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  • 61 CINCAIREASTLANT

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > CINCAIREASTLANT

  • 62 Commander-in-Chief

    главнокомандующий, ГК; командующий

    Air commander-in-chief, Eastern Atlantic Area — командующий объединенной базовой авиацией ОВМС НАТО в Восточной Атлантике

    Air Officer commander-in-chief, RAF Support Command — Бр. командующий командованием тыла ВВС

    Air Officer commander-in-chief, Strike Command — Бр. командующий командованием ВВС в Великобритании

    Allied commander-in-chief, Channel — ГК ОВС НАТО в зоне пролива Ла-Манш

    Bundeswehr Supreme commander-in-chief, Federal Chancellor — федеральный канцлер — ВГК ВС ФРГ

    commander-in-chief US Army, Europe — командующий СВ США в Европейской зоне

    commander-in-chief US Army, Western Pacific — командующий СВ США в западной части Тихого океана

    commander-in-chief, Alaska — командующий СВ США на Аляске

    commander-in-chief, Allied Forces, Central Europe — ГК ОВС НАТО на Центрально-Европейском ТВД

    commander-in-chief, Allied Forces, Northern Europe — ГК ОВС НАТО на Северо-Европейском ТВД

    commander-in-chief, Allied Forces, Southern Europe — ГК ОВС НАТО на Южно-Европейском ТВД

    commander-in-chief, Allied Forces — ГК ОВС НАТО

    commander-in-chief, Allied Naval Forces, Southern Europe — командующий ОВМС НАТО на Южно-Европейском ТВД

    commander-in-chief, Atlantic Fleet — командующий Атлантическим флотом США

    commander-in-chief, Atlantic — ГК ВС США в зоне Атлантического океана

    commander-in-chief, BAOR — командующий БРА

    commander-in-chief, Eastern Atlantic — ГК ОВС НАТО в Восточной Атлантике

    commander-in-chief, Fleet — Бр. командующий военноморским флотом

    commander-in-chief, French Forces in Germany — ГК французскими войсками в ФРГ

    commander-in-chief, Home Fleet — Бр. командующий ВМС в метрополии

    commander-in-chief, Naval Forces — командующий ВМС (океанского или морского района)

    commander-in-chief, Naval Home Command — Бр. командующий ВМС в метрополии

    commander-in-chief, of the Regiment — Бр. почетный командир полка

    commander-in-chief, Pacific Fleet — командующий Тихоокеанским флотом США

    commander-in-chief, Pacific — ГК ВС США в зоне Тихого океана

    commander-in-chief, RAF, Germany — Бр. командующий английскими ВВС в ФРГ

    commander-in-chief, RDF — командующий СБР

    commander-in-chief, UK Land Forces — ГК СВ на территории Великобритании

    commander-in-chief, US Air Forces in Europe — командующий ВВС США в Европейской зоне

    commander-in-chief, US Armed Forces, Pacific Area — командующий ВС США в зоне Тихого океана

    commander-in-chief, US European Command Concurrently Supreme Allied Commander, Europe — ГК ВС США в Европейской зоне и одновременно ВГК ОВС НАТО в Европе

    commander-in-chief, US Forces, Europe — ГК ВС США в Европейской зоне

    commander-in-chief, US Naval Forces, Europe — командующий ВМС США в Европейской зоне

    commander-in-chief, US Navy — ГК ВМС США

    commander-in-chief, Western Atlantic — ГК ОВС НАТО в Западной Атлантике

    — constitutional supreme commander-in-chief
    * * *

    English-Russian military dictionary > Commander-in-Chief

  • 63 economic integration

    межд. эк. экономическая интеграция (углубление экономического взаимодействия двух или более регионов или стран; экономическая интеграция может принимать несколько форм: создание зон преференциальной торговли, зон свободной торговли, таможенных союзов, общего рынка, валютных и экономических союзов)
    See:
    Australia-New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Trade Agreement, Bangkok Agreement, Central European Free Trade Agreement, North American Free Trade Agreement, Andean Community, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, Baltic Free Trade Area, Caribbean Community, CARIBCAN, Central American Common Market, Central African Economic and Monetary Community, Chinese Economic Area, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, East African Cooperation, Economic Community of Central African States, Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries, Economic Cooperation Organization, Eurasian Economic Community, European Economic Area, European Free Trade Association, European Union, German Economic and Monetary Union, Gulf Cooperation Council, Mercosur, Latin American Economic System, Latin American Integration Association, Melanesian Spearhead Group, West African Economic and Monetary Union, preferential trade area, free trade area, customs union, common market, monetary union, economic union, monetary integration, trade integration, deep integration, shallow integration, negative integration, positive integration, regional integration, European integration, political integration, hub and spokes
    * * *
    * * *
    . формирование (при активном участии государственных структур) устойчивых всесторонних связей между национальными хозяйствами двух или большего числа стран, в ходе которого происходит взаимопроникновение (сращивание) процессов воспроизводства, научное сотрудничество, образование тесных хозяйственных, научно-производственных и торговых связей. . Словарь экономических терминов 1 .
    * * *
    качественно новый этап интернационализации хозяйственной жизни, предполагает сближение отдельных национальных хозяйств путем концентрации и переплетения капитала, проведения согласованной межгосударственной политики

