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changes+in+the+law

  • 21 Women

       A paradox exists regarding the equality of women in Portuguese society. Although the Constitution of 1976 gave women full equality in rights, and the right to vote had already been granted under Prime Minister Marcello Caetano during the Estado Novo, a gap existed between legal reality and social practice. In many respects, the last 30 years have brought important social and political changes with benefits for women. In addition to the franchise, women won—at least on paper—equal property-owning rights and the right of freedom of movement (getting passports, etc.). The workforce and the electorate afforded a much larger role for women, as more than 45 percent of the labor force and more than 50 percent of the electorate are women. More women than ever attend universities, and they play a larger role in university student bodies. Also, more than ever before, they are represented in the learned professions. In politics, a woman served briefly as prime minister in 1979-80: Maria de Lourdes Pintasilgo. Women are members of government cabinets ("councils"); women are in the judicial system, and, in the late 1980s, some 25 women were elected members of parliament (Assembly of the Republic). Moreover, women are now members of the police and armed forces, and some women, like Olympic marathoner Rosa Mota, are top athletes.
       Portuguese feminists participated in a long struggle for equality in all phases of life. An early such feminist was Ana de Castro Osório (1872-1935), a writer and teacher. Another leader in Portugal's women's movement, in a later generation, was Maria Lamas (18931983). Despite the fact that Portugal lacked a strong women's movement, women did resist the Estado Novo, and some progress occurred during the final phase of the authoritarian regime. In the general elections of 1969, women were granted equal voting rights for the first time. Nevertheless, Portuguese women still lacked many of the rights of their counterparts in other Western European countries. A later generation of feminists, symbolized by the three women writers known as "The Three Marias," made symbolic protests through their sensational writings. In 1972, a book by the three women writers, all born in the late 1930s or early 1940s (Maria Isabel Barreno, Maria Teresa Horta, and Maria Velho da Costa), was seized by the government and the authors were arrested and put on trial for their writings and outspoken views, which included the assertion of women's rights to sexual and reproductive freedom.
       The Revolution of 25 April 1974 overthrew the Estado Novo and established in law, if not fully in actual practice in society, a full range of rights for women. The paradox in Portuguese society was that, despite the fact that sexual equality was legislated "from the top down," a gap remained between what the law said and what happened in society. Despite the relatively new laws and although women now played a larger role in the workforce, women continued to suffer discrimination and exclusion. Strong pressures remained for conformity to old ways, a hardy machismo culture continued, and there was elitism as well as inequality among classes. As the 21st century commenced, women played a more prominent role in society, government, and culture, but the practice of full equality was lacking, and the institutions of the polity, including the judicial and law enforcement systems, did not always carry out the law.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Women

  • 22 make

    робити, виготовляти; вносити (зміни, доповнення у документ)

    make a false report about an offence — = make a false report about an offense робити фальшиве повідомлення про злочин ( до поліції тощо)

    make a false report about an offense — = make a false report about an offence

    make a note of smb.'s statement — = make a note of statement

    make special security arrangements — = make special security measures вживати спеціальні заходи безпеки

    - make a bill
    - make a bomb
    - make a cat's paw
    - make a charge
    - make a claim
    - make a code
    - make a compensation
    - make a complaint
    - make a complaint to the UN
    - make a concession
    - make a condition
    - make a contract
    - make a contract with a client
    - make a copy
    - make a copy of the original
    - make a crime scene sketch
    - make a deal
    - make a death threat
    - make a decisions by majority
    - make a detainee talk
    - make a diplomatic demarche
    - make a draft law
    - make a false statement
    - make a fetish
    - make a fetish of the past
    - make a final ruling
    - make a full confession
    - make a gift
    - make a good lawyer
    - make a good title
    - make a joint statement
    - make a law
    - make a loan
    - make a mistake
    - make a moral choice
    - make a motion
    - make a narrow inquiry
    - make a narrow search
    - make a new will
    - make a normative decision
    - make a note of statement
    - make a part
    - make a payoff
    - make a penalty conditional
    - make a petition
    - make a plea in mitigation
    - make a poor shot
    - make a prisoner talk
    - make a proposal
    - make a protest
    - make a provision
    - make a public statement
    - make a quick get-away
    - make a raid
    - make a recommendation
    - make a revolt
    - make a round
    - make a search
    - make a shot at smth.
    - make a statement
    - make a statement for the press
    - make a temporary appointment
    - make a treaty
    - make a voluntary statement
    - make a will
    - make accountable
    - make additions
    - make alterations
    - make amends
    - make an affidavit
    - make an agreement
    - make an amendment
    - make an appeal
    - make an arrangement
    - make an arrest
    - make an attachment
    - make an attempt on the life
    - make an award
    - make an examination
    - make an example of an offender
    - make an inquiry
    - make an investigation
    - make an official statement
    - make an order
    - make appearance
    - make one's appearance
    - make arrangement
    - make arrangements
    - make arrest
    - make away
    - make away with oneself
    - make bail
    - make bankrupt
    - make blood test
    - make calculations
    - make charge
    - make child pornography
    - make clean breast of it
    - make clear
    - make compensation
    - make confession
    - make court
    - make crime
    - make default
    - make defence
    - make defense
    - make demands
    - make difficulties
    - make diplomatic overtures
    - make diplomatic sounding
    - make disturbance
    - make disturbances
    - make easy
    - make effort
    - make enforcement distinctions
    - make entrance
    - make equal
    - make escape
    - make one's escape
    - make escape by a back door
    - make fealty
    - make formal charges
    - make good
    - make good a deficiency
    - make good a delay
    - make good a loss
    - make good an omission
    - make good escape
    - make good losses
    - make handwriting sample
    - make handwriting samples
    - make illicit profits
    - make information secret
    - make insinuations
    - make known
    - make law
    - make laws
    - make less stringent
    - make mandatory
    - make moral choice
    - make more democratic
    - make more severe
    - make nil
    - make nil
    - make nil and void
    - make null
    - make null
    - make null and void
    - make oath
    - make off
    - make out
    - make out a document
    - make out an invoice
    - make out one's case
    - make overtures
    - make payment
    - make-peace
    - make peace
    - make penal
    - make pornography
    - make protest
    - make provision
    - make provisions in the law
    - make public
    - make public election results
    - make punishment fit the crime
    - make quietus
    - make regular
    - make regulation
    - make representations
    - make reservation
    - make restitution to the victim
    - make revolt
    - make safe
    - make safety regulations
    - make satisfaction
    - make secret
    - make secure
    - make senior appointments
    - make service upon the attorney
    - make sounding
    - make special security measures
    - make stronger
    - make supplementary examination
    - make supplementary inquiry
    - make sure
    - make tax policy more flexible
    - make territorial changes
    - make the bull's-eye
    - make the house
    - make threatening phone call
    - make threatening phone calls
    - make threats
    - make up a quarrel
    - make up a report
    - make-up pay
    - make use
    - make valid
    - make war

    English-Ukrainian law dictionary > make

  • 23 Article 137

    1. Amendments in Article 65 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation determining the structure of the Russian Federation shall be introduced on the basis of the federal constitutional law on the admission to the Russian Federation and the creation of new subjects of the Russian Federation within it, on changes in the constitutional-legal status of a subject of the Russian Federation.
    2. In case changes are made in the name of a Republic, territory, region, city of federal importance, autonomous region or autonomous area, the new name of the subject of the Russian Federation shall be included in Article 65 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation. __________ <На русском языке см. [ref dict="The Constitution of Russia (Russian)"]Статья 137[/ref]> <На немецком языке см. [ref dict="The Constitution of Russia (German)"]Artikel 137[/ref]> <На французском языке см. [ref dict="The Constitution of Russia (French)"]Article 137[/ref]>

