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1 different kinds of animals
different/various (many, several, other) kinds of animals (of small creatures, of birds, of trees, of flowers, of fruit) различные (многочисленные, отдельные, другие/иные) животные/звери (мелкие животные, птицы, деревья, цветы, фрукты)English-Russian combinatory dictionary > different kinds of animals
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2 different kinds of animals
Общая лексика: различные животныеУниверсальный англо-русский словарь > different kinds of animals
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3 different kinds
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4 different
различный; wотличныйEnglish-Russian dictionary of Information technology > different
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5 significantly different
The English-Russian dictionary general scientific > significantly different
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6 various kinds of
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7 kind
I [kaɪnd] nсорт, вид, род, разряд- new kind- good kind
- male kind
- one's kind
- bird kind
- that kind of thing
- that kind of book
- queer kind of person
- kind of orange
- best kind of smth
- all kinds of things
- all kinds of tea
- all kinds of people
- different kinds of animals
- new kind of soap
- expertise of some kind
- human kind
- fruit of many kinds
- snakes of many kinds
- snakes of several kinds
- people of many different kinds
- book of that kind
- wind instrument of the trumpet kind
- something of the kind
- difference in kind
- soup of a kind
- law of a kind
- payment in kind
- benefits in kind
- donations to the Red Cross in kind
- German anchovy is a first of the herring kind
- fancy all kinds of things
- propagate one's kind
- differ in kind
- pay in kind
- return smb in kind
- return insults in kind
- smth of the kind
- nothing of the kind!
- all kinds of instrument
- right kind of key
- out-and-out boredom of the jaw-stiffening kindUSAGE:Русскому какие книги? соответствуют английские what kind (sort) of books? и what books? Однако эти выражения имеют разное значение: вопрос what books (subjects, stations)? предполагает в ответе имя собственное - название: What stations did we pass? We passed Voronezh and some other smaller stations. Какие станции мы проехали? Воронеж и еще несколько маленьких станций. Вопрос what kind of books (of person, of cheese, etc)? предполагает в ответе некоторое качество, характеристику: What kind of person is he? He is an agreeable man. Что он за человек? Он приятный человек. What kind of books do you like to read? I like adventure stories. Какие (какого рода/сорта) книги вы любите читать? Я люблю приключенческие рассказыII [kaɪnd] adjдобрый, сердечный, любезный- kind person- kind word
- kind letter
- with a kind smile
- be kind to smb
- be kind with smb
- be kind enough to do smth -
8 различный
1. varied2. distinct3. several4. sundry5. various kinds of6. different; various; diverse7. diverse8. variant9. variousСинонимический ряд:разнообразно (проч.) всяко; всячески; многообразно; неодинаково; по-всякому; по-разному; разно; разнообразно -
9 ciconiiforme
= ciconiiforme.Ex. The ciconiiformes or wading birds such as ibises, spoonbills and storks are carnivourous birds and catch many different kinds of animals in or near water.* * *= ciconiiforme.Ex: The ciconiiformes or wading birds such as ibises, spoonbills and storks are carnivourous birds and catch many different kinds of animals in or near water.
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10 cigüeña
f.1 stork.2 bell crank.* * *1 (ave) stork2 TÉCNICA crank* * *SF1) (Orn) stork2) (Mec) crank, handle; (Náut) winch, capstan3) CAm (Mús) barrel organ4) Caribe (Ferro) bogie, bogy* * *femenino stork* * *= stork.Ex. The ciconiiformes or wading birds such as ibises, spoonbills and storks are carnivourous birds and catch many different kinds of animals in or near water.----* cigüeña de cabeza pelada = wood stork.* * *femenino stork* * *= stork.Ex: The ciconiiformes or wading birds such as ibises, spoonbills and storks are carnivourous birds and catch many different kinds of animals in or near water.