    Англо-русский экономический словарь > economic integration

  • 64 AE

    1) Общая лексика: ответственный исполнитель, контактор ((сокр. от) account executive, advertising executive), американский английский (American English), appliance electronics (сокр.) (бытовая электроника; электроника бытовых электроприборов), НЯ (нежелательные явления (Adverse Events/Effects)), adult education (сокр.) (обучение взрослых), assistant engineer (сокр.) (помощник инженера, младший инженер)
    2) Компьютерная техника: Active Entity
    3) Биология: aminoethyl
    4) Морской термин: ( &\#198;) third class (сокр.) (третий класс (по классификации Английского Ллойда))
    6) Американизм: Architect And Engineering
    7) Военный термин: Aerial Exploitation, Army Europe, Army education, Army in Europe, Attack Electronic, acoustic emission, acquisition executive, added entry, aeromedical evacuation, aerospace education, air engineer, airborne equipment, angle of elevation, armor, artillery, and engineers aptitude area, assistant engineer, atomic energy, auxiliary equipment, aviation engineer, air engineering( сокр.) (1. авиаинженерный 2. авиационно-технической службы ( специализация офицера) (Великобритания)), air electrical (сокр.) (авиационно-электротехнический (НАТО)), auxiliary engineering (сокр.) (инженерно-вспомогательный), availability of equipment (сокр.) (наличие оборудования)
    9) Сельское хозяйство: avian encephalomyelitis, agricultural engineer
    10) Шутливое выражение: Awesome Entertainment, Awful Entertainment
    11) Химия: Auger Electron
    12) Математика: Auxiliary Equation, абсолютная ошибка (absolute error), абсолютный экстенсор (absolute extensor), арифметическое выражение (arithmetic expression), асимптотическая эффективность (asymptotic efficiency), почти всюду (almost everywhere)
    13) Экономика: All England( сокр.) (всеанглийский), American Express Company (сокр.) (компания «Америкен Экспресс»), Alaska Economic Report (сокр.) (наименование американского периодического издания по экономическим вопросам), accrued expenditure (сокр.) (нарастающие расходы, затраты нарастающим итогом)
    14) Бухгалтерия: Actual Expense, annual exemption
    15) Телевидение: audio erase
    16) Сокращение: (type abbreviation) Ammunition ship (small; L), Aeronautical Engineer, Aircraft Establishment, American English, American Eskimo, Ammunition ship (USA), Application Execution, Armada Espanola (Spanish Navy), Assault Echelon, air escape, armament and electronics, (USN Rating) Aviation Electrician's Mate, ASCII Express, Above Elbow (amputation), Academic Edition (Microsoft), Acceptance Equipment, Access Enforcer (SAP GRC Access Control Product), Accident & Emergency, Acclaim Entertainment, Inc., Account Engineer, Accuracy of Estimation, Acela Express (Amtrak train service), Acoustic Engineer, Acquisition Economics, Acquisition Engineer/Executive, Acrodermatitis Enteropathica (zinc deficiency), Action Entry, Action Express (pistol cartridge), Active Emission, Active Enhancement, Activity End Invocation (ITU-T), Adaptive Enterprise (HP), Adaptive Equalizer, Additional Entry (USPS), Address Extension (Sprint), Adult Entertainment, Advanced Exchange, Adverse Effect, Adverse Event, Aero Postale (clothing manufacturer), Aerobic Exercise, Aeronautical Engineering, Aerosol, Aerospace Engineers/Aerospace Engineering, After Earth (Titan A.e.), Age Equivalent, Aggregate Expenditures (economics), Agricultural Engineer/Agricultural Engineering, Ahorristas Estafados (Paraguay), Air Efficiency Award (RAF), Air Entry, Air Europa, Air Evacuation, Akademia Economiczna (Polish), Albert Einstein, Algorithm Enable, Allegheny & Eastern (railroad), Allegheny Energy, Inc., Almost Everywhere (mathematics), Alpha Elites (gaming), Also Eligible (horse racing), Alveolar Echinococcosis, Alzheimer Europe, American Eagle, American Eagle Outfitters, American Express, Ammunition & Explosives, Ammunition Ship, Amplifier Extender (FS-1037c), Amtrak Express (railroad), Analog Equipment, Analytical Equipment, Anchor Site East, Angled End, Angstro"meinheit, Anion Exchange Protein, Ansaldo Energia, Antenna Electronics, Anything Else?, AppleEvent (inter-application communications for Macintosh OS), Applicant Entity, Application Engineer, Application Engineering, Application Engineers, Application Environment, Applications Environment, Applied Entomology, Apportioned Effort, Approved Equal, Aptitude Area, Arbeitseinheit, Arcane Explosion (gaming, World of Warcraft), Arch Enemy (band), Architect Evangelist (Microsoft), Architect and Engineering Firm, Architect-Engineer (also abbreviated A-E), Architectural Engineer, Architectural Engineering, Architecture Engineering, Area of Effect (gaming), Argument from Evil (philosophy), Armed Forces Africa (used with APO/FPO), Armed Forces Canada (used with APO/FPO), Armed Forces Middle East (used with APO/FPO), Armies In Europe (used with APO/FPO), Army Experiment, Articles Editor (law review), Ascent/Entry, Assigned Evaluator, Associate Editor, Associated Electrics, Inc (radio controlled cars), Associated Equipment (EMC testing), Atmospheric Explorer, Atomic Emission, Attenuation Equalizer, Attitude Ephemeris, Auroral Electrojet index, Australian Encephalitis, Australian English, Autechre (band), Auto Estrada (Motorway), Auto Exposure, Automation Equipment, Automotive Extrication (emergency & rescue services), Auxiliary Explosive (US Navy ammunition ship designation), Avian Encephalomalacia (Vitamin E Deficiency), Avian Encephalomyelitis (poultry viral disease), Mandarin Airlines (IATA airline code), United Arab Emirates (Internet TLD), above or equal
    17) Университет: Academic Enrichment, Agricultural Engineering
    20) Вычислительная техника: arithmetic element, arithmetic expression, Application Entity / Environment / Execution / Engineering (APE), Apple Events (Apple)
    21) Нефть: anode effect
    22) Иммунология: Adult Equivalent
    24) Фирменный знак: Acoustic Electric, Action Express, Associated Electrics
    26) Почта: Armed Forces Europe, Canada, Middle East (Префикс военной почты для Европы, Канады и Ближнего Востока)
    27) Образование: Additional Exercise, Alternative Education
    28) Инвестиции: account executive
    29) Сетевые технологии: application entity
    30) Полимеры: absolute error
    31) Контроль качества: asymptotic efficiency
    32) Телефония: прикладной объект
    34) Военно-морской флот: Aviation Electrician's Mate (сокр.) (старшина—авиационный электрик)
    36) Электротехника: accidental error, admissible error
    38) AMEX. Adams Resources & Energy, Inc.
    39) Клинические исследования: нежелательное явление

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > AE

  • 65 ae

    1) Общая лексика: ответственный исполнитель, контактор ((сокр. от) account executive, advertising executive), американский английский (American English), appliance electronics (сокр.) (бытовая электроника; электроника бытовых электроприборов), НЯ (нежелательные явления (Adverse Events/Effects)), adult education (сокр.) (обучение взрослых), assistant engineer (сокр.) (помощник инженера, младший инженер)
    2) Компьютерная техника: Active Entity
    3) Биология: aminoethyl
    4) Морской термин: ( &\#198;) third class (сокр.) (третий класс (по классификации Английского Ллойда))
    6) Американизм: Architect And Engineering
    7) Военный термин: Aerial Exploitation, Army Europe, Army education, Army in Europe, Attack Electronic, acoustic emission, acquisition executive, added entry, aeromedical evacuation, aerospace education, air engineer, airborne equipment, angle of elevation, armor, artillery, and engineers aptitude area, assistant engineer, atomic energy, auxiliary equipment, aviation engineer, air engineering( сокр.) (1. авиаинженерный 2. авиационно-технической службы ( специализация офицера) (Великобритания)), air electrical (сокр.) (авиационно-электротехнический (НАТО)), auxiliary engineering (сокр.) (инженерно-вспомогательный), availability of equipment (сокр.) (наличие оборудования)
    9) Сельское хозяйство: avian encephalomyelitis, agricultural engineer
    10) Шутливое выражение: Awesome Entertainment, Awful Entertainment
    11) Химия: Auger Electron
    12) Математика: Auxiliary Equation, абсолютная ошибка (absolute error), абсолютный экстенсор (absolute extensor), арифметическое выражение (arithmetic expression), асимптотическая эффективность (asymptotic efficiency), почти всюду (almost everywhere)
    13) Экономика: All England( сокр.) (всеанглийский), American Express Company (сокр.) (компания «Америкен Экспресс»), Alaska Economic Report (сокр.) (наименование американского периодического издания по экономическим вопросам), accrued expenditure (сокр.) (нарастающие расходы, затраты нарастающим итогом)
    14) Бухгалтерия: Actual Expense, annual exemption
    15) Телевидение: audio erase
    16) Сокращение: (type abbreviation) Ammunition ship (small; L), Aeronautical Engineer, Aircraft Establishment, American English, American Eskimo, Ammunition ship (USA), Application Execution, Armada Espanola (Spanish Navy), Assault Echelon, air escape, armament and electronics, (USN Rating) Aviation Electrician's Mate, ASCII Express, Above Elbow (amputation), Academic Edition (Microsoft), Acceptance Equipment, Access Enforcer (SAP GRC Access Control Product), Accident & Emergency, Acclaim Entertainment, Inc., Account Engineer, Accuracy of Estimation, Acela Express (Amtrak train service), Acoustic Engineer, Acquisition Economics, Acquisition Engineer/Executive, Acrodermatitis Enteropathica (zinc deficiency), Action Entry, Action Express (pistol cartridge), Active Emission, Active Enhancement, Activity End Invocation (ITU-T), Adaptive Enterprise (HP), Adaptive Equalizer, Additional Entry (USPS), Address Extension (Sprint), Adult Entertainment, Advanced Exchange, Adverse Effect, Adverse Event, Aero Postale (clothing manufacturer), Aerobic Exercise, Aeronautical Engineering, Aerosol, Aerospace Engineers/Aerospace Engineering, After Earth (Titan A.e.), Age Equivalent, Aggregate Expenditures (economics), Agricultural Engineer/Agricultural Engineering, Ahorristas Estafados (Paraguay), Air Efficiency Award (RAF), Air Entry, Air Europa, Air Evacuation, Akademia Economiczna (Polish), Albert Einstein, Algorithm Enable, Allegheny & Eastern (railroad), Allegheny Energy, Inc., Almost Everywhere (mathematics), Alpha Elites (gaming), Also Eligible (horse racing), Alveolar Echinococcosis, Alzheimer Europe, American Eagle, American Eagle Outfitters, American Express, Ammunition & Explosives, Ammunition Ship, Amplifier Extender (FS-1037c), Amtrak Express (railroad), Analog Equipment, Analytical Equipment, Anchor Site East, Angled End, Angstro"meinheit, Anion Exchange Protein, Ansaldo Energia, Antenna Electronics, Anything Else?, AppleEvent (inter-application communications for Macintosh OS), Applicant Entity, Application Engineer, Application Engineering, Application Engineers, Application Environment, Applications Environment, Applied Entomology, Apportioned Effort, Approved Equal, Aptitude Area, Arbeitseinheit, Arcane Explosion (gaming, World of Warcraft), Arch Enemy (band), Architect Evangelist (Microsoft), Architect and Engineering Firm, Architect-Engineer (also abbreviated A-E), Architectural Engineer, Architectural Engineering, Architecture Engineering, Area of Effect (gaming), Argument from Evil (philosophy), Armed Forces Africa (used with APO/FPO), Armed Forces Canada (used with APO/FPO), Armed Forces Middle East (used with APO/FPO), Armies In Europe (used with APO/FPO), Army Experiment, Articles Editor (law review), Ascent/Entry, Assigned Evaluator, Associate Editor, Associated Electrics, Inc (radio controlled cars), Associated Equipment (EMC testing), Atmospheric Explorer, Atomic Emission, Attenuation Equalizer, Attitude Ephemeris, Auroral Electrojet index, Australian Encephalitis, Australian English, Autechre (band), Auto Estrada (Motorway), Auto Exposure, Automation Equipment, Automotive Extrication (emergency & rescue services), Auxiliary Explosive (US Navy ammunition ship designation), Avian Encephalomalacia (Vitamin E Deficiency), Avian Encephalomyelitis (poultry viral disease), Mandarin Airlines (IATA airline code), United Arab Emirates (Internet TLD), above or equal
    17) Университет: Academic Enrichment, Agricultural Engineering
    20) Вычислительная техника: arithmetic element, arithmetic expression, Application Entity / Environment / Execution / Engineering (APE), Apple Events (Apple)
    21) Нефть: anode effect
    22) Иммунология: Adult Equivalent
    24) Фирменный знак: Acoustic Electric, Action Express, Associated Electrics
    26) Почта: Armed Forces Europe, Canada, Middle East (Префикс военной почты для Европы, Канады и Ближнего Востока)
    27) Образование: Additional Exercise, Alternative Education
    28) Инвестиции: account executive
    29) Сетевые технологии: application entity
    30) Полимеры: absolute error
    31) Контроль качества: asymptotic efficiency
    32) Телефония: прикладной объект
    34) Военно-морской флот: Aviation Electrician's Mate (сокр.) (старшина—авиационный электрик)
    36) Электротехника: accidental error, admissible error
    38) AMEX. Adams Resources & Energy, Inc.
    39) Клинические исследования: нежелательное явление