    The Constitution of Russia. English-Russian dictionary > Article 137

  • 24 change

    change [tʃeɪndʒ]
    changement ⇒ 1 (a), 1 (c) correspondance ⇒ 1 (c) monnaie ⇒ 1 (d) changer ⇒ 2, 3 (a), 3 (d) se changer ⇒ 3 (b), 3 (c)
    1 noun
    (a) (alteration) changement m;
    ∎ we expect a change in the weather nous nous attendons à un changement de temps;
    ∎ there's been a change in the law la loi a été modifiée;
    ∎ there has been a change in thinking regarding nuclear power il y a eu un changement d'opinion ou une évolution de l'opinion concernant l'énergie nucléaire;
    ∎ a survey showed a radical change in public opinion un sondage a montré un revirement de l'opinion publique;
    ∎ the party needs a change of direction le parti a besoin d'un changement de direction ou d'orientation;
    ∎ a change for the better/worse un changement en mieux/pire, une amélioration/dégradation;
    ∎ walking to work makes a pleasant change from driving c'est agréable d'aller travailler à pied plutôt qu'en voiture;
    ∎ it'll be or make a nice change for them not to have the children in the house cela les changera agréablement de ne pas avoir les enfants à la maison;
    ∎ that makes a change! ça change un peu!;
    ∎ yes, it makes a nice change, doesn't it? oui, ça change un peu de l'ordinaire, n'est-ce pas?;
    ∎ living in the country will be a big change for us cela nous changera beaucoup de vivre à la campagne;
    ∎ there's been little change in his condition son état n'a guère évolué;
    ∎ she dislikes change of any kind tout changement lui déplaît;
    ∎ there are going to be some changes in this office! il va y avoir du nouveau ou du changement dans ce bureau!;
    ∎ to have a change of heart changer d'avis;
    ∎ figurative I need a change of scene or scenery j'ai besoin de changer de décor ou d'air;
    ∎ a change is as good as a rest changer de décor fait autant de bien que de partir en vacances
    ∎ a change of clothes des vêtements de rechange;
    ∎ he had to spend a week without a change of clothes il a dû passer une semaine sans changer de vêtements
    (c) (in journey) changement m, correspondance f;
    ∎ if you go by underground you'll have to make two changes si vous y allez en métro vous serez obligé de changer deux fois;
    ∎ you can get there by train with a change at Bristol vous pouvez y aller en train avec un changement ou une correspondance à Bristol
    (d) (money) monnaie f;
    ∎ small or loose change petite ou menue monnaie f;
    ∎ she gave me two pounds in change elle m'a donné deux livres en monnaie;
    ∎ can you give me change for five pounds? pouvez-vous me faire la monnaie de cinq livres?;
    ∎ the machine doesn't give change la machine ne rend pas la monnaie;
    ∎ British familiar you'll get no change out of him on ne peut rien en tirer
    ∎ the change (menopause) le retour d'âge
    (f) archaic (market) marché m
    (a) (substitute, switch) changer, changer de;
    ∎ to change one's name changer de nom;
    ∎ she's going to change her name to Parker elle va prendre le nom de Parker;
    ∎ to change a fuse changer un fusible;
    ∎ to change one's clothes changer de vêtements, se changer;
    ∎ to change trains changer de train;
    ∎ they're going to change the guard at 11 o'clock ils vont faire la relève de ou relever la garde à 11 heures;
    ∎ to change sides changer de côté;
    ∎ Sport to change ends changer de camp;
    ∎ this old desk has changed hands many times ce vieux bureau a changé maintes fois de mains;
    ∎ to change one's mind changer d'avis;
    ∎ I've changed my mind about him j'ai changé d'avis ou d'idée à son égard;
    ∎ he's changed his mind about moving to Scotland pour ce qui est de s'installer en Écosse il a changé d'avis;
    ∎ you'd better change your ways tu ferais bien de t'amender;
    ∎ to change the subject changer de sujet;
    ∎ don't change the subject! ne détourne pas la conversation!;
    ∎ to change one's tune changer de ton
    (b) (exchange) changer;
    ∎ when are you thinking of changing your car? quand pensez-vous changer de voiture?;
    ∎ if the shoes are too small we'll change them for you si les chaussures sont trop petites nous vous les changerons;
    ∎ to change places with sb changer de place avec qn;
    ∎ figurative I wouldn't want to change places with him! je n'aimerais pas être à sa place!;
    ∎ I'd like to change my pounds into dollars j'aimerais changer mes livres contre des ou en dollars;
    ∎ does this bank change money? est-ce que cette banque fait le change?;
    ∎ can you change a ten-pound note? (into coins) pouvez-vous me donner la monnaie d'un billet de dix livres?
    (c) (alter, modify) changer;
    ∎ there's no point in trying to change him c'est inutile d'essayer de le changer;
    ∎ she wants to change the world elle veut changer le monde;
    ∎ he won't change anything in the text il ne changera rien au texte;
    ∎ the illness completely changed his personality la maladie a complètement transformé son caractère;
    ∎ she doesn't want to change her routine in any way elle ne veut rien changer à sa routine;
    ∎ figurative to change one's spots changer ou modifier totalement son caractère
    (d) (transform) changer, transformer;
    ∎ to change sb/sth into sth changer qn/qch en qch;
    ∎ the prince was changed into a frog le prince fut changé en grenouille;
    ∎ Bible to change water into wine changer l'eau en vin;
    ∎ the liquid/her hair has changed colour le liquide a/ses cheveux ont changé de couleur
    (e) (baby, bed) changer;
    ∎ the baby needs changing le bébé a besoin d'être changé;
    ∎ I've changed the sheets j'ai changé les draps
    (f) to change gear changer de vitesse
    (a) (alter, turn) changer; (luck, wind) tourner;
    ∎ to change for the better/worse changer en mieux/pire;
    ∎ nothing will make him change rien ne le changera, il ne changera jamais;
    ∎ wait for the lights to change attendez que le feu passe au vert;
    ∎ winter changed to spring le printemps a succédé à l'hiver;
    ∎ the wind has changed le vent a changé ou tourné
    (b) (become transformed) se changer, se transformer;
    ∎ to change into sth se transformer en qch;
    ∎ the ogre changed into a mouse l'ogre s'est transformé en souris;
    ∎ the country had changed from dictatorship to democracy overnight en une nuit, le pays était passé de la dictature à la démocratie;
    ∎ the lights changed from green to amber les feux sont passés du vert à l'orange;
    ∎ to change from one system to another passer d'un système à un autre
    (c) (change clothing) se changer;
    ∎ she's gone upstairs to change elle est montée se changer;
    ∎ they changed out of their uniforms ils ont enlevé leurs uniformes;
    ∎ he changed into a pair of jeans il s'est changé et a mis un jean;
    ∎ I'm going to change into something warmer je vais mettre quelque chose de plus chaud
    ∎ is it a direct flight or do I have to change? est-ce que le vol est direct ou faut-il changer?;
    ∎ we had to change twice nous avons eu deux correspondances ou deux changements;
    ∎ all change! (announcement) tout le monde descend!
    ∎ she changed into fourth gear elle a passé la quatrième
    (f) (moon) entrer dans une nouvelle phase
    ∎ it's nice to see you smiling for a change c'est bien de te voir sourire pour une fois;
    ∎ he was early for a change pour une fois il était en avance
    ►► the change of life le retour d'âge;
    change machine distributeur m de monnaie;
    American change purse porte-monnaie m inv
    Cars rétrograder;
    ∎ he changed down into third il est passé en troisième
    American (swap) échanger;
    ∎ to change off with sb échanger avec qn
    ∎ he changed over from smoking cigarettes to smoking cigars il s'est mis à fumer des cigares à la place de cigarettes;
    ∎ the country has changed over to nuclear power le pays est passé au nucléaire;
    ∎ one day I wash and he dries and the next day we change over un jour je fais la vaisselle et il l'essuie et le jour d'après on change;
    ∎ Television to change over (to another channel) passer sur une autre chaîne;
    ∎ Television why don't you change over to ITV? et si on mettait ITV?
    (b) Sport (change positions) changer de côté
    Cars passer la vitesse supérieure;
    ∎ he changed up into third il a passé la troisième, il est passé en troisième
    ✾ Book 'Changing Places' Lodge 'Changement de décor'

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > change

  • 25 immediate

    i'mi:diət
    1. adjective
    1) (happening at once and without delay: an immediate response.) inmediato
    2) (without anyone etc coming between: His immediate successor was Bill Jones.) inmediato, directo
    3) (close: our immediate surroundings.) inmediato
    •

    2. conjunction
    (as soon as: You may leave immediately you finish your work.) tan pronto, en cuanto
    immediate adj inmediato
    tr[ɪ'miːdɪət]
    1 (instant) inmediato,-a; (urgent) urgente
    2 (nearest) inmediato,-a, más próximo,-a
    3 (direct) primero,-a, principal
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    immediate heir heredero,-a en línea directa
    immediate [ɪ'mi:diət] adj
    1) instant: inmediato, instantáneo
    immediate relief: alivio instantáneo
    2) direct: inmediato, directo
    the immediate cause of death: la causa directa de la muerte
    3) urgent: urgente, apremiante
    4) close: cercano, próximo, inmediato
    her immediate family: sus familiares más cercanos
    in the immediate vicinity: en los alrededores, en las inmediaciones
    adj.
    • inmediato, -a adj.
    ɪ'miːdiət
    1)
    a) (instant, prompt) inmediato

    to take immediate action — actuar* inmediatamente

    b) <problem/need> urgente, apremiante, perentorio
    2) (before n) ( close)

    in the immediate vicinity — en las inmediaciones, en los alrededores

    [ɪ'miːdɪǝt]
    ADJ
    1) (=instant) [decision, answer, reaction] inmediato

    • immediate access — (Comput) entrada f inmediata

    • to take immediate action — actuar inmediatamente or de inmediato

    • for immediate delivery — para entrega inmediata

    • these changes will take place with immediate effect — estos cambios tendrán lugar con un efecto inmediato

    2) (=urgent) [needs, problem] urgente, apremiante; [danger, threat, crisis, task] inmediato

    • my immediate concern was for Max — Max era mi primera preocupación

    • the immediate needs of the refugees — las necesidades urgentes or apremiantes de los refugiados

    • what are your immediate plans? — ¿cuáles son tus planes más inmediatos?

    3) (=near) [future, cause] inmediato; [predecessor, successor] más inmediato

    • my immediate family — mi familia más cercana

    • in the immediate future — en el futuro inmediato

    • my immediate neighbours — mis vecinos de al lado

    • to the immediate north/ south — directamente al norte/sur

    • in the immediate vicinity — en las inmediaciones, en los alrededores

    * * *
    [ɪ'miːdiət]
    1)
    a) (instant, prompt) inmediato

    to take immediate action — actuar* inmediatamente

    b) <problem/need> urgente, apremiante, perentorio
    2) (before n) ( close)

    in the immediate vicinity — en las inmediaciones, en los alrededores

    English-spanish dictionary > immediate

  • 26 core caravan

    1. основная колонна эстафеты

     

    основная колонна эстафеты
    В основную колонну включаются все транспортные средства, необходимые для обеспечения сохранности и продвижения Олимпийского огня. Безопасность основной колонны обеспечивается с помощью автомобилей местных сил правопорядка, один из которых едет в начале колонны, а другой замыкает ее. В конце колонны может также находиться автомобиль, обеспечивающий ограничение дорожного движения. Количество транспортных средств в составе колонны и ее протяженность определяются ОКОИ. Он же определяет возможность каких-либо изменений по пути продвижения колонны, исходя из местных условий.
    [Департамент лингвистических услуг Оргкомитета «Сочи 2014». Глоссарий терминов]

    EN

    core caravan
    Consists of all vehicles necessary for the protection and movement of the Olympic flame and includes all vehicles considered to be inside the security envelope from the local law enforcement vehicle at the front end to the local law enforcement or traffic attenuation vehicle in the rear. The OCOG determines the size and scope of the core caravan as well as changes to the core caravan based on local operating conditions.
    [Департамент лингвистических услуг Оргкомитета «Сочи 2014». Глоссарий терминов]

    Тематики

    EN

    Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > core caravan

  • 27 take

    1. [teık] n
    1. 1) захват, взятие; получение
    2) шахм. взятие ( фигуры)
    2. 1) сл. выручка, барыши; сбор ( театральный)
    2) получка
    3. 1) улов ( рыбы)
    2) добыча ( на охоте)
    4. 1) аренда ( земли)
    2) арендованный участок
    5. разг. популярная песенка, пьеса
    6. мед. проф. хорошо принявшаяся прививка
    7. полигр. «урок» наборщика
    8. кино снятый кадр, кинокадр, дубль
    9. мед. пересадка ( кожи)
    10. запись (на пленку и т. п.)

    ♢ give and take - а) взаимные уступки, компромисс; б) обмен любезностями; обмен шутками, колкостями, пикировка

    on the take - корыстный, продажный

    2. [teık] v (took; taken)
    I
    1. брать; хватать

    to take a pencil [a sheet of paper, a spade] - взять карандаш [лист бумаги, лопату]

    to take smth. in one's hand - взять что-л. в руку

    to take smb.'s hand, to take smb. by the hand - взять кого-л. за руку

    to take smb. in one's arms - а) брать кого-л. на руки; б) обнимать кого-л.

    to take smb.'s arm - взять кого-л. под руку

    to take smth. in one's arms - взять что-л. в руки; схватить что-л. руками

    to take smb. to one's arms /to one's breast/ - обнимать кого-л., прижимать кого-л. к груди

    to take smb. by the shoulders - взять /схватить/ кого-л. за плечи

    to take smb. by the throat - взять /схватить/ кого-л. за горло /за глотку/

    to take smth. between one's finger and thumb - взять что-л. двумя пальцами

    to take smth. (up) with a pair of tongs - взять что-л. щипцами

    to take smth. on one's back - взвалить что-л. на спину

    take a sheet of paper from /out of/ the drawer - возьми лист бумаги из ящика стола

    take your bag off the table - снимите /уберите, возьмите/ сумку со стола

    take this table out of the room - уберите /вынесите/ этот стол из комнаты

    2. 1) захватывать; овладевать, завоёвывать

    to take a fortress [a town] (by storm) - брать крепость [город] (штурмом)

    to take prisoners - захватывать /брать/ пленных

    he was taken prisoner - его взяли /он попал/ в плен

    he was taken in the street - его взяли /арестовали/ на улице

    2) ловить

    a rabbit taken in a trap - заяц, попавшийся в капкан

    he managed to take the ball (off the bat) - ему удалось поймать мяч (с биты)

    to take smb. in the act - застать кого-л. на месте преступления

    to take smb. by surprise /off his guard, unawares/ - захватить /застигнуть/ кого-л. врасплох

    to take smb. at his word - поймать кого-л. на слове

    3) разг. овладевать ( женщиной), брать ( женщину)
    4) уносить, сводить в могилу

    pneumonia took him - воспаление лёгких свело его в могилу, он умер от воспаления лёгких

    3. 1) присваивать, брать (без разрешения)

    who has taken my pen? - кто взял мою ручку?

    he takes whatever he can lay his hands on - он пользуется (всем), чем только может, он берёт всё, что под руку подвернётся

    he is always taking other people's ideas - он всегда использует /присваивает себе/ чужие мысли, он всегда пользуется чужими мыслями

    2) (from) отбирать, забирать

    they took his dog from him - они у него забрали /отобрали/ собаку

    4. 1) пользоваться; получать; приобретать

    to take a taxi - брать такси [см. тж. II А 2]

    to take one's part - взять свою часть /долю/ [ср. тж. III А 2)]

    to take a quotation from Shakespeare [from a book] - воспользоваться цитатой из Шекспира [из книги], взять цитату из Шекспира [из книги]

    to take a holiday - а) взять отпуск; when are you taking your holiday? - когда ты идёшь в отпуск?; б) отдыхать; you must take a holiday - вам надо отдохнуть; I am taking a holiday today - я сегодня отдыхаю /не работаю/; сегодня у меня свободный день

    he lived in my house and took my care and nursing - он жил у меня и принимал мои заботы и уход (как должное)

    2) выбирать

    he took the largest piece of cake - он взял себе самый большой кусок пирога

    to take any means to do smth. - использовать любые средства, чтобы сделать что-л.

    which route shall you take? - какой дорогой вы пойдёте /поедете/?

    she is old enough to take her own way - она достаточно взрослая, чтобы самой выбрать свой собственный путь

    3) покупать

    I take bread here - я покупаю /беру/ хлеб здесь

    you will take - 2 lbs. - купишь /возьмёшь/ два фунта (чего-л.)