* cigüeña de cabeza pelada = wood stork.* * *storkla cigüeña me ha traído un hermanito the stork's brought me a little brother* * *
cigüeña sustantivo femenino
stork
cigüeña sustantivo femenino Orn stork
' cigüeña' also found in these entries:
English:
stork
* * *cigüeña nfstork;Famestar esperando a la cigüeña to be expectingcigüeña blanca white stork;cigüeña negra black stork* * *f ZO stork* * *cigüeña nf: stork* * *cigüeña n stork -
11 cuchareta
f.1 a small spoon.2 a variety of wheat.3 inflammation of the liver in sheep.4 spoonbill.* * *= spoonbill.Nota: Ave acuática.Ex. The ciconiiformes or wading birds such as ibises, spoonbills and storks are carnivourous birds and catch many different kinds of animals in or near water.* * *= spoonbill.Nota: Ave acuática.Ex: The ciconiiformes or wading birds such as ibises, spoonbills and storks are carnivourous birds and catch many different kinds of animals in or near water.
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12 ibis
m. s.&pl.ibis.m.&f. s&pl.ibis.* * *1 ibis* * *SF INV ibis* * *= ibis.Ex. The ciconiiformes or wading birds such as ibises, spoonbills and storks are carnivourous birds and catch many different kinds of animals in or near water.* * *= ibis.Ex: The ciconiiformes or wading birds such as ibises, spoonbills and storks are carnivourous birds and catch many different kinds of animals in or near water.
* * *(pl ibis)ibis* * *ibis nm invibisibis sagrado sacred ibis* * *m inv ZO ibis* * *ibis nfs & pl: ibis -
13 pico de cuchara
(n.) = spoonbillEx. The ciconiiformes or wading birds such as ibises, spoonbills and storks are carnivourous birds and catch many different kinds of animals in or near water.* * *(n.) = spoonbillEx: The ciconiiformes or wading birds such as ibises, spoonbills and storks are carnivourous birds and catch many different kinds of animals in or near water.
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14 kind
I [kaınd] n1. 1) сорт, класс, разрядgood [bad, remarkable, usual] kind - хороший [плохой, замечательный, обычный] сорт /вид, разряд/
a new kind of silk [paper, apples] - новый сорт шёлка [бумаги, яблок]
the wrong kind of paper - не такая бумага, как нужно
all [many, other] kinds of things - всякие [разные, другие] вещи
different kinds of animals [plants, fruits] - различные животные [растения, плоды]
what kind of car do you drive? - какой марки у вас машина?
this kind of things, things of this kind - такие вещи, вещи подобного рода
what kind of plant [man, paper, book] is this? - что это за растение [человек, бумага, книга]?
2) разновидность, видa kind of orange (different from the usual kind) - разновидность апельсина (отличная от обычного)
the sardine is a fish of the herring kind - сардина - представитель сельдевых
3) сходные предметы; похожие людиtwo of a kind - два предмета одного и того же сорта /вида, типа/
all of a kind - все одного сорта, все одинаковые
2. характер ( человека); личностьshe is not the kind to talk scandal - она не из тех, кто злословит
3. род, вид; племяto be fond of one's (own) kind - любить своих ближних, любить людей
to propagate one's kind - размножаться ( о животных), приносить приплод
4. природа, характер, отличительные особенностиthey differ in degree but not in kind - тут разница в степени, а не в существе
5. натура (как средство оплаты и т. п.)payment in kind - платёж натурой; натуральная оплата
donations to the Red Cross in kind - пожертвования в пользу Красного Креста натурой (продовольствием, медикаментами и т. п.)
benefits in kind - дополнительное вознаграждение, оплата, выплачиваемая натурой ( в дополнение к жалованью)
6. арх. манера, способ (присущий кому-л.)to act after smb.'s kind - поступать подобно кому-л.