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > ae

  • 66 CINCEASTLANT

    2) Сокращение: Commander-in-Chief, Eastern Atlantic (UK)

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > CINCEASTLANT

  • 67 EASTLANT

    1) Военный термин: Eastern Atlantic, Eastern Atlantic Command (NATO)
    2) Сокращение: Eastern Atlantic Area (NATO)

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > EASTLANT

  • 68 EEE

    3) Сельское хозяйство: Eastern equine encephalitis
    4) Сокращение: Conference on E-Technology, E-Commerce, and E-Service ( IEEE International Conference), Eastern Economic Edition (Indian publications of printed US materials), Ed, Edd & Eddy (cartoon show), Electronic Equipment Enclosures (Bellcore), Espace Economique Europeen (French: European Economic Area), earth and environmental engineering, eastern equine encephalomyelitis, economic exchange event, electrical & electronics engineering, electrical and electronics engineering, electrical engineering electives, electrical, electronic and electromechanical, electromagnetic environmental effects, electronic entertainment expo, electronic, electrical and electromechanical parts, embrace, extend and extinguish, end-to-end encryption (Cisco), enterprise extended edition (IBM)
    5) Текстиль: Exceptional Extra Exquisite
    6) Университет: Electronic And Electrical Engineering
    7) Вычислительная техника: ( UDB) Enterprise Extended Edition (IBM, DB2, DB, UDB)
    8) Нефть: evaluation of effects on the environment (Regulations concerning the EEE, 1994, Russian Federation)
    9) Экология: Energy Equity Ecology, (regulations concerning the EEE, 1994 Russian federation) оценка воздействия на окружающую природную среду
    10) Деловая лексика: Effectiveness Efficiency And Economy
    11) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: Evaluation of Effects on the Environment (Regulations concerning the EEE, 1994 Russian Federation)
    13) Программирование: Environment Embedding Executable
    16) AMEX. Canadian 88 Energy Corporation

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > EEE

  • 69 ESA

    2) Компьютерная техника: Extended Service Area
    3) Медицина: erythropoiesis stimulating agent (средство, стимулирующее эритропоэз), эритропоэз-стимулирующий препарат
    8) Религия: Etienne Saint Amant
    10) Автомобильный термин: electronic spark advance (Chrysler)
    11) Ветеринария: Entomological Society of America
    12) Оптика: excited state absorption
    13) Телекоммуникации: Enhanced Subscriber Authentication
    14) Сокращение: Effective Surveillance Area, Electric Surge Arrester, Electronic Safe and Arm (fuzing technology), Electronic Signature Authentication, Electronic-Static Amplifier, Electronically Scanned Antenna, Electronically Scanning Antenna, Electronically-Scanned Array, Electronically-Scanning Array, Engineers and Scientists of America, European Space Agency, Office of Engineering Support Activity, Naval Weapons (USA), Economic Stabilization Administration (US), Emergency Shelter Assistance
    16) Вычислительная техника: Enterprise System Architecture, Enterprise Systems Architecture (IBM, MVS/XA, VM, CMS), European Space Agency (Space)
    17) Космонавтика: ЕКА
    18) Транспорт: Electronic Shift Assist
    20) Деловая лексика: Electronic Secretarial Assistant, Energy Savings Agreement, Европейское космическое агентство (European Space Agency), Европейская система интегрированных национальных счётов (European system of integrated national accounts)
    21) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: engineering services agreement
    23) Туризм: English speaking assistant
    24) Океанография: Economics and Statistics Administration
    25) Сахалин Ю: equipment supplier alliance
    26) Химическое оружие: Endangered Species Act
    27) Расширение файла: Enterprise Systems Architecture (IBM)
    30) NYSE. Extended Stay America, Inc.
    31) Аэропорты: Esa'ala, Papua New Guinea
    32) Программное обеспечение: Electronic Secretarial Administrator
    33) Международная торговля: European System Of Accounts

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > ESA

  • 70 esa

    2) Компьютерная техника: Extended Service Area
    3) Медицина: erythropoiesis stimulating agent (средство, стимулирующее эритропоэз), эритропоэз-стимулирующий препарат
    8) Религия: Etienne Saint Amant
    10) Автомобильный термин: electronic spark advance (Chrysler)
    11) Ветеринария: Entomological Society of America
    12) Оптика: excited state absorption
    13) Телекоммуникации: Enhanced Subscriber Authentication
    14) Сокращение: Effective Surveillance Area, Electric Surge Arrester, Electronic Safe and Arm (fuzing technology), Electronic Signature Authentication, Electronic-Static Amplifier, Electronically Scanned Antenna, Electronically Scanning Antenna, Electronically-Scanned Array, Electronically-Scanning Array, Engineers and Scientists of America, European Space Agency, Office of Engineering Support Activity, Naval Weapons (USA), Economic Stabilization Administration (US), Emergency Shelter Assistance
    16) Вычислительная техника: Enterprise System Architecture, Enterprise Systems Architecture (IBM, MVS/XA, VM, CMS), European Space Agency (Space)
    17) Космонавтика: ЕКА
    18) Транспорт: Electronic Shift Assist
    20) Деловая лексика: Electronic Secretarial Assistant, Energy Savings Agreement, Европейское космическое агентство (European Space Agency), Европейская система интегрированных национальных счётов (European system of integrated national accounts)
    21) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: engineering services agreement
    23) Туризм: English speaking assistant
    24) Океанография: Economics and Statistics Administration
    25) Сахалин Ю: equipment supplier alliance
    26) Химическое оружие: Endangered Species Act
    27) Расширение файла: Enterprise Systems Architecture (IBM)
    30) NYSE. Extended Stay America, Inc.
    31) Аэропорты: Esa'ala, Papua New Guinea
    32) Программное обеспечение: Electronic Secretarial Administrator
    33) Международная торговля: European System Of Accounts