    I shall take it for $3 - я возьму /куплю/ это за три доллара

    4) выигрывать; брать, бить

    to take a bishop - взять /побить/ слона ( в шахматах)

    he took little by that move - этот ход /шаг/ мало помог /мало что дал/ ему

    5) юр. вступать во владение, наследовать

    according to the will he will take when of age - согласно завещанию он вступит во владение (имуществом) по достижении совершеннолетия

    5. 1) доставать, добывать

    to take the crop - убирать /собирать/ урожай

    2) взимать, собирать; добиваться уплаты

    to take contributions to the Red Cross - собирать пожертвования в пользу Красного Креста

    3) получать, зарабатывать
    6. 1) принимать (что-л.); соглашаться (на что-л.)

    to take an offer [presents] - принимать предложение [подарки]

    to take £50 for the picture - взять /согласиться на/ пятьдесят фунтов за картину

    how much less will you take? - на сколько вы сбавите цену?, сколько вы уступите?

    take what he offers you - возьми /прими/ то, что он тебе предлагает

    I'll take it - ладно, я согласен

    I will take no denial - отказа я не приму; не вздумайте отказываться

    to take smb.'s orders - слушаться кого-л., подчиняться кому-л.

    I am not taking orders from you - я вам не подчиняюсь, я не буду выполнять ваши приказы; ≅ вы мне не указчик

    to take a wager /a bet/ - идти на пари

    to take a dare /a challenge/ - принимать вызов

    2) получать

    take that (and that)! - получай!, вот тебе!

    7. воспринимать, реагировать

    to take smth. coolly [lightly] - относиться к чему-л. спокойно /хладнокровно/ [несерьёзно /беспечно/]

    to take smth. to heart - принимать что-л. (близко) к сердцу

    I wonder how he will take it - интересно, как он к этому отнесётся

    I can't take him [his words] seriously - я не могу принимать его [его слова] всерьёз, я не могу серьёзно относиться к нему [к его словам]

    he took the joke in earnest - он не понял шутки, он принял шутку всерьёз

    he is really kind-hearted if you take him the right way - он, в сущности, добрый человек, если (конечно) правильно его воспринимать

    this is no way to take his behaviour - на его поведение нужно реагировать не так

    take it easy! - а) не волнуйся!; б) смотри на вещи проще!; в) не усердствуй чрезмерно!

    to take things as they are /as one finds them, as they come/ - принимать вещи такими, какие они есть

    to take smth. amiss /ill, in bad part/ - обижаться на что-л.

    you must not take it ill of him - вы не должны сердиться на него; он не хотел вас обидеть

    to take kindly to smb. - дружески /тепло/ отнестись к кому-л. принять участие в ком-л.

    he took kindly to the young author - он принял участие в начинающем писателе, он «пригрел» начинающего писателя

    to take smth. kindly - благожелательно /доброжелательно/ отнестись к чему-л.

    I should take it kindly if you would answer my letter - я буду вам очень благодарен, если вы ответите на моё письмо

    8. 1) понимать; толковать

    I take your meaning - я вас понимаю, я понимаю, что вы хотите сказать

    I [don't] take you - уст. я вас [не] понимаю, я [не] понимаю, что вы хотите сказать

    how did you take his remark? - как вы поняли его замечание?

    to take smb. in the wrong way - неправильно понять кого-л.

    your words may be taken in a bad sense - ваши слова можно истолковать дурно /превратно/

    2) полагать, считать; заключать

    to take the news to be true /as true/ - считать эти сведения верными /соответствующими действительности/

    what time do you take it to be? - как вы думаете /как по-вашему/, сколько сейчас времени?

    how old do you take him to be? - сколько лет вы ему дадите?

    I take it that we are to wait here [to come early] - надо полагать /я так понимаю/, что мы должны ждать здесь [прийти рано]

    let us take it that it is so - предположим, что это так

    3) верить; считать истинным

    (you may) take it from me that he means what he says - поверьте мне, он не шутит /к тому, что он говорит, надо отнестись серьёзно/

    take it from me!, take my word for it - можете мне поверить; уж я-то знаю!, можете не сомневаться!

    we must take it at that - ничего не поделаешь, приходится верить

    9. охватывать, овладевать

    his conscience takes him when he is sober - когда он трезв, его мучают угрызения совести

    what has taken the boy? - что нашло на мальчика?

    he was taken with a fit of coughing [of laughter] - на него напал приступ кашля [смеха]

    to be taken ill /bad/ - заболеть

    10. 1) захватывать, увлекать; нравиться

    to take smb.'s fancy - а) поразить чьё-л. воображение; the story took my fancy - рассказ поразил моё воображение; б) понравиться; her new novel took the fancy of the public - её новый роман понравился читателям

    I was not taken with him - он мне не понравился, он не произвёл на меня (большого) впечатления

    he was very much taken with the idea - он очень увлёкся этой мыслью, он был весь во власти этой идеи

    2) иметь успех, становиться популярным (тж. take on)

    the play didn't take (with the public) - пьеса не имела успеха (у публики)

    11. записывать, регистрировать, протоколировать

    to take dictation - а) писать под диктовку; б) писать диктант

    12. 1) снимать, фотографировать

    to take a photograph of a tower - сфотографировать башню, сделать снимок башни

    he liked to take animals - он любил фотографировать /снимать/ животных

    2) выходить, получаться на фотографии

    he does not take well, he takes badly - он плохо выходит /получается/ на фотографии; он нефотогеничен

    13. использовать в качестве примера

    take the French Revolution - возьмите /возьмём/ (например) Французскую революцию

    take me for example - возьмите меня, например

    14. вмешать

    this car takes only five - в этой машине может поместиться только пять человек

    the typewriter takes large sizes of paper - в эту (пишущую) машинку входит бумага большого формата

    15. 1) требовать; отнимать

    it takes time, means and skill - на это нужно время, средства и умение

    the stuff takes sixty hours in burning - это вещество сгорает за шестьдесят часов

    how long will it take you to translate this article? - сколько времени уйдёт у вас на перевод этой статьи?

    it took him three years to write the book - ему потребовалось три года, чтобы написать книгу [ср. тж. 2)]

    this trip will take a lot of money - на эту поездку уйдёт /потребуется/ много денег

    it takes some pluck to do our work - для нашей работы требуется немало мужества

    it took four men to hold him - потребовалось четыре человека, чтобы его удержать

    it would take volumes to relate - нужны тома, чтобы это рассказать

    it takes a lot of doing - разг. это сделать довольно трудно, это не так-то просто сделать

    the work took some doing - работа потребовала усилий, работа попалась нелёгкая

    it took some finding [explaining] - разг. это было трудно найти /разыскать/ [объяснить]

    he has everything it takes to be a pilot - у него есть все (необходимые) качества (для того), чтобы стать лётчиком

    she's got what it takes - разг. она очень привлекательна, она нравится мужчинам

    2) требовать, нуждаться

    he took two hours to get there - ему потребовалось два часа, чтобы добраться туда; дорога туда отняла у него два часа

    wait for me, I won't take long - подожди меня, я скоро освобожусь

    he took three years to write /in writing/ the book - ему потребовалось три года, чтобы написать книгу [ср. тж. 1)]

    a plural noun takes a plural verb - существительное во множественном числе требует глагола /употребляется с глаголом/ во множественном числе

    16. (in, on) цепляться (за что-л.); застревать, запутываться (в чём-л.)
    17. жениться; выходить замуж

    she wouldn't take him - она не хотела выходить за него замуж, она ему упорно отказывала

    he took to wife Jane Smith - уст. он взял в жёны Джейн Смит

    18. с.-х. принимать

    the cow [the mare] took the bull [the stallion] - корова [кобыла] приняла быка [жеребца]

    19. 1) приниматься

    before the graft has taken - до тех пор, пока прививка не принялась

    2) действовать; приниматься

    the vaccination did not take - оспа не привилась /не принялась/

    the medicine seems to be taking - лекарство, кажется, подействовало

    3) держаться, закрепляться, оставаться

    this ink does not take on glossy paper - этими чернилами нельзя писать на глянцевой бумаге

    20. начинаться, расходиться, набирать силу
    21. 1) амер. схватываться, замерзать
    2) тех. твердеть, схватываться
    22. разг. становиться, делаться

    to take sick - заболеть, захворать; приболеть

    II А
    1. 1) принимать (пищу, лекарство)

    to take an early breakfast [dinner] - рано позавтракать [пообедать]

    will you take tea or coffee? - вы будете пить чай или кофе?

    do you take sugar in your tea? - вы пьёте чай с сахаром?

    I cannot take whiskey - я не могу пить /не выношу/ виски

    he can't take his drink - разг. он не умеет пить

    he can take his drink - разг. у него крепкая голова, он может много выпить

    that's all he ever takes - это всё, что он ест

    to take medicine [pills, sleeping powders] - принимать лекарство [пилюли, снотворное]

    I must take smth. for my headache - мне нужно принять что-л. от головной боли

    to be taken - принимать внутрь, для внутреннего употребления ( надпись на этикетке лекарства)

    2) нюхать ( табак)
    3) клевать, брать ( приманку)

    the fish doesn't take (the bait /the hook/) - рыба не клюёт

    2. ездить (на автобусе, такси и т. п.)

    to take a tram [a taxi] - поехать на трамвае [на такси] [см. тж. I 4, 1)]

    3. 1) снимать, арендовать ( помещение)

    they've taken the large hall for the conference - они сняли большой зал для конференции

    2) нанимать, приглашать (рабочих и т. п.)

    to take smb. as a servant - взять кого-л. в качестве слуги

    he took me into partnership - он сделал меня своим компаньоном, он принял /пригласил/ меня в долю

    he has been taken into the Air Ministry - его взяли /приняли на работу/ в министерство авиации

    3) брать (постояльцев и т. п.)

    to take pupils [lodgers] - брать учеников [постояльцев]

    4. выписывать или регулярно покупать (газеты и т. п.); подписываться (на газету и т. п.)

    which magazines and newspapers do you take? - какие журналы и газеты вы выписываете?