♢
a kind of - почти, как бы; что-то вроде, нечто похожее /напоминающее/of a kind - а) в своём роде; нечто вроде; this box will make a table of a kind - этот ящик может в случае нужды заменить стол; б) посредственный, так себе; неважный
coffee of a kind - что-то вроде кофе, скверный кофе
II [kaınd] ato repay /to pay back, to answer, to return/ in kind - отвечать тем же; ≅ отплачивать той же монетой
1. 1) добрый, доброжелательный; сердечный, ласковыйkind person [act, heart] - добрый человек [поступок, -ое сердце]
to be kind to smb. - а) хорошо относиться к кому-л., хорошо обращаться с кем-л.; б) быть добрым /любезным/ с кем-л.
to be kind about smth. - доброжелательно /сердечно/ отнестись к чему-л.
to be kind in smth. - проявлять доброту в чём-л.
2) любезный, внимательныйyou are very kind - вы очень любезны, спасибо
it is very kind of you - с вашей стороны это очень любезно /мило/
will you be kind enough /so kind as/ to do that - будьте любезны /добры/ сделать это
be kind enough to hold your tongue - пожалуйста, попридержите язык
2. разг. приятный, мягкий3. офиц. арх. любящий, нежныйwith kind regards, yours... - с сердечным приветом, ваш... ( в конце письма)
4. 1) редк. податливый, послушный2) тех. поддающийся обработке3) горн. мягкий ( о руде) -
15 kind
1. n сорт, класс, разрядthe wrong kind of paper — не такая бумага, как нужно
this kind of things, things of this kind — такие вещи, вещи подобного рода
2. n разновидность, вид3. n сходные предметы; похожие люди4. n характер; личностьshe is not the kind to talk scandal — она не из тех, кто злословит
5. n род, вид; племяkind of — вроде; как будто; почти что
6. n природа, характер, отличительные особенности7. n натураpayment in kind — платёж натурой; натуральная оплата
pay in kind — оплата натурой; оплата товарами
paid in kind — платил натурой; оплаченный натурой
8. n арх. манера, способcoffee of a kind — что-то вроде кофе, скверный кофе
9. a добрый, доброжелательный; сердечный, ласковый10. a любезный, внимательныйyou are very kind — вы очень любезны, спасибо
11. a разг. приятный, мягкий12. a офиц. арх. любящий, нежныйwith kind regards, yours … — с сердечным приветом, ваш …
13. a редк. податливый, послушный14. a тех. поддающийся обработке15. a горн. мягкийСинонимический ряд:1. good-hearted (adj.) amiable; benevolent; benign; benignant; big; chivalrous; compassionate; considerate; friendly; generous; gentle; good; good-hearted; humane; humanitarian; kind-hearted; kindly; sympathetic2. type (noun) breed; cast; caste; character; class; cut; description; feather; genus; ilk; kidney; lot; manner; mold; mould; nature; order; persuasion; race; set; sort; species; stamp; stripe; type; variety; wayАнтонимический ряд:brutal; cold-blooded; cruel; dissimilarity; grinding; hard; harsh; illiberal; inhuman; invidious; malevolent; malignant; mean -
16 различные животные
General subject: different kinds of animalsУниверсальный русско-английский словарь > различные животные
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17 espátula2
2 = spoonbill.Nota: Ave acuática.Ex. The ciconiiformes or wading birds such as ibises, spoonbills and storks are carnivourous birds and catch many different kinds of animals in or near water. -
18 espátula
f.1 spatula, palette knife, spreader.2 spatula, bowl scraper.3 spoonbill.4 pallet.5 spatula, wooden paddle used to press the tongue.* * *1 (gen) spatula2 (de pintor) palette knife; (de cristalero) putty knife3 TÉCNICA stripping knife4 (ave) spoonbill* * *SF1) (Constr) putty knife2) (Arte) palette knife3) (Culin) fish slice, spatula4) (Med) spatula5) (Orn) spoonbill* * *a) ( paleta) spatula; (Art) palette knifeb) (para quitar pintura, papel) scraper* * *a) ( paleta) spatula; (Art) palette knifeb) (para quitar pintura, papel) scraper* * *espátula11 = putty knife, spatula.Ex: It is usually applied via a mastic gun and smoothed with a putty knife.