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > esa

  • 71 Empire, Portuguese overseas

    (1415-1975)
       Portugal was the first Western European state to establish an early modern overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean and perhaps the last colonial power to decolonize. A vast subject of complexity that is full of myth as well as debatable theories, the history of the Portuguese overseas empire involves the story of more than one empire, the question of imperial motives, the nature of Portuguese rule, and the results and consequences of empire, including the impact on subject peoples as well as on the mother country and its society, Here, only the briefest account of a few such issues can be attempted.
       There were various empires or phases of empire after the capture of the Moroccan city of Ceuta in 1415. There were at least three Portuguese empires in history: the First empire (1415-1580), the Second empire (1580-1640 and 1640-1822), and the Third empire (1822-1975).
       With regard to the second empire, the so-called Phillipine period (1580-1640), when Portugal's empire was under Spanish domination, could almost be counted as a separate era. During that period, Portugal lost important parts of its Asian holdings to England and also sections of its colonies of Brazil, Angola, and West Africa to Holland's conquests. These various empires could be characterized by the geography of where Lisbon invested its greatest efforts and resources to develop territories and ward off enemies.
       The first empire (1415-1580) had two phases. First came the African coastal phase (1415-97), when the Portuguese sought a foothold in various Moroccan cities but then explored the African coast from Morocco to past the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa. While colonization and sugar farming were pursued in the Atlantic islands, as well as in the islands in the Gulf of Guinea like São Tomé and Príncipe, for the most part the Portuguese strategy was to avoid commitments to defending or peopling lands on the African continent. Rather, Lisbon sought a seaborne trade empire, in which the Portuguese could profit from exploiting trade and resources (such as gold) along the coasts and continue exploring southward to seek a sea route to Portuguese India. The second phase of the first empire (1498-1580) began with the discovery of the sea route to Asia, thanks to Vasco da Gama's first voyage in 1497-99, and the capture of strong points, ports, and trading posts in order to enforce a trade monopoly between Asia and Europe. This Asian phase produced the greatest revenues of empire Portugal had garnered, yet ended when Spain conquered Portugal and commanded her empire as of 1580.
       Portugal's second overseas empire began with Spanish domination and ran to 1822, when Brazil won her independence from Portugal. This phase was characterized largely by Brazilian dominance of imperial commitment, wealth in minerals and other raw materials from Brazil, and the loss of a significant portion of her African and Asian coastal empire to Holland and Great Britain. A sketch of Portugal's imperial losses either to native rebellions or to imperial rivals like Britain and Holland follows:
       • Morocco (North Africa) (sample only)
       Arzila—Taken in 1471; evacuated in 1550s; lost to Spain in 1580, which returned city to a sultan.
       Ceuta—Taken in 1415; lost to Spain in 1640 (loss confirmed in 1668 treaty with Spain).
       • Tangiers—Taken in 15th century; handed over to England in 1661 as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry to King Charles II.
       • West Africa
       • Fort/Castle of São Jorge da Mina, Gold Coast (in what is now Ghana)—Taken in 1480s; lost to Holland in 1630s.
       • Middle East
       Socotra-isle—Conquered in 1507; fort abandoned in 1511; used as water resupply stop for India fleet.
       Muscat—Conquered in 1501; lost to Persians in 1650.
       Ormuz—Taken, 1505-15 under Albuquerque; lost to England, which gave it to Persia in the 17th century.
       Aden (entry to Red Sea) — Unsuccessfully attacked by Portugal (1513-30); taken by Turks in 1538.
       • India
       • Ceylon (Sri Lanka)—Taken by 1516; lost to Dutch after 1600.
       • Bombay—Taken in 16th century; given to England in 1661 treaty as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry for Charles II.
       • East Indies
       • Moluccas—Taken by 1520; possession confirmed in 1529 Saragossa treaty with Spain; lost to Dutch after 1600; only East Timor remaining.
       After the restoration of Portuguese independence from Spain in 1640, Portugal proceeded to revive and strengthen the Anglo- Portuguese Alliance, with international aid to fight off further Spanish threats to Portugal and drive the Dutch invaders out of Brazil and Angola. While Portugal lost its foothold in West Africa at Mina to the Dutch, dominion in Angola was consolidated. The most vital part of the imperial economy was a triangular trade: slaves from West Africa and from the coasts of Congo and Angola were shipped to plantations in Brazil; raw materials (sugar, tobacco, gold, diamonds, dyes) were sent to Lisbon; Lisbon shipped Brazil colonists and hardware. Part of Portugal's War of Restoration against Spain (1640-68) and its reclaiming of Brazil and Angola from Dutch intrusions was financed by the New Christians (Jews converted to Christianity after the 1496 Manueline order of expulsion of Jews) who lived in Portugal, Holland and other low countries, France, and Brazil. If the first empire was mainly an African coastal and Asian empire, the second empire was primarily a Brazilian empire.
       Portugal's third overseas empire began upon the traumatic independence of Brazil, the keystone of the Lusitanian enterprise, in 1822. The loss of Brazil greatly weakened Portugal both as a European power and as an imperial state, for the scattered remainder of largely coastal, poor, and uncolonized territories that stretched from the bulge of West Africa to East Timor in the East Indies and Macau in south China were more of a financial liability than an asset. Only two small territories balanced their budgets occasionally or made profits: the cocoa islands of São Tomé and Príncipe in the Gulf of Guinea and tiny Macau, which lost much of its advantage as an entrepot between the West and the East when the British annexed neighboring Hong Kong in 1842. The others were largely burdens on the treasury. The African colonies were strapped by a chronic economic problem: at a time when the slave trade and then slavery were being abolished under pressures from Britain and other Western powers, the economies of Guinea- Bissau, São Tomé/Príncipe, Angola, and Mozambique were totally dependent on revenues from the slave trade and slavery. During the course of the 19th century, Lisbon began a program to reform colonial administration in a newly rejuvenated African empire, where most of the imperial efforts were expended, by means of replacing the slave trade and slavery, with legitimate economic activities.
       Portugal participated in its own early version of the "Scramble" for Africa's interior during 1850-69, but discovered that the costs of imperial expansion were too high to allow effective occupation of the hinterlands. After 1875, Portugal participated in the international "Scramble for Africa" and consolidated its holdings in west and southern Africa, despite the failure of the contra-costa (to the opposite coast) plan, which sought to link up the interiors of Angola and Mozambique with a corridor in central Africa. Portugal's expansion into what is now Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe (eastern section) in 1885-90 was thwarted by its oldest ally, Britain, under pressure from interest groups in South Africa, Scotland, and England. All things considered, Portugal's colonizing resources and energies were overwhelmed by the African empire it possessed after the frontier-marking treaties of 1891-1906. Lisbon could barely administer the massive area of five African colonies, whose total area comprised about 8 percent of the area of the colossal continent. The African territories alone were many times the size of tiny Portugal and, as of 1914, Portugal was the third colonial power in terms of size of area possessed in the world.
       The politics of Portugal's empire were deceptive. Lisbon remained obsessed with the fear that rival colonial powers, especially Germany and Britain, would undermine and then dismantle her African empire. This fear endured well into World War II. In developing and keeping her potentially rich African territories (especially mineral-rich Angola and strategically located Mozambique), however, the race against time was with herself and her subject peoples. Two major problems, both chronic, prevented Portugal from effective colonization (i.e., settling) and development of her African empire: the economic weakness and underdevelopment of the mother country and the fact that the bulk of Portuguese emigration after 1822 went to Brazil, Venezuela, the United States, and France, not to the colonies. These factors made it difficult to consolidate imperial control until it was too late; that is, until local African nationalist movements had organized and taken the field in insurgency wars that began in three of the colonies during the years 1961-64.
       Portugal's belated effort to revitalize control and to develop, in the truest sense of the word, Angola and Mozambique after 1961 had to be set against contemporary events in Europe, Africa, and Asia. While Portugal held on to a backward empire, other European countries like Britain, France, and Belgium were rapidly decolonizing their empires. Portugal's failure or unwillingness to divert the large streams of emigrants to her empire after 1850 remained a constant factor in this question. Prophetic were the words of the 19th-century economist Joaquim Oliveira Martins, who wrote in 1880 that Brazil was a better colony for Portugal than Africa and that the best colony of all would have been Portugal itself. As of the day of the Revolution of 25 April 1974, which sparked the final process of decolonization of the remainder of Portugal's third overseas empire, the results of the colonization program could be seen to be modest compared to the numbers of Portuguese emigrants outside the empire. Moreover, within a year, of some 600,000 Portuguese residing permanently in Angola and Mozambique, all but a few thousand had fled to South Africa or returned to Portugal.
       In 1974 and 1975, most of the Portuguese empire was decolonized or, in the case of East Timor, invaded and annexed by a foreign power before it could consolidate its independence. Only historic Macau, scheduled for transfer to the People's Republic of China in 1999, remained nominally under Portuguese control as a kind of footnote to imperial history. If Portugal now lacked a conventional overseas empire and was occupied with the challenges of integration in the European Union (EU), Lisbon retained another sort of informal dependency that was a new kind of empire: the empire of her scattered overseas Portuguese communities from North America to South America. Their numbers were at least six times greater than that of the last settlers of the third empire.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Empire, Portuguese overseas