    5. 1) принимать (руководство, обязанности и т. п.); нести (ответственность и т. п.)

    to take control - брать в свои руки руководство /управление/

    to take charge of smb., smth. - взять на себя заботу о ком-л., чём-л.; осуществлять контроль /надзор/ за кем-л., чем-л.

    when I go away she is to take charge of the children - когда я уеду, она будет заботиться о детях

    I don't want to take the blame for what he did - я не хочу отвечать за то, что сделал он; ≅ он виноват, пусть он и отвечает /расхлёбывает/

    I shall take it upon myself to convince him - я беру /возьму/ на себя (задачу) убедить его

    2) вступать (в должность и т. п.)
    3) получать (степень и т. п.)

    to take a degree - получить учёную степень, стать магистром или доктором наук

    to take holy orders - принять духовный сан, стать священником

    6. занимать ( место)

    to take a front [a back] seat - садиться спереди [сзади] [ср. тж. ♢ ]

    take a seat! - садитесь!

    take the chair - садитесь /сядьте/ на (этот) стул [ср. тж. ♢ ]

    7. держаться, двигаться (в каком-л. направлении)

    to take (a little) to the right - брать /держаться/ (немного) правее

    take this street until you come to the big yellow house, then take the first street to the right, go another 100 yards and take the turning on the left - идите по этой улице до большого жёлтого дома, затем сверните в первую улицу направо, пройдите ещё сто ярдов и сверните (за угол) налево

    8. занимать ( позицию); придерживаться (мнения, точки зрения и т. п.)

    to take the attitude of an outsider - занять позицию (стороннего) наблюдателя

    if you take this attitude we shall not come to an agreement - если вы так будете к этому относиться, мы не договоримся /не придём к соглашению/

    to take a strong stand - решительно настаивать на своём, упорно отстаивать свою точку зрения; занять жёсткую позицию

    to take a jaundiced view - отнестись к чему-л. предвзято /предубеждённо, пристрастно/

    to take a practical view of the situation - смотреть на дело /положение/ практически /с практической точки зрения/; трезво смотреть на ситуацию

    9. 1) приобретать, принимать (вид, форму и т. п.)

    a pudding takes its shape from the mould - пудинг принимает форму посуды (в которой он пёкся)

    the word takes a new meaning in this text - в этом тексте слово приобретает новое значение

    this drink takes its flavour from the lemon peel - лимонная корочка придаёт этому напитку особый вкус /привкус/

    2) получать, наследовать (имя, название и т. п.)

    the city of Washington takes its name from George Washington - город Вашингтон назван в честь Джорджа Вашингтона

    this apparatus takes ifs name from the inventor - этот аппарат назван по имени изобретателя

    10. 1) преодолевать (препятствие и т. п.)

    to take a hurdle [a grade] - брать барьер [подъём]

    the horse took the ditch [the fence] - лошадь перепрыгнула через канаву [забор]

    the car took the corner at full speed - машина свернула за угол на полной скорости

    2) выигрывать, побеждать, одерживать верх (в спортивном состязании и т. п.)

    the visiting team took the game 8 to 1 - команда гостей выиграла встречу со счётом 8:1

    3) выигрывать, завоёвывать, брать (приз и т. п.); занимать ( определённое место)

    to take (the) first prize - завоевать /получить/ первую премию

    who took the first place? - кто занял первое место?

    4) поразить ( ворота в крикете)
    11. (into)
    1) посвящать (в тайну и т. п.)

    to take smb. into the secret - посвятить кого-л. в тайну

    to take smb. into one's confidence - оказать доверие /довериться/ кому-л.; поделиться с кем-л.; сделать кого-л. поверенным своих тайн

    we took him into the details - мы ознакомили его с подробностями; мы ввели его в курс дела

    2) принимать (в расчёт и т. п.)

    to take smth. into account /into consideration/ - принять что-л. во внимание, учесть что-л.

    12. 1) изучать (предмет, ремесло)

    I shall take French - я буду изучать французский язык, я буду заниматься французским

    you should take a course in physiology - вам следует заняться физиологией /прослушать курс физиологии/

    2) вести (занятия и т. п.)

    he always takes botany in the park - он всегда проводит занятия по ботанике в парке

    to take the evening service - церк. служить вечерню

    13. определять (размер, расстояние и т. п.); снимать ( показания приборов)

    to take the /a/ temperature - измерять температуру

    to take azimuth - засекать направление, брать азимут

    to take bearings - а) ориентироваться; уяснять обстановку; б) пеленговать

    14. носить, иметь размер (ноги и т. п.)

    what size do you take in shoes? - какой размер обуви вы носите?

    she takes sevens /a seven/ in gloves - она носит седьмой номер перчаток

    15. подвергаться (наказанию и т. п.); нести (потери, урон)

    to take a light [severe] punishment - воен. а) получить лёгкое [серьёзное] повреждение; б) нести незначительные [большие] потери

    to take a direct hit - воен. получить прямое попадание

    16. 1) выдерживать, переносить (неприятности, удары и т. п.)

    I don't know how he can take it - я не знаю, как он (это) выдерживает

    she takes the rough with the smooth - она стойко переносит превратности судьбы

    he always takes what comes to him - он всегда мирится с тем, что есть

    2) (take it) сл. выносить, терпеть

    he can dish it out but he can't take it - он может любого отделать /любому всыпать по первое число/, но сам такого обращения ни от кого не потерпит

    3) (take it) спорт. разг. держать ( удар)
    4) выдерживать (физические нагрузки; о балке и т. п.)
    17. заболеть; заразиться ( болезнью)
    18. поддаваться (отделке, обработке и т. п.)
    19. впитывать, поглощать ( жидкость)
    20. спорт. принимать (подачу, мяч и т. п.)
    II Б
    1. 1) to take to á place направляться куда-л.

    to take to the field - направиться в поле; выйти в поле [ср. тж. ♢ ]

    he took to the road again - он вновь вышел /вернулся/ на дорогу [см. тж. 4, 4)]

    the guerillas took to the mountains - партизаны ушли в горы /скрылись в горах/

    2) to take across smth. пересекать что-л., идти через что-л.
    3) it /smth./ takes somewhere диал. идти, течь и т. п. в каком-л. направлении (о дороге, реке и т. п.)
    2. to take smb., smth. to á place, to smb.
    1) доставлять, относить, отводить, отвозить кого-л., что-л. куда-л., к кому-л.

    to take smb. home - отвезти /отвести, проводить/ кого-л. домой

    may I take you home? - можно мне проводить вас (домой)?

    to take smb. to the hospital - доставить /отвезти/ кого-л. в больницу

    he was taken to the police station - его доставили /отвели/ в полицейский участок

    don't worry, I'll take the book to your father - не беспокойтесь, я отнесу книгу вашему отцу

    it was I who took the news to him - это /именно/ я сообщил ему эту новость

    the butler took the lawyer to the old lady - дворецкий провёл /проводил/ адвоката к старой даме

    2) приводить кого-л. куда-л.

    what took you to the city today? - что привело вас сегодня в город?

    business took him to London - он поехал в Лондон по делу, дела заставили его поехать в Лондон

    3) брать кого-л., что-л. (с собой) куда-л.

    why don't you take the manuscript to the country? - почему бы тебе не взять рукопись с собой в деревню?

    4) выводить, приводить кого-л. куда-л. (о дороге и т. п.)

    where will this road take me? - куда эта дорога выведет меня?

    3. to take smb. for smth. выводить кого-л. (на прогулку и т. п.)

    to take smb. for a ride - взять кого-л. (с собой) на прогулку ( на лошади или на автомобиле) [см. тж. ♢ ]

    4. to take to smth.
    1) пристраститься к чему-л.

    to take to drink /to drinking, to the bottle/ - пристраститься к вину, запить

    2) проявлять интерес, симпатию к чему-л.

    he didn't take to the idea - его эта идея не заинтересовала, ему эта идея не понравилась /не пришлась по вкусу/

    does he take to Latin? - он с удовольствием занимается латынью?

    I took to instant coffee - я полюбил быстрорастворимый кофе, быстрорастворимый кофе пришёлся мне по вкусу

    3) привыкать, приспосабливаться к чему-л.

    fruit trees take badly to the soil - фруктовые деревья плохо акклиматизируются на этой почве

    4) обращаться, прибегать к чему-л.

    the ship was sinking and they had to take to the boats - корабль тонул, и им пришлось воспользоваться лодками

    he took to the road again - он снова пустился в странствия, он вернулся к бродячему образу жизни [см. тж. 1, 1)]

    to take to one's bed - слечь, заболеть

    5) начинать заниматься чем-л.

    to take to literature - заняться литературой, стать писателем

    to take to the stage - поступить в театр, стать актёром

    5. 1) to take to smb. полюбить кого-л., почувствовать к кому-л. симпатию

    they have taken to each other - они понравились друг другу, они потянулись друг к другу

    2) to take against smb. выступать против кого-л.
    6. to take after smb.
    1) походить на кого-л.
    2) подражать

    his followers take after him in this particular - его сторонники следуют его примеру в этом отношении

    7. 1) to take smb., smth. for smb., smth. принимать кого-л., что-л. за кого-л., что-л.

    I am not the person you take me for - я не тот, за кого вы меня принимаете

    do you take me for a fool? - вы принимаете меня за дурака?, вы считаете меня дураком?

    2) to take smb., smth. to be smb., smth. считать кого-л., что-л. кем-л., чем-л., принимать кого-л., что-л. за кого-л., что-л.

    I took him to be an honest man - я принял его за честного человека; он мне показался честным человеком

    do you take me to be a fool? - вы считаете меня дураком?, вы принимаете меня за дурака?

    how old do you take him to be? - как по-вашему, сколько ему лет?

    8. to take smth., smb. off smth., smb.
    1) снимать что-л. с чего-л.

    to take the saucepan off the fire [the lid off the pan] - снять кастрюлю с огня [крышку с кастрюли]

    2) снимать, вычитать что-л. из чего-л.

    to take 3 shillings off the price of smth. - снизить цену на что-л. на три шиллинга

    3) заимствовать что-л. у кого-л., подражать, копировать; пародировать, передразнивать

    her hairdo was taken off a famous actress - причёску она взяла /заимствовала/ у одной известной актрисы

    she takes her manners off him - своими манерами /своим поведением/ она подражает ему

    4) отвлекать что-л., кого-л. от чего-л., кого-л.

    to take smb.'s attention off smth. - отвлечь чьё-л. внимание от чего-л.

    to take smb.'s mind off smth. - отвлечь чьи-л. мысли от чего-л.

    I hope the child will take his mind off his troubles - я надеюсь, (что) ребёнок заставит его забыть неприятности

    to take one's mind off smth. - забыть что-л.