Ex: Using a large rubber spatula, gently fold the blueberries into the whipped mixture, being careful not to overmix.* espátula para masilla = putty knife.espátula22 = spoonbill.Nota: Ave acuática.Ex: The ciconiiformes or wading birds such as ibises, spoonbills and storks are carnivourous birds and catch many different kinds of animals in or near water.
* * *A2 (para quitar pintura, papel) scraperB ( Zool) spoonbill* * *
espátula sustantivo femenino
(Art) palette knife
espátula sustantivo femenino Culin spatula
Arte palette knife
(de albañilería) trowel
' espátula' also found in these entries:
Spanish:
raspar
English:
palette knife
- spatula
- scraper
* * *espátula nf1. [de albañil] bricklayer's trowel;[de empapelador] scraper, stripping knife2. Arte palette knife3. Culin spatula4. Med spatula5. [ave] spoonbill* * ** * *espátula nf: spatula -
19 kind
I nounall kinds of things/excuses — alles mögliche/alle möglichen Ausreden
no... of any kind — keinerlei...
be [of] the same kind — von derselben Sorte od. Art sein
something/nothing of the kind — so etwas Ähnliches/nichts dergleichen
you'll do nothing of the kind! — das kommt gar nicht in Frage!
what kind is it? — was für einer/eine/eins ist es?
what kind of [a] tree is this? — was für ein Baum ist das?
what kind of [a] fool do you take me for? — für wie dumm hältst du mich?
what kind of [a] person do you think I am? — für wen hältst du mich?
the kind of person we need — der Typ, den wir brauchen
they are the kind of people who... — sie gehören zu der Sorte von Leuten, die...; das sind solche Leute, die...
this kind of food/atmosphere — diese Art od. solches Essen/solch od. so eine Stimmung
these kind of people/things — (coll.) solche Leute/Sachen
a kind of... — [so] eine Art...
kind of interesting/cute — etc. (coll.) irgendwie interessant/niedlich usw. (ugs.)
3)pay in kind — in Naturalien zahlen/bezahlen
II adjectivepay back or repay something in kind — (fig.) etwas mit od. in gleicher Münze zurückzahlen
would you be so kind as to do that? — wären Sie so freundlich, das zu tun?
be kind to animals/children — gut zu Tieren/Kindern sein
oh, you are kind! — sehr nett od. liebenswürdig von Ihnen
how kind! — wie nett [von ihm/ihr/Ihnen usw.]!
* * *I noun(a sort or type: What kind of car is it?; He is not the kind of man who would be cruel to children.) die ArtII 1. adjective(ready or anxious to do good to others; friendly: He's such a kind man; It was very kind of you to look after the children yesterday.) freundlich- academic.ru/40821/kindly">kindly2. adjective- kindliness- kindness
- kind-hearted* * *kind1[kaɪnd]thank you for giving me your seat, that was very \kind of you vielen Dank, dass Sie mir Ihren Platz überlassen haben, das war sehr nett von Ihnen; (in a letter)with \kind regards mit freundlichen Grüßen▪ to be \kind to sb nett [o freundlich] zu jdm seinhe is \kind to animals er ist gut zu Tieren2. (gentle)▪ to be \kind to sb/sth jdn/etw schonenthis shampoo is \kind to your hair dieses Shampoo pflegt dein Haar auf schonende Weisethe years have been \kind to