617 from Spain; and 11,877 from Germany. In addition, about 200,000 immigrants are living in Portugal from eastern Europe, mainly from Ukraine. The growth of Portugal's population is reflected in the following statistics:1527 1,200,000 (estimate only)1768 2,400,000 (estimate only)1864 4,287,000 first census1890 5,049,7001900 5,423,0001911 5,960,0001930 6,826,0001940 7,185,1431950 8,510,0001960 8,889,0001970 8,668,000* note decrease1980 9,833,0001991 9,862,5401996 9,934,1002006 10,642,8362010 10,710,000 (estimated) -
14 law
n1) закон- in law2) право; правоведение; законодательство- take law proceedings against smb.- institute law proceedings against smb.4) закон (природы, научный)5) правило•- land law- remain under the protection and authority of the principles of international law- club law- case law- good law- law act- air law
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