    I can't take my mind off this misfortune - я не могу забыть об этом несчастье

    he couldn't take his eyes off the picture - он не мог оторваться /отвести глаз/ от картины

    to take smb. off his work - отвлекать кого-л. от работы, мешать кому-л. работать

    5) избавлять что-л., кого-л. от чего-л., кого-л.

    he took the responsibility [the blame] off me - он снял с меня ответственность [вину]

    he took him [the responsibility, all the worries] off my hands - он избавил меня от него [от ответственности, от всех хлопот]

    6) отстранять кого-л. от чего-л.

    to take smb. off the job - отстранить кого-л. от работы

    7) вычёркивать, изымать кого-л. из чего-л.

    to take smb. off the list - вычеркнуть /изъять/ кого-л. из списка

    to take a ship off the active list - вычеркнуть корабль из числа действующих

    8) сбивать кого-л. с чего-л.

    the waves took me off my feet - волны сбили меня с ног [ср. тж. ♢ ]

    9. 1) to take smth. from smth. вычитать что-л. из чего-л.

    if we take two from five we'll have tree left - если вычесть два из пяти, останется /в остатке будет/ три

    the storekeeper took a dollar from the price - лавочник сбавил цену на доллар

    2) to take from smth. снижать, ослаблять

    to take from the value of smth. - снижать ценность, стоимость чего-л.

    it doesn't take from the effect of the play - это не ослабляет впечатления, которое производит пьеса

    to take from the merit of smb. - умалять чьи-л. достоинства

    10. to take smth. out of smth.
    1) выносить что-л. откуда-л.

    books must not be taken out of the library - книги нельзя выносить из библиотеки

    2) вынимать что-л. откуда-л.
    3) отвлекать, развлекать кого-л.

    a drive in the country will take her out of herself - поездка за город развлечёт её /отвлечёт её от мрачных мыслей/

    4) устранять кого-л.

    to take smb. out of one's way - устранить кого-л. (со своего пути)

    11. to take smb. through smth.
    1) заставить кого-л. сделать что-л.

    I took him through a book of Livy - я заставил его прочесть (одну) книгу Ливия

    to take smb. through the first two books of English - прочитать с кем-л. первые две английские книги, помочь кому-л. справиться с двумя первыми английскими книгами

    2) заставить кого-л. пройти через что-л.; подвергнуть кого-л. чему-л.
    12. to take smth., smb. down smth. вести что-л., кого-л. вниз по чему-л.

    to take a little boat down the Mississippi - пройти /совершить путешествие/ на маленькой лодке вниз по Миссисипи

    13. to take smth. up to smth. доводить что-л. до какого-л. времени
    14. to take smb. over some place водить кого-л., показывать кому-л. что-л. (обыкн. помещение и т. п.)

    to take smb. over a house [a museum] - показывать кому-л. дом [музей], водить кого-л. по дому [по музею]

    15. to take smb. on /in, across, over/ smth. попадать кому-л. по какому-л. месту, ударять кого-л. по чему-л.

    the blow took me across the arm [over the head] - удар пришёлся мне по руке [по голове]

    16. to take upon oneself to do smth. браться за что-л., брать на себя выполнение чего-л.

    to take upon oneself to distribute food - взять на себя распределение продовольствия

    III А
    1) обыкн. в сочетании с последующим отглагольным существительным выражает единичный акт или кратковременное действие, соответствующее значению существительного:

    to take a walk - погулять; прогуляться, пройтись

    to take a turn - а) повернуть; б) прогуляться, пройтись; покататься, проехаться

    to take a step - шагнуть [ср. тж. 2)]

    to take a run - разбежаться [ср. тж. ♢ ]

    to take a jump /a leap/ - прыгнуть

    to take a nap - вздремнуть; соснуть

    to take a leak - сл. помочиться

    to take a look /a glance/ - взглянуть

    to take a shot - выстрелить [ср. тж. ♢ ]

    to take a risk /a chance/ - рискнуть

    to take (a) breath - а) вдохнуть; б) перевести дыхание; he stopped to take (a) breath - он остановился, чтобы перевести дыхание /передохнуть/

    to take (one's) leave - прощаться, уходить

    to take an examination - сдавать /держать/ экзамен

    to take an oath - а) дать клятву, поклясться; б) воен. принимать присягу

    2) обыкн. в сочетании с существительным выражает действие, носящее общий характер:

    to take action - а) действовать, принимать меры; I felt I had to take action - я чувствовал, что мне необходимо что-то сделать /начать действовать, принять меры/; б) юр. возбуждать судебное дело

    to take steps - принимать меры [ср. тж. 1)]

    what steps did you take to help them? - какие вы приняли меры /что вы предприняли/, чтобы помочь им?

    to take effect - а) возыметь, оказать действие; when the pills took effect - когда пилюли подействовали, б) вступить в силу; the law will take effect next year - закон вступит в силу с будущего года

    to take place - случаться, происходить

    to take part - участвовать, принимать участие [ср. тж. I 4, 1)]

    take post! - по местам!

    to take root - пустить корни, укорениться

    to take hold - а) схватить; he took hold of my arm - он схватил меня за руку; он ухватился за мою руку; б) овладевать; my plane had taken hold upon his fancy - мой план захватил его воображение; the fashion took hold - мода укоренилась

    to take possession - а) стать владельцем, вступить во владение; б) овладеть, захватить

    to take aim /sight/ - прицеливаться

    to take counsel - совещаться; советоваться

    to take advice - а) советоваться, консультироваться; б) следовать совету; take my advice - послушайтесь доброго совета; to take legal advice - брать консультацию у юриста

    to take account - принимать во внимание, учитывать

    you must take account of his illness - вы должны учитывать, что он был болен

    they took advantage of the old woman - они обманули /провели/ эту старую женщину

    to take the privilege - воспользоваться правом /привилегией/

    we take this opportunity of thanking /to thank/ you - мы пользуемся случаем, чтобы поблагодарить вас

    to take interest - интересоваться, проявлять интерес; увлекаться (чем-л.)

    to take pleasure /delight/ - находить удовольствие

    to take pity - проявлять жалость /милосердие/

    to take trouble - стараться, прилагать усилия; брать на себя труд

    she took great pains with her composition - она очень усердно работала над своим сочинением

    to take comfort - успокоиться, утешиться

    to take courage /heart/ - мужаться; воспрянуть духом; приободриться; не унывать

    take courage! - мужайся!, не робей!

    to take cover - прятаться; скрываться

    to take refuge /shelter/ - укрыться, найти убежище

    in his old age he took refuge from his loneliness in his childhood memories - в старости он спасался /находил убежище/ от одиночества в воспоминаниях детства

    to take fire - загораться, воспламеняться

    to take warning - остерегаться; внять предупреждению

    to take notice - замечать; обращать (своё) внимание

    to take heed - а) обращать внимание; замечать; б) быть осторожным, соблюдать осторожность

    to take care - быть осторожным; take care how you behave - смотри, веди себя осторожно

    to take care of smb., smth. - смотреть, присматривать за кем-л., чем-л., заботиться о ком-л., чём-л.

    who will take care of the baby? - кто позаботится о ребёнке?, кто присмотрит за ребёнком?

    to take a liking /a fancy/ to smb. - полюбить кого-л.

    to take a dislike to smb. - невзлюбить кого-л.

    to take the salute - воен. а) отвечать на отдание чести; б) принимать парад

    ♢

    take and - амер. диал. взять и

    I'll take and bounce a rock on your head - вот возьму и тресну тебя камнем по башке

    to take a drop - выпить, подвыпить

    to take (a drop /a glass/) too much - хватить /хлебнуть/ лишнего

    to take the chair - занять председательское место, председательствовать; открыть заседание [ср. тж. II А 6]

    to take the veil - облачиться в одежду монахини; уйти в монастырь

    to take the floor - а) выступать, брать слово; б) пойти танцевать

    to take for granted - считать само собой разумеющимся /не требующим доказательств/; принимать на веру

    to take too much for granted - быть слишком самонадеянным; позволять себе слишком много

    to take smth. to pieces - разобрать что-л.

    to take a stick to smb. - побить /отделать/ кого-л. палкой

    take it or leave it - на ваше усмотрение; как хотите, как угодно

    to take a turn for the better, to take a favourable turn - измениться к лучшему, пойти на лад

    to take a turn for the worse - измениться к худшему, ухудшиться

    to take stock (of smth., smb.) - [см. stock I ♢ ]

    to take it out of smb. - а) утомлять, лишать сил кого-л.; the long climb took it out of me - длинный подъём утомил меня; the heat takes it out of me - от жары я очень устаю жара лишает меня сил; the illness has taken it out of him - он обессилел от болезни; б) отомстить кому-л.; I will take it out of you /of your hide/ - я отомщу тебе за это; это тебе даром не пройдёт, ты мне за это заплатишь, так просто ты не отделаешься; я с тобой рассчитаюсь /расквитаюсь/; he will take it out of me /of my hide/ - он отыграется на мне, он мне отомстит за это

    to take smb.'s measure - а) снимать мерку с кого-л.; б) присматриваться к кому-л.; определять чей-л. характер; в) распознать /раскусить/ кого-л.

    to take sides - присоединиться /примкнуть/ к той или другой стороне

    to take smb.'s side /part/, to take sides /part/ with smb. - стать на /принять/ чью-л. сторону

    to take to one's heels - улизнуть, удрать, дать стрекача, пуститься наутёк

    to take one's hook - смотать удочки, дать тягу

    to take it on the lam - амер. сл. смываться, скрываться; улепётывать

    to take the cake /the biscuit, the bun/ - занять /выйти на/ первое место; получить приз

    it takes the cake! - это превосходит всё!, дальше идти некуда!

    to take off one's hat to smb. - восхищаться кем-л., преклоняться перед кем-л., снимать шляпу перед кем-л.

    to take a back seat - а) отойти на задний план, стушеваться; б) занимать скромное положение; [ср. тж. II А 6]

    to take a run at smth. - попытаться заняться чем-л. [ср. тж. III А 1)]

    to take a shot /a swing/ at smth. /at doing smth./ - попытаться /рискнуть/ сделать что-л. [ср. тж. III А 1)]

    to take liberties with smb. - позволять себе вольности по отношению к кому-л.; быть непозволительно фамильярным с кем-л.

    I am not taking any - ≅ слуга покорный!

    to take one's hair down - разойтись вовсю, разбушеваться

    to take smb. for a ride - прикончить /укокошить/ кого-л. [см. тж. II Б 3]

    to take the starch /the frills/ out of smb. - амер. сбить спесь с кого-л., осадить кого-л.

    to take smth. with a grain of salt - относиться к чему-л. скептически /недоверчиво, критически/

    to take the bit between the /one's/ teeth - закусить удила, пойти напролом

    to take to earth - а) охот. уходить в нору; б) спрятаться, притаиться

    to take a load from /off/ smb.'s mind - снять тяжесть с души у кого-л.

    you've taken a load off my mind - ты снял тяжесть с моей души; у меня от сердца отлегло

    to take a load from /off/ one's feet - сесть

    to take a leaf out of smb.'s book - следовать чьему-л. примеру, подражать кому-л.

    to take a rise out of smb. см. rise I 15

    to take in hand - а) взять в руки, прибрать к рукам; б) взять в свои руки; взяться, браться (за что-л.)

    to take smb. to task см. task I ♢

    to take smb. off his feet - вызвать чей-л. восторг; поразить /увлечь, потрясти/ кого-л. [ср. тж. II Б 8, 8)]

    to take smb. out of his way - доставлять кому-л. лишние хлопоты

    to take it into one's head - вбить /забрать/ себе в голову

    to take one's courage in both hands - набраться храбрости, собраться с духом

    to take exception to smth. - возражать /протестовать/ против чего-л.

    to take the name of God /the Lord's name/ in vain - богохульствовать, кощунствовать; упоминать имя господа всуе

    to take a /one's/ call, to take the curtain - театр. выходить на аплодисменты

    to take the field - а) воен. начинать боевые действия; выступать в поход; б) выйти на поле ( о футбольной команде); [ср. тж. II Б 1, 1)]

    to take in flank [in rear] - воен. атаковать с фланга [с тыла]

    to take out of action - воен. выводить из боя

    take your time! - не спеши(те)!, не торопи(те)сь!

    he took his time over the job - он делал работу медленно /не спеша/

    the devil take him! - чёрт бы его побрал!