her die Zeit hat es gut mit ihr gemeintsoft lighting is \kind to your face gedämpftes Licht ist vorteilhaft für dein Gesichtkind2[kaɪnd]I. nI don't usually like that \kind of film normalerweise mag ich solche Filme nichthe's not that \kind of person so einer ist der nicht famthis car was the first of its \kind in the world dieses Auto war weltweit das erste seiner Artall \kinds of animals/cars/people alle möglichen Tiere/Autos/Menschento claim/hear/say nothing of the \kind nichts dergleichen behaupten/hören/sagento stick with one's \kind unter sich dat bleibento be one of a \kind einzigartig seinmy mom always warned me about that \kind vor so jemandem hat mich meine Mutter immer gewarntdon't even talk to their \kind mit solchen Leuten sollst du nicht einmal sprechen2. (limited)... of a \kind so etwas wie...I guess you could call this success of a \kind man könnte das, glaube ich, als so etwas wie einen Erfolg bezeichnen▪ to do sth in \kind etw mit [o in] gleicher Münze zurückzahlenI answered him in \kind ich antwortete ihm im gleichen Tonif he cheats me, I shall take my revenge in \kind wenn er mich betrügt, werde ich mich in gleicher Weise an ihm rächennothing of the \kind nichts dergleichenmom, can I go to the movies tonight? — nothing of the \kind darf ich heute Abend ins Kino, Mami? — kommt nicht infragehas your daughter ever stolen before? — no she's done nothing of the \kind hat Ihre Tochter jemals gestohlen? — nein, so etwas hat sie noch nie gemachtto pay sb in \kind jdn in Naturalien [o Sachleistungen] bezahlen4. (character)▪ in \kind im Wesen, vom Typ herthey were brothers but quite different in \kind sie waren Brüder, aber in ihrem Wesen ganz verschiedenBetty, Sally and Joan are three of a \kind Betty, Sally und Joan sind alle drei vom gleichen Schlag▪ to be true to \kind in typischer Weise reagierenwhen I told him I passed my class, he was true to \kind asking if the exams had been that easy das war mal wieder typisch er, als ich ihm erzählte, dass ich mein Examen bestanden hätte, fragte er mich, ob die Prüfungen so leicht gewesen seienII. adv▪ \kind of irgendwieI \kind of hoped you would help me ich hatte irgendwie gehofft, du würdest mir helfenare you excited? — yea, \kind of bist du aufgeregt? — ja, irgendwie schon* * *I [kaɪnd]nall kinds of... — alle möglichen...
what kind of...? — was für ein(e)...?
he is not the kind of man to refuse — er ist nicht der Typ, der Nein or nein sagt
I'm not that kind of girl — so eine bin ich nicht
they're two of a kind — die beiden sind vom gleichen Typ or von der gleichen Art; (people) sie sind vom gleichen Schlag
she's one of a kind —
you know the kind of thing I mean — Sie wissen, was ich meine
... of all kinds — alle möglichen...
you'll do nothing of the kind —
it's not my kind of holiday — solche Ferien sind nicht mein Fall (inf) or nach meinem Geschmack
2)a kind of... — eine Art..., so ein(e)...
a kind of box —
I kind of thought that he... (inf) (and he didn't) — ich habe eigentlich gedacht, dass er...; (and he did) ich habe es mir beinahe gedacht, dass er...