  • 72 Adams, William Bridges

    [br]
    b. 1797 Madeley, Staffordshire, England
    d. 23 July 1872 Broadstairs, Kent, England
    [br]
    English inventory particularly of road and rail vehicles and their equipment.
    [br]
    Ill health forced Adams to live abroad when he was a young man and when he returned to England in the early 1830s he became a partner in his father's firm of coachbuilders. Coaches during that period were steered by a centrally pivoted front axle, which meant that the front wheels had to swing beneath the body and were therefore made smaller than the rear wheels. Adams considered this design defective and invented equirotal coaches, built by his firm, in which the front and rear wheels were of equal diameter and the coach body was articulated midway along its length so that the front part pivoted. He also applied himself to improving vehicles for railways, which were developing rapidly then.
    In 1843 he opened his own engineering works, Fairfield Works in north London (he was not related to his contemporary William Adams, who was appointed Locomotive Superintendent to the North London Railway in 1854). In 1847 he and James Samuel, Engineer to the Eastern Counties Railway, built for that line a small steam inspection car, the Express, which was light enough to be lifted off the track. The following year Adams built a broad-gauge steam railcar, the Fairfield, for the Bristol \& Exeter Railway at the insistance of the line's Engineer, C.H.Gregory: self-propelled and passenger-carrying, this was the first railcar. Adams developed the concept further into a light locomotive that could haul two or three separate carriages, and light locomotives built both by his own firm and by other noted builders came into vogue for a decade or more.
    In 1847 Adams also built eight-wheeled coaches for the Eastern Counties Railway that were larger and more spacious than most others of the day: each in effect comprised two four-wheeled coaches articulated together, with wheels that were allowed limited side-play. He also realized the necessity for improvements to railway track, the weakest point of which was the joints between the rails, whose adjoining ends were normally held in common chairs. Adams invented the fishplated joint, first used by the Eastern Counties Railway in 1849 and subsequently used almost universally.
    Adams was a prolific inventor. Most important of his later inventions was the radial axle, which was first applied to the leading and trailing wheels of a 2–4–2 tank engine, the White Raven, built in 1863; Adams's radial axle was the forerunner of all later radial axles. However, the sprung tyres with which White Raven was also fitted (an elastic steel hoop was interposed between wheel centre and tyre) were not perpetuated. His inventiveness was not restricted to engineering: in matters of dress, his adoption, perhaps invention, of the turn-down collar at a time when men conventionally wore standup collars had lasting effect.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    Adams took out some thirty five British patents, including one for the fishplate in 1847. He wrote copiously, as journalist and author: his most important book was English Pleasure Carriages (1837), a detailed description of coachbuilding, together with ideas for railway vehicles and track. The 1971 reprint (Bath: Adams \& Dart) has a biographical introduction by Jack Simmons.
    Further Reading
    C.Hamilton Ellis, 1958, Twenty Locomotive Men, Shepperton: Ian Allan, Ch. 1. See also England, George.
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Adams, William Bridges

  • 73 Worsdell, Thomas William

    [br]
    b. 14 January 1838 Liverpool, England
    d. 28 June 1916 Arnside, Westmorland, England
    [br]
    English locomotive engineer, pioneer of the use of two-cylinder compound locomotives in Britain.
    [br]
    T.W.Worsdell was the son of Nathaniel Worsdell. After varied training, which included some time in the drawing office of the London \& North Western Railway's Crewe Works, he moved to the Pennsylvania Railroad, USA, in 1865 and shortly became Master Mechanic in charge of its locomotive workshops in Altoona. In 1871, however, he accepted an invitation from F.W. Webb to return to Crewe as Works Manager: it was while he was there that Webb produced his first compound locomotive by rebuilding an earlier simple.
    In 1881 T.W.Worsdell was appointed Locomotive Superintendent of the Great Eastern Railway. Working with August von Borries, who was Chief Mechanical Engineer of the Hannover Division of the Prussian State Railways, he developed a two-cylinder compound derived from the work of J.T.A. Mallet. Von Borries produced his compound 2–4–0 in 1880, Worsdell followed with a 4–4–0 in 1884; the restricted British loading gauge necessitated substitution of inside cylinders for the outside cylinders used by von Borries, particularly the large low-pressure one. T.W.Worsdell's compounds were on the whole successful and many were built, particularly on the North Eastern Railway, to which he moved as Locomotive Superintendent in 1885. There, in 1888, he started to build, uniquely, two-cylinder compound "single driver" 4–2–2s: one of them was recorded as reaching 86 mph (138 km/h). He also equipped his locomotives with a large side-window cab, which gave enginemen more protection from the elements than was usual in Britain at that time and was no doubt appreciated in the harsh winter climate of northeast England. The idea for the cab probably originated from his American experience. When T.W.Worsdell retired from the North Eastern Railway in 1890 he was succeeded by his younger brother, Wilson Worsdell, who in 1899 introduced the first 4– 6–0s intended for passenger trains in England.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    C.Hamilton Ellis, 1958, Twenty Locomotive Men, Shepperton: Ian Allan, Ch. 15 (biography).
    E.L.Ahrons, 1927, The British Steam Railway Locomotive 1825–1925, London: The Locomotive Publishing Co., pp. 253–5 (describes his locomotives). C.Fryer, 1990, Experiments with Steam, Patrick Stephens, Ch. 7.
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Worsdell, Thomas William

  • 74 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 75 COMEDEAST

    1) Военный термин: Commander, Eastern Mediterranean Area
    2) Сокращение: Commander, Eastern Mediterranean (NATO)

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > COMEDEAST

  • 76 COMMAIREASTLANT

    1) Военный термин: Commander, Maritime Air, Eastern Atlantic Area
    2) Сокращение: Commander Maritime Air, Eastern Atlantic (NATO)

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > COMMAIREASTLANT

  • 77 EE

    1) Компьютерная техника: Expensive Edition
    4) Математика: Explicit Equality
    5) Религия: Evangelism Explosion
    6) Железнодорожный термин: Ellis and Eastern Company
    7) Грубое выражение: Exciting Ejaculations
    8) Сокращение: EW Expendable, Early English, Electrical Engineer, Electrical Engineering, Electrical or Electronics Engineer, Electronics Engineer, Envoy Extraordinary, earth entry, employee, end to end, experimental establishment, errors excepted, exclusive economic zone, Early Edition, Early Entry, Earth Electrode, Eased Edges (lumber industry), Easter Egg (hidden area of a program or site), Eastern European, Ecosystem Evaluation, Edge Enhancement (video), Edward Elric (protagonist of anime series FullMetal Alchemist), Electrical Energy, Electrical Essence (forum), Electronic Encyclopedia, Electronic Engineer, Element Energy, Elementary Education, Elite Edition, Empire Earth (game), End-Effector, Energy Expenditure, Energy and Environment, Engraver's Express, Inc, Enter Exponent (calculator function), Enterprise Edition (Java2), Environmental Education, Environmental Engineering, Eosinophilic Esophagitis, Epreuve d'essai (French: proof print), Equal Exchange, Equipment Engineering, Ersatz Elevator (Lemony Snicket), Escape and Evasion, Estonia, Estoy Escuchando (Spanish: now playing), Et Cetera, Et Cetera, Eternal Echo (band), Eternal Energy, Eternity Engine (gaming), Ether Extract, Ethylmalonic Encephalopathy, Euskadiko Ezquerra (Basque Division of the Spanish Left Wing Party), Evaluation Engineering, Evil Empire (gaming), Evropaiki Enosi (Greek: European Union), Excess Emission(s), Execution Environment, Executive Editor, Exercise Experience, Exotic Ethnic (gaming), Experts Exchange, Exponent, Exponential Elevation, Expressed Emotion (psychiatric term used in schizophrenia settings), Expression Engine (Pmachine.com), Extended Edition (DVD movie version), Extended Employment program, Extended Essay (International Baccalaureate), Extreme Edition (Intel Pentium 4), Exudative Epidermitis (Porcine Circovirus 2), emergency establishment (US DoD), раннеанглийский язык
    9) Вычислительная техника: Extended Edition, Emotion Engine (Sony, Playstation)
    10) Экология: ecological efficiency
    11) Деловая лексика: Economic Empowerment
    12) Образование: English Essay
    13) Сетевые технологии: Enterprise Edition
    14) ЕБРР: energy efficiency
    15) Полимеры: external environments
    16) Программирование: Enter Exponent
    17) Химическое оружие: emergency exit, engineering evaluation
    18) Расширение файла: Extended Edition (IBM)
    19) SAP.тех. работник
    20) Электротехника: electrical equipment
    21) НАСА: Exploration Era
    22) Программное обеспечение: Easy Editor, Expected Error
    23) Единицы измерений: English Equivalent
    24) AMEX. El Paso Electric Company
    25) Международная торговля: Export Enforcement