    НБАРС > take

  • 28 work

    work [wɜ:k]
    travail ⇒ 1 (a)-(e), 1 (g) œuvre ⇒ 1 (a), 1 (f) besogne ⇒ 1 (b) emploi ⇒ 1 (c) ouvrage ⇒ 1 (f) recherches ⇒ 1 (g) travailler ⇒ 2A (a)-(e), 3A (b), 3A (c), 3A (e), 3C (a) fonctionner ⇒ 2B (a) marcher ⇒ 2B (a), 2B (b) réussir ⇒ 2B (b) agir ⇒ 2B (c), 2B (d) faire travailler ⇒ 3A (a) faire marcher ⇒ 3B (a) façonner ⇒ 3C (a) mécanisme ⇒ 4 1 (a) travaux ⇒ 4 1 (b) usine ⇒ 4 2 (a)
    1 noun
    (a) (effort, activity) travail m, œuvre f;
    ∎ computers take some of the work out of filing les ordinateurs facilitent le classement;
    ∎ this report needs more work il y a encore du travail à faire sur ce rapport, ce rapport demande plus de travail;
    ∎ she's done a lot of work for charity elle a beaucoup travaillé pour des associations caritatives;
    ∎ it will take a lot of work to make a team out of them ça va être un drôle de travail de faire d'eux une équipe;
    ∎ keep up the good work! continuez comme ça!;
    ∎ nice or good work! c'est du bon travail!, bravo!;
    ∎ that's fine work or a fine piece of work c'est du beau travail;
    ∎ your work has been useful vous avez fait du travail utile;
    ∎ work on the tunnel is to start in March (existing tunnel) les travaux sur le tunnel doivent commencer en mars; (new tunnel) la construction du tunnel doit commencer en mars;
    ∎ work in progress Administration travail en cours; Accountancy travaux mpl en cours, inventaire m de production; (sign) travaux en cours;
    ∎ she put a lot of work into that book elle a beaucoup travaillé sur ce livre;
    ∎ to make work for sb compliquer la vie à qn;
    ∎ to start work, to set to work se mettre au travail;
    ∎ she set or she went to work on the contract elle a commencé à travailler sur le contrat;
    ∎ he set to work undermining their confidence il a entrepris de saper leur confiance;
    ∎ I set him to work (on) painting the kitchen je lui ai donné la cuisine à peindre;
    ∎ they put him to work in the kitchen ils l'ont mis au travail dans la cuisine;
    ∎ let's get (down) to work! (mettons-nous) au travail!;
    ∎ proverb all work and no play makes Jack a dull boy beaucoup de travail et peu de loisirs ne réussissent à personne
    (b) (duty, task) travail m, besogne f;
    ∎ I've got loads of work to do j'ai énormément de travail à faire;
    ∎ she gave us too much work elle nous a donné trop de travail;
    ∎ he's trying to get some work done il essaie de travailler un peu;
    ∎ they do their work well ils travaillent bien, ils font du bon travail;
    ∎ it's hard work c'est du travail, ce n'est pas facile;
    ∎ it's thirsty work ça donne soif;
    ∎ to make short or light work of sth expédier qch;
    ∎ figurative to make short work of sb ne faire qu'une bouchée de qn;
    ∎ familiar it's nice work if you can get it! c'est une bonne planque, encore faut-il la trouver!
    (c) (paid employment) travail m, emploi m;
    ∎ what (kind of) work do you do? qu'est-ce que vous faites dans la vie?, quel travail faites-vous?;
    ∎ I do translation work je suis traducteur, je fais des traductions;
    ∎ to find work trouver du travail;
    ∎ to look for work chercher du travail ou un emploi;
    ∎ to be in work travailler, avoir un emploi;
    ∎ to be out of work être au chômage ou sans travail ou sans emploi;
    ∎ he had a week off work (holiday) il a pris une semaine de vacances; (illness) il n'est pas allé au travail pendant une semaine;
    ∎ to take time off work prendre des congés;
    ∎ she's off work today elle ne travaille pas aujourd'hui;
    ∎ to do a full day's work faire une journée entière de travail;
    ∎ people out of work (gen) les chômeurs mpl; Administration & Economics les inactifs mpl
    (d) (place of employment) travail m; Administration lieu m de travail;
    ∎ I go to work by bus je vais au travail en bus;
    ∎ I'm late for work je suis en retard pour le travail;
    ∎ he's a friend from work c'est un collègue;
    ∎ where is your (place of) work? où travaillez-vous?, quel est votre lieu de travail?;
    ∎ on her way home from work en rentrant du travail
    (e) (papers, material etc being worked on) travail m;
    ∎ to take work home prendre du travail à la maison;
    ∎ her work was all over the table son travail était étalé sur la table
    (f) (creation, artefact etc) œuvre f; (on smaller scale) ouvrage m; Sewing ouvrage m;
    ∎ it's all my own work j'ai tout fait moi-même;
    ∎ it's an interesting piece of work (gen) c'est un travail intéressant; Art, Literature & Music c'est une œuvre intéressante;
    ∎ very detailed/delicate work (embroidery, carving etc) ouvrage très détaillé/délicat;
    ∎ these formations are the work of the wind ces formations sont l'œuvre du vent;
    ∎ the silversmith sells much of his work to hotels l'orfèvre vend une grande partie de ce qu'il fait ou de son travail à des hôtels;
    ∎ the complete works of Shakespeare les œuvres complètes ou l'œuvre de Shakespeare;
    ∎ a new work on Portugal un nouvel ouvrage sur le Portugal;
    ∎ a work of art une œuvre d'art;
    ∎ works of fiction des ouvrages de fiction
    (g) (research) travail m, recherches fpl;
    ∎ there hasn't been a lot of work done on the subject peu de travail a été fait ou peu de recherches ont été faites sur le sujet
    (h) (deed) œuvre f, acte m;
    ∎ good works bonnes œuvres fpl;
    ∎ each man will be judged by his works chaque homme sera jugé selon ses œuvres;
    ∎ charitable works actes mpl de charité, actes mpl charitables;
    ∎ the murder is the work of a madman le meurtre est l'œuvre d'un fou
    (i) (effect) effet m;
    ∎ wait until the medicine has done its work attendez que le médicament ait agi ou ait produit son effet
    (j) Physics travail m
    A.
    (a) (exert effort on a specific task, activity etc) travailler;
    ∎ we worked for hours cleaning the house nous avons passé des heures à faire le ménage;
    ∎ they worked in the garden ils ont fait du jardinage;
    ∎ we work hard nous travaillons dur;
    ∎ she's working on a novel just now elle travaille à un roman en ce moment;
    ∎ a detective is working on this case un détective est sur cette affaire;
    ∎ he works at or on keeping himself fit il fait de l'exercice pour garder la forme;
    ∎ we have to work to a deadline nous devons respecter des délais dans notre travail;
    ∎ we have to work to a budget nous devons travailler avec un certain budget;
    ∎ I've worked with the handicapped before j'ai déjà travaillé avec les handicapés;
    ∎ I work with the Spanish on that project je travaille (en collaboration) avec les Espagnols sur ce projet
    (b) (be employed) travailler;
    ∎ he works as a teacher il a un poste d'enseignant;
    ∎ I work in advertising je travaille dans la publicité;
    ∎ who do you work for? chez qui est-ce que vous travaillez?;
    ∎ she works in or for a bank elle travaille dans ou pour une banque;
    ∎ I work a forty-hour week je travaille quarante heures par semaine, je fais une semaine de quarante heures;
    ∎ to work for a living travailler pour gagner sa vie;
    ∎ Industry to work to rule faire la grève du zèle
    ∎ to work for a good cause travailler pour une bonne cause;
    ∎ they're working for better international relations ils s'efforcent d'améliorer les relations internationales
    (d) (study) travailler, étudier;
    ∎ you're going to have to work if you want to pass the exam il va falloir que tu travailles ou que tu étudies si tu veux avoir ton examen
    ∎ this sculptor works in or with copper ce sculpteur travaille avec le cuivre;
    ∎ she has always worked in or with watercolours elle a toujours travaillé avec de la peinture à l'eau
    B.
    (a) (function, operate → machine, brain, system) fonctionner, marcher;
    ∎ the lift doesn't work at night l'ascenseur ne marche pas la nuit;
    ∎ the lift never works l'ascenseur est toujours en panne;
    ∎ the radio works off batteries la radio fonctionne avec des piles;
    ∎ a pump worked by hand une pompe actionnée à la main ou manuellement;
    ∎ they soon got or had it working ils sont vite parvenus à le faire fonctionner;
    ∎ she sat still, her brain or her mind working furiously elle était assise immobile, le cerveau en ébullition;
    ∎ figurative everything worked smoothly tout s'est déroulé comme prévu;
    ∎ your idea just won't work ton idée ne peut pas marcher;
    ∎ this relationship isn't working cette relation ne marche pas;
    ∎ that argument works both ways ce raisonnement est à double tranchant;
    ∎ how does the law work exactly? comment la loi fonctionne-t-elle exactement?
    (b) (produce results, succeed) marcher, réussir;
    ∎ it worked brilliantly ça a très bien marché;
    ∎ their scheme didn't work leur complot a échoué;
    ∎ that/flattery won't work with me ça/la flatterie ne prend pas avec moi
    (c) (drug, medicine) agir, produire ou faire son effet
    (d) (act) agir;
    ∎ the acid works as a catalyst l'acide agit comme ou sert de catalyseur;
    ∎ events have worked against us/in our favour les événements ont agi contre nous/en notre faveur;
    ∎ I'm working on the assumption that they'll sign the contract je pars du principe qu'ils signeront le contrat
    C.
    ∎ to work loose se desserrer;
    ∎ to work free se libérer;
    ∎ the nail worked through the sole of my shoe le clou est passé à travers la semelle de ma chaussure
    (b) (face, mouth) se contracter, se crisper
    (c) (ferment) fermenter
    A.
    (a) (worker, employee, horse) faire travailler;
    ∎ the boss works his staff hard le patron exige beaucoup de travail de ses employés;
    ∎ you work yourself too hard tu te surmènes;
    ∎ to work oneself to death se tuer à la tâche;
    ∎ to work one's fingers to the bone s'user au travail
    ∎ they worked their passage to India ils ont payé leur passage en Inde en travaillant;
    ∎ I worked my way through college j'ai travaillé pour payer mes études à l'université
    ∎ he works the southern sales area il travaille pour le service commercial de la région sud;
    ∎ the pollster worked both sides of the street le sondeur a enquêté des deux côtés de la rue;
    ∎ figurative the candidate worked the crowd le candidat s'efforçait de soulever l'enthousiasme de la foule;
    ∎ a real-estate agent who works the phones un agent immobilier qui fait de la prospection par téléphone;
    ∎ she works the bars (prostitute) elle travaille dans les bars
    (d) (achieve, accomplish)
    ∎ the new policy will work major changes la nouvelle politique opérera ou entraînera des changements importants;
    ∎ the story worked its magic or its charm on the public l'histoire a enchanté le public;
    ∎ to work a spell on sb jeter un sort à qn;
    ∎ to work miracles faire ou accomplir des miracles;
    ∎ to work wonders faire merveille;
    ∎ she has worked wonders with the children elle a fait des merveilles avec les enfants
    (e) (make use of, exploit → land) travailler, cultiver; (→ mine, quarry) exploiter, faire valoir
    B.
    (a) (operate) faire marcher, faire fonctionner;
    ∎ this switch works the furnace ce bouton actionne ou commande la chaudière;
    ∎ he knows how to work the drill il sait se servir de la perceuse
    ∎ I worked the handle up and down j'ai remué la poignée de haut en bas;
    ∎ to work one's hands free parvenir à dégager ses mains;
    ∎ she worked the ropes loose elle a réussi à desserrer les cordes petit à petit
    ∎ I worked my way along the ledge j'ai longé la saillie avec précaution;
    ∎ he worked his way down/up the cliff il a descendu/monté la falaise lentement;
    ∎ the beggar worked his way towards us le mendiant s'est approché de nous;