are you nervous? – kind of (inf) — bist du nervös? – ja, schon (inf)
payment in kind — Bezahlung f in Naturalien
IIthe police responded in kind — die Polizei reagierte, indem sie das Gleiche tat
adj (+er)the kindest thing to do would be to shoot the wounded animal — das Humanste wäre, das verletzte Tier zu erschießen
would you be kind enough to open the door — wären Sie (vielleicht) so nett or freundlich or lieb, die Tür zu öffnen
it was very kind of you to help me — es war wirklich nett or lieb von Ihnen, mir zu helfen
2) (= charitable) description, words freundlich; (= flattering) description, photograph, lighting schmeichelhaft3)(= gentle)
to be kind to your hands/skin — sanft zu den Händen/zur Haut seinthe years have been kind to her — die Jahre sind fast spurlos an ihr vorübergegangen
* * *kind1 [kaınd] s1. Art f, Sorte f:all kinds of alle möglichen, allerlei;all kinds of people got in touch with me die verschiedensten Leute setzten sich mit mir in Verbindung;all kinds of things alles Mögliche;all of a kind (with) von der gleichen Art (wie);two of a kind zwei von derselben Sorte oder vom selben Schlag;the only one of its kind das einzige seiner Art;a) nichts dergleichen,b) keineswegs;sth of the kind, this kind of thing etwas Derartiges, so etwas;that kind of place so ein Ort;that kind of question is (umg those kind of questions are) very difficult solche Fragen sind sehr schwierig;I haven’t got that kind of money umg so viel Geld hab ich nicht;what kind of man is he? was für ein Mann oder Mensch ist er?;she is not that kind of girl sie ist nicht so eine;he is not the kind of man to do such a thing er ist nicht der Typ, der so etwas tut;he felt a kind of compunction er empfand so etwas (Ähnliches) wie Reue;coffee of a kind umg so etwas Ähnliches wie Kaffee, etwas Kaffeeartiges;the literary kind die Leute, die sich mit Literatur befassen3. Art f, Wesen n:different in kind der Art oder dem Wesen nach verschiedenshe kind of boxed his ears sie haute ihm eine runter;I kind of expected it ich hatte es irgendwie erwartet;he kind of hinted it er machte so eine (vage) Andeutung;I’ve kind of promised it ich habe es halb und halb versprochen;did they help you? kind of (ja,) schon5. Naturalien pl, Waren pl:pay in kind in Naturalien zahlen;pay sb back in kind fig es jemandem mit gleicher Münze heimzahlen1. freundlich, liebenswürdig, nett ( alle:to sb zu jemandem):be kind to animals tierlieb oder gut zu Tieren sein;kind to the skin hautfreundlich (Creme etc);would you be so kind as to do this for me? sei so gut oder freundlich und erledige das für mich, erledige das doch bitte für mich;2. hilfreich (Tat etc)4. freundlich, mild, angenehm (Klima)* * *I noun1) (class, sort) Art, dieall kinds of things/excuses — alles mögliche/alle möglichen Ausreden
no... of any kind — keinerlei...
be [of] the same kind — von derselben Sorte od. Art sein
something/nothing of the kind — so etwas Ähnliches/nichts dergleichen
what kind is it? — was für einer/eine/eins ist es?
what kind of [a] tree is this? — was für ein Baum ist das?
what kind of [a] fool do you take me for? — für wie dumm hältst du mich?
what kind of [a] person do you think I am? — für wen hältst du mich?
the kind of person we need — der Typ, den wir brauchen
they are the kind of people who... — sie gehören zu der Sorte von Leuten, die...; das sind solche Leute, die...
this kind of food/atmosphere — diese Art od. solches Essen/solch od. so eine Stimmung
these kind of people/things — (coll.) solche Leute/Sachen
a kind of... — [so] eine Art...
kind of interesting/cute — etc. (coll.) irgendwie interessant/niedlich usw. (ugs.)
3)in kind — (not in money) in Sachwerten
pay in kind — in Naturalien zahlen/bezahlen
II adjectivepay back or repay something in kind — (fig.) etwas mit od. in gleicher Münze zurückzahlen
would you be so kind as to do that? — wären Sie so freundlich, das zu tun?
be kind to animals/children — gut zu Tieren/Kindern sein
oh, you are kind! — sehr nett od. liebenswürdig von Ihnen
how kind! — wie nett [von ihm/ihr/Ihnen usw.]!
* * *adj.art adj. n.Art -en f.Gattung -en f. -
20 Artificial Intelligence
In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, EventuallyJust as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)5) Problems in Machine Intelligence Arise Because Things Obvious to Any Person Are Not Represented in the ProgramMany problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)[AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract FormThe basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory FormationIt is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular ContextsEven if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial IntelligenceThe primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary PropositionsIn artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence
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