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > EE

  • 78 Ee

    1) Компьютерная техника: Expensive Edition
    4) Математика: Explicit Equality
    5) Религия: Evangelism Explosion
    6) Железнодорожный термин: Ellis and Eastern Company
    7) Грубое выражение: Exciting Ejaculations
    8) Сокращение: EW Expendable, Early English, Electrical Engineer, Electrical Engineering, Electrical or Electronics Engineer, Electronics Engineer, Envoy Extraordinary, earth entry, employee, end to end, experimental establishment, errors excepted, exclusive economic zone, Early Edition, Early Entry, Earth Electrode, Eased Edges (lumber industry), Easter Egg (hidden area of a program or site), Eastern European, Ecosystem Evaluation, Edge Enhancement (video), Edward Elric (protagonist of anime series FullMetal Alchemist), Electrical Energy, Electrical Essence (forum), Electronic Encyclopedia, Electronic Engineer, Element Energy, Elementary Education, Elite Edition, Empire Earth (game), End-Effector, Energy Expenditure, Energy and Environment, Engraver's Express, Inc, Enter Exponent (calculator function), Enterprise Edition (Java2), Environmental Education, Environmental Engineering, Eosinophilic Esophagitis, Epreuve d'essai (French: proof print), Equal Exchange, Equipment Engineering, Ersatz Elevator (Lemony Snicket), Escape and Evasion, Estonia, Estoy Escuchando (Spanish: now playing), Et Cetera, Et Cetera, Eternal Echo (band), Eternal Energy, Eternity Engine (gaming), Ether Extract, Ethylmalonic Encephalopathy, Euskadiko Ezquerra (Basque Division of the Spanish Left Wing Party), Evaluation Engineering, Evil Empire (gaming), Evropaiki Enosi (Greek: European Union), Excess Emission(s), Execution Environment, Executive Editor, Exercise Experience, Exotic Ethnic (gaming), Experts Exchange, Exponent, Exponential Elevation, Expressed Emotion (psychiatric term used in schizophrenia settings), Expression Engine (Pmachine.com), Extended Edition (DVD movie version), Extended Employment program, Extended Essay (International Baccalaureate), Extreme Edition (Intel Pentium 4), Exudative Epidermitis (Porcine Circovirus 2), emergency establishment (US DoD), раннеанглийский язык
    9) Вычислительная техника: Extended Edition, Emotion Engine (Sony, Playstation)
    10) Экология: ecological efficiency
    11) Деловая лексика: Economic Empowerment
    12) Образование: English Essay
    13) Сетевые технологии: Enterprise Edition
    14) ЕБРР: energy efficiency
    15) Полимеры: external environments
    16) Программирование: Enter Exponent
    17) Химическое оружие: emergency exit, engineering evaluation
    18) Расширение файла: Extended Edition (IBM)
    19) SAP.тех. работник
    20) Электротехника: electrical equipment
    21) НАСА: Exploration Era
    22) Программное обеспечение: Easy Editor, Expected Error
    23) Единицы измерений: English Equivalent
    24) AMEX. El Paso Electric Company
    25) Международная торговля: Export Enforcement

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > Ee

  • 79 ee

    1) Компьютерная техника: Expensive Edition
    4) Математика: Explicit Equality
    5) Религия: Evangelism Explosion
    6) Железнодорожный термин: Ellis and Eastern Company
    7) Грубое выражение: Exciting Ejaculations
    8) Сокращение: EW Expendable, Early English, Electrical Engineer, Electrical Engineering, Electrical or Electronics Engineer, Electronics Engineer, Envoy Extraordinary, earth entry, employee, end to end, experimental establishment, errors excepted, exclusive economic zone, Early Edition, Early Entry, Earth Electrode, Eased Edges (lumber industry), Easter Egg (hidden area of a program or site), Eastern European, Ecosystem Evaluation, Edge Enhancement (video), Edward Elric (protagonist of anime series FullMetal Alchemist), Electrical Energy, Electrical Essence (forum), Electronic Encyclopedia, Electronic Engineer, Element Energy, Elementary Education, Elite Edition, Empire Earth (game), End-Effector, Energy Expenditure, Energy and Environment, Engraver's Express, Inc, Enter Exponent (calculator function), Enterprise Edition (Java2), Environmental Education, Environmental Engineering, Eosinophilic Esophagitis, Epreuve d'essai (French: proof print), Equal Exchange, Equipment Engineering, Ersatz Elevator (Lemony Snicket), Escape and Evasion, Estonia, Estoy Escuchando (Spanish: now playing), Et Cetera, Et Cetera, Eternal Echo (band), Eternal Energy, Eternity Engine (gaming), Ether Extract, Ethylmalonic Encephalopathy, Euskadiko Ezquerra (Basque Division of the Spanish Left Wing Party), Evaluation Engineering, Evil Empire (gaming), Evropaiki Enosi (Greek: European Union), Excess Emission(s), Execution Environment, Executive Editor, Exercise Experience, Exotic Ethnic (gaming), Experts Exchange, Exponent, Exponential Elevation, Expressed Emotion (psychiatric term used in schizophrenia settings), Expression Engine (Pmachine.com), Extended Edition (DVD movie version), Extended Employment program, Extended Essay (International Baccalaureate), Extreme Edition (Intel Pentium 4), Exudative Epidermitis (Porcine Circovirus 2), emergency establishment (US DoD), раннеанглийский язык
    9) Вычислительная техника: Extended Edition, Emotion Engine (Sony, Playstation)
    10) Экология: ecological efficiency
    11) Деловая лексика: Economic Empowerment
    12) Образование: English Essay
    13) Сетевые технологии: Enterprise Edition
    14) ЕБРР: energy efficiency
    15) Полимеры: external environments
    16) Программирование: Enter Exponent
    17) Химическое оружие: emergency exit, engineering evaluation
    18) Расширение файла: Extended Edition (IBM)
    19) SAP.тех. работник
    20) Электротехника: electrical equipment
    21) НАСА: Exploration Era
    22) Программное обеспечение: Easy Editor, Expected Error
    23) Единицы измерений: English Equivalent
    24) AMEX. El Paso Electric Company
    25) Международная торговля: Export Enforcement

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > ee

  • 80 side

    1. noun
    1) (also Geom.) Seite, die
    2) (of animal or person) Seite, die

    sleep on one's right/left side — auf der rechten/linken Seite schlafen

    side of mutton/beef/pork — Hammel-/Rinder-/ Schweinehälfte, die

    side of bacon — Speckseite, die

    split one's sides [laughing] — (fig.) vor Lachen platzen

    walk/stand side by side — nebeneinander gehen/stehen

    work/fight etc. side by side [with somebody] — Seite an Seite [mit jemandem] arbeiten/kämpfen usw.

    3) (part away from the centre) Seite, die

    right[-hand]/left[-hand] side — rechte/linke Seite

    on the right[-hand]/left[-hand] side of the road — auf der rechten/linken Straßenseite

    from side to side — (right across) quer hinüber; (alternately each way) von einer Seite auf die andere od. zur anderen

    on one side — an der Seite

    stand on or to one side — an od. auf der Seite stehen

    on the side — (fig.): (in addition to regular work or income) nebenbei; nebenher

    4) (space beside person or thing) Seite, die

    at or by somebody's side — an jemandes Seite (Dat.); neben jemandem

    at or by the side of the car — beim od. am Auto

    at or by the side of the road/ lake/grave — an der Straße/am See/ am Grab

    on all sides or every side — von allen Seiten [umzingelt, kritisiert]

    5) (in relation to dividing line) Seite, die

    [on] either side of — beiderseits, auf beiden Seiten (+ Gen.)