    ∎ they worked their way through the list ils ont traité chaque élément de la liste tour à tour;
    ∎ he's worked his way through the whole grant il a épuisé toute la subvention;
    ∎ a band of rain working its way across the country un front de pluie qui traverse le pays;
    ∎ they have worked themselves into a corner ils se sont mis dans une impasse
    (d) familiar (contrive) s'arranger;
    ∎ she managed to work a few days off elle s'est arrangée ou s'est débrouillée pour avoir quelques jours de congé;
    ∎ I worked it or worked things so that she's never alone j'ai fait en sorte qu'elle ou je me suis arrangé pour qu'elle ne soit jamais seule
    C.
    (a) (shape → leather, metal, stone) travailler, façonner; (→ clay, dough) travailler, pétrir; (→ object, sculpture) façonner; Sewing (design, initials) broder;
    ∎ she worked the silver into earrings elle a travaillé l'argent pour en faire des boucles d'oreilles;
    ∎ she worked a figure out of the wood elle a sculpté une silhouette dans le bois;
    ∎ the flowers are worked in silk les fleurs sont brodées en soie;
    ∎ work the putty into the right consistency travaillez le mastic pour lui donner la consistance voulue
    ∎ gently work the cream into your hands massez-vous les mains pour faire pénétrer la crème;
    ∎ work the dye into the surface of the leather faites pénétrer la teinture dans le cuir
    (c) (excite, provoke)
    ∎ the orator worked the audience into a frenzy l'orateur a enflammé ou a galvanisé le public;
    ∎ she worked herself into a rage elle s'est mise dans une colère noire
    (a) (mechanism) mécanisme m, rouages mpl; (of clock) mouvement m;
    ∎ familiar to foul up or to gum up the works tout foutre en l'air
    (b) Building industry travaux mpl; (installation) installations fpl;
    ∎ road works travaux mpl; (sign) travaux;
    ∎ Minister/Ministry of Works ministre m/ministère m des Travaux publics
    2 noun
    ∎ a printing works une imprimerie;
    ∎ a gas works une usine à gaz;
    ∎ price ex works prix m sortie usine
    ∎ the (whole) works tout le bataclan ou le tralala;
    ∎ they had eggs, bacon, toast, the works ils mangeaient des œufs, du bacon, du pain grillé, tout, quoi!;
    ∎ American to shoot the works jouer le grand jeu;
    ∎ American we shot the works on the project nous avons mis le paquet sur le projet;
    ∎ to give sb the works (special treatment) dérouler le tapis rouge pour qn; (beating) passer qn à tabac
    ∎ to be at work on sth/(on) doing sth travailler (à) qch/à faire qch;
    ∎ he's at work on a new book il travaille à un nouveau livre;
    ∎ they're hard at work painting the house ils sont en plein travail, ils repeignent la maison
    ∎ there are several factors at work here il y a plusieurs facteurs qui entrent en jeu ou qui jouent ici;
    ∎ there are evil forces at work des forces mauvaises sont en action
    ∎ she's at work (gen) elle est au travail; (office) elle est au bureau; (factory) elle est à l'usine;
    ∎ I'll phone you at work je t'appellerai au travail;
    ∎ we met at work on s'est connus au travail
    ►► work area (in school, home) coin m de travail; Computing zone f de travail;
    works band fanfare m (d'une entreprise);
    work camp (prison) camp m de travail; (voluntary) chantier m de travail;
    American work coat blouse f;
    works committee, works council comité m d'entreprise;
    work ethic = exaltation des valeurs liées au travail;
    work experience stage m (en entreprise);
    ∎ the course includes two months' work experience le programme comprend un stage en entreprise de deux mois;
    American work farm = camp de travail forcé où les détenus travaillent la terre;
    Computing work file fichier m de travail;
    work flow déroulement m des opérations;
    work group groupe m de travail;
    works manager directeur(trice) m,f d'usine;
    work party (of soldiers) escouade f; (of prisoners) groupe m de travail;
    work permit permis m de travail;
    Computing work sheet feuille f de travail;
    work space (at home) coin-travail m; (in office) & Computing espace m de travail;
    ∎ I need more work space j'ai besoin de plus d'espace pour travailler;
    work surface surface f de travail;
    American work week semaine f de travail
    travailler;
    ∎ while he worked away at fixing the furnace tandis qu'il travaillait à réparer la chaudière;
    ∎ we worked away all evening nous avons passé la soirée à travailler
    glisser;
    ∎ her socks had worked down around her ankles ses chaussettes étaient tombées sur ses chevilles
    (a) (incorporate) incorporer;
    ∎ work the ointment in thoroughly faites bien pénétrer la pommade;
    ∎ Cookery work the butter into the flour incorporez le beurre à la farine
    (b) (insert) faire entrer ou introduire petit à petit;
    ∎ he worked in a few sly remarks about the boss il a réussi à glisser quelques réflexions sournoises sur le patron;
    ∎ I'll try and work the translation in some time this week (into schedule) j'essayerai de (trouver le temps de) faire la traduction dans le courant de la semaine
    (a) (dispose of → fat, weight) se débarrasser de, éliminer; (→ anxiety, frustration) passer, assouvir;
    ∎ I worked off my excess energy chopping wood j'ai dépensé mon trop-plein d'énergie en cassant du bois;
    ∎ he worked off his tensions by running il s'est défoulé en faisant du jogging;
    ∎ to work off one's anger on sb passer sa colère sur qn
    (b) (debt, obligation)
    ∎ it took him three months to work off his debt il a dû travailler trois mois pour rembourser son emprunt
    ➲ work on
    (a) (person) essayer de convaincre;
    ∎ we've been working on him but he still won't go nous avons essayé de le persuader mais il ne veut toujours pas y aller;
    ∎ I'll work on her je vais m'occuper d'elle
    (b) (task, problem)
    ∎ the police are working on who stole the jewels la police s'efforce de retrouver celui qui a volé les bijoux;
    ∎ he's been working on his breaststroke/emotional problems il a travaillé sa brasse/essayé de résoudre ses problèmes sentimentaux;
    ∎ have you got any ideas? - I'm working on it as-tu des idées? - je cherche
    ∎ have you any data to work on? avez-vous des données sur lesquelles vous fonder?
    (continue to work) continuer à travailler
    (a) (discharge fully) acquitter en travaillant;
    ∎ to work out one's notice faire son préavis
    (b) (calculate → cost, distance, sum) calculer; (→ answer, total) trouver;
    ∎ I work it out at £22 d'après mes calculs, ça fait 22 livres
    (c) (solve → calculation, problem) résoudre; (→ puzzle) faire, résoudre; (→ code) déchiffrer;
    ∎ have they worked out their differences? est-ce qu'ils ont réglé ou résolu leurs différends?;
    ∎ I'm sure we can work this thing out (your problem) je suis sûr que nous pouvons arranger ça; (our argument) je suis sûr que nous finirons par nous mettre d'accord;
    ∎ things will work themselves out les choses s'arrangeront toutes seules ou d'elles-mêmes
    (d) (formulate → idea, plan) élaborer, combiner; (→ agreement, details) mettre au point;
    ∎ to work out a solution trouver une solution;
    ∎ have you worked out yet when it's due to start? est-ce que tu sais quand ça doit commencer?;
    ∎ she had it all worked out elle avait tout planifié;
    ∎ we worked out an easier route nous avons trouvé un itinéraire plus facile
    (e) (figure out) arriver à comprendre;
    ∎ I finally worked out why he was acting so strangely j'ai enfin découvert ou compris pourquoi il se comportait si bizarrement;
    ∎ the dog had worked out how to open the door le chien avait compris comment ouvrir la porte;
    ∎ I can't work her out je n'arrive pas à la comprendre;
    ∎ I can't work their relationship out leurs rapports me dépassent
    (f) (mine, well) épuiser
    (a) (happen) se passer;
    ∎ it depends on how things work out ça dépend de la façon dont les choses se passent;
    ∎ the trip worked out as planned le voyage s'est déroulé comme prévu;
    ∎ I wonder how it will all work out je me demande comment tout cela va s'arranger;
    ∎ it all worked out for the best tout a fini par s'arranger pour le mieux;
    ∎ but it didn't work out that way mais il en a été tout autrement;
    ∎ it worked out badly for them les choses ont mal tourné pour eux
    (b) (have a good result → job, plan) réussir; (→ problem, puzzle) se résoudre;
    ∎ she worked out fine as personnel director elle s'est bien débrouillée comme directeur du personnel;
    ∎ are things working out for you OK? est-ce que ça se passe bien pour toi?;
    ∎ did the new job work out? ça a marché pour le nouveau boulot?;
    ∎ it didn't work out between them les choses ont plutôt mal tourné entre eux;
    ∎ their project didn't work out leur projet est tombé à l'eau
    ∎ how much does it all work out at? ça fait combien en tout?;
    ∎ the average price for an apartment works out to or at $5,000 per square metre le prix moyen d'un appartement s'élève ou revient à 5000 dollars le mètre carré;
    ∎ that works out at three hours a week ça fait trois heures par semaine;
    ∎ electric heating works out expensive le chauffage électrique revient cher
    (d) (exercise) faire de l'exercice; (professional athlete) s'entraîner
    (a) American (revise) revoir, réviser
    (b) familiar (beat up) tabasser, passer à tabac
    (a) (turn) tourner;
    ∎ the wind worked round to the north le vent a tourné au nord petit à petit
    ∎ he finally worked round to the subject of housing il a fini par aborder le sujet du logement;
    ∎ what's she working round to? où veut-elle en venir?
    ∎ (bring round) I worked the conversation round to my salary j'ai amené la conversation sur la question de mon salaire
    (a) (insert) faire passer à travers
    ∎ we worked our way through the crowd nous nous sommes frayé un chemin à travers la foule;
    ∎ he worked his way through the book il a lu le livre du début à la fin;
    ∎ figurative I worked the problem through j'ai étudié le problème sous tous ses aspects
    ∎ she worked through lunch elle a travaillé pendant l'heure du déjeuner
    ∎ he worked through his emotional problems il a réussi à assumer ses problèmes affectifs
    ➲ work up
    (a) (stir up, rouse) exciter, provoquer;
    ∎ he worked up the crowd il a excité la foule;
    ∎ he worked the crowd up into a frenzy il a rendu la foule frénétique;
    ∎ he works himself up or he gets himself worked up over nothing il s'énerve pour rien;
    ∎ she had worked herself up into a dreadful rage elle s'était mise dans une rage terrible
    (b) (develop) développer;
    ∎ I want to work these ideas up into an article je veux développer ces idées pour en faire un article;
    ∎ to work up an appetite se mettre en appétit;
    ∎ we worked up a sweat/a thirst playing tennis jouer au tennis nous a donné chaud/soif;
    ∎ I can't work up any enthusiasm for this work je n'arrive pas à avoir le moindre enthousiasme pour ce travail;
    ∎ he tried to work up an interest in the cause il a essayé de s'intéresser à la cause
    ∎ to work one's way up faire son chemin;
    ∎ she worked her way up from secretary to managing director elle a commencé comme secrétaire et elle a fait son chemin jusqu'au poste de P-DG;
    ∎ I worked my way up from nothing je suis parti de rien
    (a) (clothing) remonter
    ∎ the film was working up to a climax le film approchait de son point culminant;
    ∎ things were working up to a crisis une crise se préparait, on était au bord d'une crise;
    ∎ she's working up to what she wanted to ask elle en vient à ce qu'elle voulait demander;
    ∎ what are you working up to? où veux-tu en venir?