    [to or on] one side of — neben (+ Dat.)

    this/the other side of — (with regard to space) diesseits/ jenseits (+ Gen.); (with regard to time) vor/nach (+ Dat.)

    he is this side of fifty — er ist unter fünfzig; see also academic.ru/120644/right_side">right side; wrong side

    6) (aspect) Seite, die

    look on the bright/ gloomy side [of things] — die Dinge von der angenehmen/düsteren Seite sehen

    be on the high/expensive etc. side — [etwas] hoch/teuer usw. sein

    7) (opposing group or position) Seite, die; Partei, die; (Sport): (team) Mannschaft, die

    be on the winning side — (fig.) auf der Seite der Gewinner stehen

    let the side down — (fig.) versagen

    take sides [with/against somebody] — [für/gegen jemanden] Partei ergreifen

    8) (of family) Seite, die

    on one's/somebody's father's/mother's side — väterlicher-/ mütterlicherseits

    2. intransitive verb 3. adjective
    seitlich; Seiten-
    * * *
    1. noun
    1) ((the ground beside) an edge, border or boundary line: He walked round the side of the field; He lives on the same side of the street as me.) die Seite
    2) (a surface of something: A cube has six sides.) die Seite
    3) (one of the two of such surfaces which are not the top, bottom, front, or back: There is a label on the side of the box.) die Seite
    4) (either surface of a piece of paper, cloth etc: Don't waste paper - write on both sides!) die Seite
    5) (the right or left part of the body: I've got a pain in my side.) die Seite
    6) (a part or division of a town etc: He lives on the north side of the town.) der Teil
    7) (a slope (of a hill): a mountain-side.) der Hang
    8) (a point of view; an aspect: We must look at all sides of the problem.) die Seite
    9) (a party, team etc which is opposing another: Whose side are you on?; Which side is winning?) die Partei
    2. adjective
    (additional, but less important: a side issue.) neben-...
    - -side
    - -sided
    - sidelong
    - sideways
    - sideburns
    - side effect
    - sidelight
    - sideline
    - sidelines
    - side road
    - sidestep
    - side-street
    - sidetrack
    - sidewalk
    - from all sides
    - on all sides
    - side by side
    - side with
    - take sides
    * * *
    [saɪd]
    I. n
    1. (vertical surface) of a car, box Seite f; of a hill, cliff Hang m; (wall) of a house, cave, caravan [Seiten]wand f
    I have a small table at the \side of my bed ich habe einen kleinen Tisch neben meinem Bett
    don't store the box on its \side den Karton nicht auf der Seite liegend lagern
    2. (of somebody) Seite f
    to stay at sb's \side jdm zur Seite stehen
    \side by \side Seite an Seite
    the children sat \side by \side die Kinder saßen nebeneinander
    3. (face, surface) of a coin, record, material, box, cube Seite f
    this \side up! (on a parcel) oben!
    the right/wrong \side of the fabric/material die rechte/linke Seite des Stoffes
    turn the right \side out and stitch opening closed rechte Seite nach außen wenden und Öffnung zunähen
    4. (page) Seite f
    please write on one \side of the paper only bitte beschreiben Sie das Papier nur einseitig
    5. (edge, border, line) of a plate, clearing, field Rand m; of a table, square, triangle Seite f; of a river [Fluss]ufer nt; of a road [Straßen]rand m
    at/on the \side of the road am Straßenrand
    on all \sides [or every \side] auf allen Seiten
    they were surrounded on all \sides by the children sie wurden von allen Seiten von Kindern umringt
    from \side to \side von rechts nach links
    6. (half) of a bed, house Hälfte f; of a town, road, brain, room Seite f; of a butchered animal [Tier]hälfte f
    in Britain, cars drive on the left \side of the road in Großbritannien fahren die Autos auf der linken Straßenseite
    three \sides of pork/lamb drei Schweine-/Lammhälften
    7. no pl (part) of a deal, agreement Anteil m; (in space)
    this \side of... jenseits + gen; (in time)
    to be on the right/wrong \side of 40/50 noch unter/schon über 40/50
    this \side of... vor + dat
    this is the best pizza I've tasted this \side of Italy das ist die beste Pizza, die ich jenseits von Italien gegessen habe
    we don't expect to see him this \side of Christmas wir erwarten nicht, ihn vor Weihnachten zu sehen
    she's still this \side of forty sie ist noch unter vierzig
    to keep one's \side of a bargain seinen Anteil eines Geschäftes behalten
    8. (direction) Seite f
    move to one \side please bitte treten Sie zur Seite
    don't just stand to the \side — help me! stehen Sie doch nicht nur rum — helfen Sie mir!
    to put sth on [or to] one \side etw beiseitelassen
    to take sb on [or to] one \side jdn auf die Seite nehmen
    from all \sides von allen Seiten
    on all \sides [or every \side] auf allen Seiten
    9. + sing/pl vb (opposing party) of a dispute, contest Partei f, Seite f
    to be on the \side of sb [or on sb's \side] auf jds Seite sein [o stehen]
    whose \side are you on anyway? auf wessen Seite stehst du eigentlich?
    don't worry, time is on our \side keine Angst, die Zeit arbeitet für uns
    to change [or switch] \sides sich akk auf die andere Seite schlagen
    to take \sides Partei ergreifen
    to take sb's \side sich akk auf jds Seite schlagen
    10. + sing/pl vb (team) Mannschaft f, Seite f
    our \side lost again on Saturday wir haben am Samstag wieder verloren
    11. (aspect) Seite f
    there are at least two \sides to every question jede Frage kann von mindestens zwei Seiten beleuchtet werden
    I've listened to your \side of the story ich habe jetzt deine Version der Geschichte gehört
    I've looked at life from both \sides ich habe das Leben von beiden Seiten kennengelernt
    to be on the right/wrong \side of the law auf der richtigen/falschen Seite des Gesetzes stehen
    to look on the bright[er] \side of life zuversichtlich sein
    sb's good/bad/funny \side jds gute/schlechte/komische Seite
    12. + sing/pl vb (of a family)
    the maternal/paternal \side of the family die mütterliche/väterliche Seite der Familie
    the rich/religious/Irish \side of the family der reiche/religiöse/irische Teil der Familie
    on sb's mother's [or maternal] /father's [or paternal] \side mütterlicherseits/väterlicherseits
    he's a cousin on my mother's \side er ist ein Cousin mütterlicherseits
    she has noble ancestors on her paternal \side sie hat väterlicherseits [o auf der väterlichen Seite] adlige Vorfahren
    13. BRIT (TV station) Sender m
    what \side is ‘Coronation Street’ on? auf welchem Sender [o in welchem Programm] läuft ‚Coronation Street‘?
    14. esp AM (side dish) Beilage f; (extra)
    on the \side extra
    I'd like some sauce on the \side, please ich hätte gerne etwas Soße extra
    with a \side of broccoli/rice/French fries mit Brokkoli/Reis/Pommes frites als Beilage
    15. no pl esp BRIT (in billiards) Effet m fachspr
    to put some \side on the ball die Kugel mit Effet spielen
    there's absolutely no \side to her sie ist überhaupt nicht eingebildet
    17.
    ▶ the other \side of the coin die Kehrseite der Medaille fig
    ▶ to come down on one \side of the fence or other sich akk für das eine oder andere entscheiden
    ▶ to get/keep on the right \side of sb jdn für sich akk einnehmen/es sich dat mit jdm nicht verderben
    ▶ to get on the wrong \side of sb es sich dat mit jdm verderben
    ▶ this \side/the other \side of the grave im Diesseits/Jenseits
    ▶ to have a bit on the \side ( fam: have an affair) noch nebenher etwas laufen haben fam, fremdgehen fam; (have savings) etw auf der hohen Kante haben fam
    ▶ to have sb on the \side nebenher mit jdm eine Affäre haben
    ▶ to be on the large/small \side zu groß/klein sein
    ▶ to let the \side down esp BRIT (fail) alle im Stich lassen; (disappoint) alle enttäuschen
    ▶ to make a little money on the \side [sich dat] nebenbei etwas Geld verdienen
    ▶ to put money on [or to] one \side Geld auf die Seite [o fam auf die hohe Kante] legen
    ▶ [in order] to be on the safe \side um sicherzugehen [o fam auf Nummer Sicher zu gehen]
    ▶ [in order] to stay on the safe \side vorsichtshalber
    II. n modifier
    1. (lateral) (window, mirror) Seiten-
    2. (not main) (job, room) Neben-
    \side job Nebenbeschäftigung f, Nebenjob m fam
    \side vegetables Gemüsebeilage f
    III. vi
    ▪ to \side against sb sich akk gegen jdn stellen
    ▪ to \side with sb zu jdm halten
    * * *
    [saɪd]
    1. n
    1) (= wall, vertical surface of car, box, hole, ditch) Seite f; (of cave, artillery trench, mining shaft, boat, caravan) Wand f; (of cliff, mountain) Hang m
    2) (= flat surface, line of triangle, cube, coin, paper, material, record) Seite f

    this side up! (on parcel etc) — oben!

    right/wrong side (of cloth) — rechte/linke Seite

    this pillowcase is right/wrong side out — dieser Kopfkissenbezug ist rechts/links (herum)

    3) (= edge) Rand m
    4) (= not back or front, area to one side) Seite f

    by/at the side of sth — seitlich von etw

    it's this/the other side of London (out of town) — es ist auf dieser/auf der anderen Seite Londons; (in town) es ist in diesem Teil/am anderen Ende von London

    the south/respectable side of Glasgow — der südliche/vornehme Teil Glasgows

    the debit/credit side of an account — die Soll-/Habenseite eines Kontos

    he stood to one side and did nothing (lit) — er stand daneben und tat nichts; (fig) er hielt sich raus

    to put sth on one side — etw beiseitelegen or auf die Seite legen; (shopkeeper) etw zurücklegen

    to take sb to or on one side —

    just this side of the line between sanity and madness —

    5)

    we'll take an extra £50 just to be on the safe side — wir werden vorsichtshalber or für alle Fälle £ 50 mehr mitnehmen

    to get on the wrong side of sb ( ) — essich dat mit jdm verderben

    to be on the right/wrong side of 40 — noch nicht 40/über 40 sein

    on the right side of the law — auf dem Boden des Gesetzes

    to make a bit (of money) on the side (inf) — sich (dat) etwas nebenher or nebenbei verdienen

    I'm not going to be your bit on the side (inf) — ich will nicht deine Nebenfrau/dein Nebenmann sein (inf)

    6) (of person ANAT) Seite f

    side by side — nebeneinander, Seite an Seite

    to stand/sit side by side with sb —

    to hold one's sides (with laughter) — sich (dat) den Bauch halten (vor Lachen)

    See:
    → split
    7) (= branch of family) Seite f; (of business, school) Zweig m

    the Catholic/intellectual side of the family — der katholische Teil/die Intelligenz der Familie

    on one's father's/mother's side —

    there's French blood on the paternal/maternal side — von väterlicher/mütterlicher Seite ist französisches Blut da

    8) (= aspect) Seite f

    let's hear your side of the story — erzählen Sie mal Ihre Version (der Geschichte)

    the management's side of the story was quite different —

    the bright/seamy side of life — die Sonnen-/Schattenseite des Lebens

    9)

    (a bit) on the large/high/formal etc side — etwas groß/hoch/förmlich etc; (for somebody) etwas zu groß/hoch/förmlich etc

    10) (= team etc SPORT in quiz) Mannschaft f; (fig) Seite f

    there are two sides in the dispute —

    to change sides — sich auf die andere Seite schlagen; (Sport) die Seiten wechseln

    to take sides with sb —

    whose side are you on? (supporting team) — für wen sind Sie?; (playing for team) bei wem spielen Sie mit?; (in argument) zu wem halten Sie eigentlich?

    See:
    → angel
    11) (dated inf

    = superiority) there's no side to him — er sitzt nicht auf dem hohen Ross

    2. adj attr
    (= on one side) Seiten-; (= not main) Neben-

    side door — Seiten-/Nebentür f

    side road — Seiten-/Nebenstraße f

    3. vi

    to side with/against sb — Partei für/gegen jdn ergreifen

    * * *
    side [saıd]
    A s
    1. allg Seite f:
    side by side Seite an Seite;
    they lined up side by side sie stellten sich nebeneinander auf;
    at ( oder by) the side of an der Seite von (od gen), neben (dat), fig a. verglichen mit;
    on the left side of the road auf der linken Straßenseite;
    on all sides überall;
    on the side umg nebenbei (verdienen etc);
    do some work on the side umg (ein bisschen) nebenbei arbeiten;
    a) auf der Seite von,
    b) seitens (gen);
    on this (the other) side (of) diesseits (jenseits) (gen);
    on this side of the grave poet hienieden, im Diesseits;
    “this side up” „Vorsicht, nicht stürzen!“;
    the right side of his face seine rechte Gesichtsseite oder -hälfte;
    not leave sb’s side jemandem nicht von der Seite weichen;
    stand by sb’s side fig jemandem zur Seite stehen;
    be on the small side ziemlich klein sein;
    keep on the right side of sich gut stellen mit;
    cast to one side fig über Bord werfen;
    put to one side eine Frage etc zurückstellen, ausklammern;
    he gave his side of the story er erzählte seine Version der Geschichte; → bit2 Bes Redew, bright A 5, dark A 4, err 1, right A 6, safe A 3, sunny 2, wrong A 2
    2. MATH Seite f (auch einer Gleichung), auch Seitenlinie f, -fläche f
    3. a) (Seiten)Rand m:
    b) (Brillen) Bügel m
    4. (Körper)Seite f:
    burst ( oder shake, split) one’s sides with laughter sich vor Lachen schütteln
    5. (Speck-, Hammel- etc) Seite f:
    6. Seite f, Teil m/n:
    the east side of the city der Ostteil der Stadt
    7. Seite f:
    a) (Ab)Hang m, Flanke f, auch Wand f (eines Berges)
    b) Ufer(seite) n(f)
    8. Seite f, (Charakter)Zug m
    9. Seite f:
    a) Partei f ( auch JUR, SPORT)
    b) SPORT (Spielfeld)Hälfte f:
    be on sb’s side auf jemandes Seite stehen;
    change sides ins andere Lager überwechseln; SPORT die Seiten wechseln;
    take sides → C;
    win sb over to one’s side jemanden auf seine Seite ziehen
    10. SPORT besonders Br Mannschaft f
    11. Seite f, Abstammungslinie f:
    on one’s father’s ( oder paternal) (on one’s mother’s oder maternal) side väterlicherseits (mütterlicherseits)
    12. besonders Br sl Angabe f, Allüren pl:
    put on side angeben, großtun
    13. Billard: Br Effet n
    14. GASTR umg Beilage f
    B adj
    1. seitlich (liegend oder stehend etc), Seiten…:
    side elevation Seitenriss m;
    side pocket Seitentasche f
    2. von der Seite (kommend), Seiten…:
    side blow Seitenhieb m
    3. Seiten…, Neben…:
    side window Seitenfenster n
    C v/i (with) Partei ergreifen (gen oder für), es halten (mit)
    * * *
    1. noun
    1) (also Geom.) Seite, die
    2) (of animal or person) Seite, die

    sleep on one's right/left side — auf der rechten/linken Seite schlafen

    side of mutton/beef/pork — Hammel-/Rinder-/ Schweinehälfte, die

    side of bacon — Speckseite, die

    split one's sides [laughing] — (fig.) vor Lachen platzen

    walk/stand side by side — nebeneinander gehen/stehen

    work/fight etc. side by side [with somebody] — Seite an Seite [mit jemandem] arbeiten/kämpfen usw.

    right[-hand]/left[-hand] side — rechte/linke Seite

    on the right[-hand]/left[-hand] side of the road — auf der rechten/linken Straßenseite

    from side to side — (right across) quer hinüber; (alternately each way) von einer Seite auf die andere od. zur anderen

    stand on or to one side — an od. auf der Seite stehen

    4) (space beside person or thing) Seite, die

    at or by somebody's side — an jemandes Seite (Dat.); neben jemandem

    at or by the side of the car — beim od. am Auto

    at or by the side of the road/ lake/grave — an der Straße/am See/ am Grab

    on all sides or every side — von allen Seiten [umzingelt, kritisiert]

    [on] either side of — beiderseits, auf beiden Seiten (+ Gen.)

    [to or on] one side of — neben (+ Dat.)

    this/the other side of — (with regard to space) diesseits/ jenseits (+ Gen.); (with regard to time) vor/nach (+ Dat.)

    he is this side of fifty — er ist unter fünfzig; see also right side; wrong side

    6) (aspect) Seite, die

    look on the bright/ gloomy side [of things] — die Dinge von der angenehmen/düsteren Seite sehen

    be on the high/expensive etc. side — [etwas] hoch/teuer usw. sein

    7) (opposing group or position) Seite, die; Partei, die; (Sport): (team) Mannschaft, die

    be on the winning side — (fig.) auf der Seite der Gewinner stehen

    let the side down — (fig.) versagen

    take sides [with/against somebody] — [für/gegen jemanden] Partei ergreifen

    8) (of family) Seite, die

    on one's/somebody's father's/mother's side — väterlicher-/ mütterlicherseits

    2. intransitive verb 3. adjective
    seitlich; Seiten-
    * * *
    n.
    Flanke -n f.
    Rand ¨-er m.
    Seite -n f.

    English-german dictionary > side

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