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > work

  • 29 Benedict

    1) Общая лексика: Бенедикт (мужское имя), Бенет, Бенит, (Pope, or antipope, from May 22, 964, to July 4, 966. His election by the Romans on the death of Pope John XII infuriated the Holy Roman emperor Otto I who had already deposed John and designated Leo VIII as successor) Бенедикт V Граммати
    2) Религия: (Pope from 1012 to 1024, the first of several pontiffs from the powerful Tusculani family. A council summoned by Benedict at Pavia, Lombardy, in 1022, forbade uncelibate clergy and the sale of church offices) Бенедикт VIII, (Pope from 1303 to 1304. He was unanimously elected Pope and did much to conciliate his predecessor's enemies) Бенедикт XI, (Pope from 1334 to 1342; he was the third pontiff to reign at Avignon, where he devoted himself to reform of the church and its religious orders) Бенедикт XII, (Pope from 1914 to 1922. His last years were concerned with readjusting the machinery of papal administration made necessary by the territorial changes that followed the war and with directives on missionary work) Бенедикт XV, (Pope from 574/575 to 579 who ruled the church during a period made calamitous by invasion and by famine) Бенедикт I, (Pope from 684 to 685. During his pontificate, Benedict restored several Roman churches) Бенедикт II, (Pope from 900 to 903 who reigned during one of the darkest periods of papal history, and little is known of his life or acts) Бенедикт IV, (Pope from 974 to 983. He furthered the cause of monasticism and acted against simony, specifically in an encyclical letter in 981 forbidding the exaction of money for the conferring of any holy order) Бенедикт VII, (Pope from January 19, 973, to July 974 who purportedly was strangled by the deacon Franco, later known as antipope Boniface VII) Бенедикт VI, (Pope three times, from 1032 to 1044, from April to May 1045, and from 1047 to 1048) Бенедикт IX, (X)(Antipope from April 1058 to January 1059. His expulsion from the papal throne was followed by a reform in the law governing papal elections) Бенедикт X, (XIII)(Antipope from 1394 to 1423 who maintained to the end of his life that he was the rightful Pope and created four new cardinals as late as November 1422) Бенедикт (XIII), (XIV) "спрятанный Папа", (XIV) "спрятанный Папа" (Бенедикт XIV), (XIV)(Counter-antipope from 1425 to с 1433 who so secretly conducted his office that even his residence was uncertain, and he thus became known as the "hidden Pope") Бенедикт (XIV)

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > Benedict

  • 30 benedict

    1) Общая лексика: Бенедикт (мужское имя), Бенет, Бенит, (Pope, or antipope, from May 22, 964, to July 4, 966. His election by the Romans on the death of Pope John XII infuriated the Holy Roman emperor Otto I who had already deposed John and designated Leo VIII as successor) Бенедикт V Граммати
    2) Религия: (Pope from 1012 to 1024, the first of several pontiffs from the powerful Tusculani family. A council summoned by Benedict at Pavia, Lombardy, in 1022, forbade uncelibate clergy and the sale of church offices) Бенедикт VIII, (Pope from 1303 to 1304. He was unanimously elected Pope and did much to conciliate his predecessor's enemies) Бенедикт XI, (Pope from 1334 to 1342; he was the third pontiff to reign at Avignon, where he devoted himself to reform of the church and its religious orders) Бенедикт XII, (Pope from 1914 to 1922. His last years were concerned with readjusting the machinery of papal administration made necessary by the territorial changes that followed the war and with directives on missionary work) Бенедикт XV, (Pope from 574/575 to 579 who ruled the church during a period made calamitous by invasion and by famine) Бенедикт I, (Pope from 684 to 685. During his pontificate, Benedict restored several Roman churches) Бенедикт II, (Pope from 900 to 903 who reigned during one of the darkest periods of papal history, and little is known of his life or acts) Бенедикт IV, (Pope from 974 to 983. He furthered the cause of monasticism and acted against simony, specifically in an encyclical letter in 981 forbidding the exaction of money for the conferring of any holy order) Бенедикт VII, (Pope from January 19, 973, to July 974 who purportedly was strangled by the deacon Franco, later known as antipope Boniface VII) Бенедикт VI, (Pope three times, from 1032 to 1044, from April to May 1045, and from 1047 to 1048) Бенедикт IX, (X)(Antipope from April 1058 to January 1059. His expulsion from the papal throne was followed by a reform in the law governing papal elections) Бенедикт X, (XIII)(Antipope from 1394 to 1423 who maintained to the end of his life that he was the rightful Pope and created four new cardinals as late as November 1422) Бенедикт (XIII), (XIV) "спрятанный Папа", (XIV) "спрятанный Папа" (Бенедикт XIV), (XIV)(Counter-antipope from 1425 to с 1433 who so secretly conducted his office that even his residence was uncertain, and he thus became known as the "hidden Pope") Бенедикт (XIV)

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > benedict

  • 31 subject

    1. adjective
    ((of countries etc) not independent, but dominated by another power: subject nations.) underlagt, uselvstendig
    2. noun
    1) (a person who is under the rule of a monarch or a member of a country that has a monarchy etc: We are loyal subjects of the Queen; He is a British subject.) statsborger, undersått
    2) (someone or something that is talked about, written about etc: We discussed the price of food and similar subjects; What was the subject of the debate?; The teacher tried to think of a good subject for their essay; I've said all I can on that subject.) emne, tema
    3) (a branch of study or learning in school, university etc: He is taking exams in seven subjects; Mathematics is his best subject.) fag; disiplin
    4) (a thing, person or circumstance suitable for, or requiring, a particular kind of treatment, reaction etc: I don't think her behaviour is a subject for laughter.) emne, gjenstand
    5) (in English, the word(s) representing the person or thing that usually does the action shown by the verb, and with which the verb agrees: The cat sat on the mat; He hit her because she broke his toy; He was hit by the ball.) subjekt
    3. səb'‹ekt verb
    1) (to bring (a person, country etc) under control: They have subjected all the neighbouring states (to their rule).) underkaste
    2) (to cause to suffer, or submit (to something): He was subjected to cruel treatment; These tyres are subjected to various tests before leaving the factory.) utsette for
    •
    - subjective
    - subjectively
    - subject matter
    - change the subject
    - subject to
    disiplin
    --------
    emne
    --------
    sak
    --------
    tema
    --------
    understått
    I
    subst. \/ˈsʌbdʒekt\/, \/ˈsʌbdʒɪkt\/
    1) statsborger, undersått
    2) emne, tema, sak
    3) ( skole) fag
    4) (kunst, musikk eller litteratur) motiv
    5) (grammatikk, psykologi eller filosofi) subjekt
    6) ( medisin) pasient
    7) ( også subject for experiment) forsøksobjekt, forsøksperson
    8) ( også subject for dissection) lik (til disseksjon)
    be the subject of ridicule være gjenstand for spott og spe
    have something to say on the subject ha noe å si i sakens anledning
    on the subject of angående, om
    i anledning (av)
    optional subject (amer.) valgfritt fag
    strike out of the subject avvike fra emnet
    subject for kilde til, årsak til, grunn til
    subject of eller subject for gjenstand for, skyteskive for
    a tender subject et ømtålig emne
    wander from the subject komme bort fra emnet
    II
    verb \/səbˈdʒekt\/
    1) underkue, undertrykke, betvinge
    2) underkaste, underlegge, undergi
    3) gjøre til gjenstand, utsette
    be subjected to være gjenstand for, utsettes for, rammes av
    subject oneself underkaste seg (noen)
    subject to utsette for, prisgi underkaste, la gjennomgå gjøre til gjenstand for, utsette for idømme
    subject to one's rule skaffe seg herredømme over
    III
    adj. \/ˈsʌbdʒekt\/, \/ˈsʌbdʒɪkt\/
    1) underkuet, undertrykt, betvunget, kuet
    2) underlagt, undergitt, underkastet
    3) underdanig
    4) avhengig
    be subject to være underlagt
    utsettes for, være utsatt for, være gjenstand for
    togene kan lett bli forsinket når det er tåke ha anlegg for, ha lett for å få, lide av
    avhenge av, bero på
    subject to (som lyder) under
    med anlegg for, som er utsatt for
    subject to duty tollpliktig, tollbelagt
    subject to notice oppsigelig
    IV
    adv. \/ˈsʌbdʒekt\/, \/ˈsʌbdʒɪkt\/
    bare i uttrykk
    subject to under forutsetning av, avhengig av med forbehold om
    subject to certain restrictions med visse begrensninger
    subject to contract ( jus) under forutsetning av at kontrakt opprettes
    subject to correction med forbehold om eventuelle feil
    subject to such conditions as på (slike) betingelser som
    subject to your consent,... forutsatt at du går med på det,...
    • subject to your consent, I propose to try again
    forutsatt at du går med på det, foreslår jeg at vi prøver igjen

    English-Norwegian dictionary > subject

  • 32 within

    within [wɪ'ðɪn]
    (a) (inside → place) à l'intérieur de, dans; figurative (→ group, system) à l'intérieur de, au sein de; (→ person) en;
    ∎ he lived and worked within these four walls il a vécu et travaillé entre ces quatre murs;
    ∎ a play within a play une pièce dans une pièce;
    ∎ new forces are at work within our society des forces nouvelles sont à l'œuvre dans notre société;
    ∎ the man's role within the family is changing le rôle de l'homme au sein de la famille est en train de changer;
    ∎ a small voice within her une petite voix intérieure ou au fond d'elle-même
    (b) (inside the limits of) dans les limites de;
    ∎ you must remain within the circle tu dois rester dans le ou à l'intérieur du cercle;
    ∎ to be within the law être dans les limites de la loi;
    ∎ within the framework of the agreement dans le cadre de l'accord;
    ∎ it is not within the bounds of possibility ça dépasse le cadre du possible;
    ∎ to live within one's means vivre selon ses moyens;
    ∎ the car is well within his price range la voiture est tout à fait dans ses prix ou dans ses moyens;
    ∎ within reason dans des limites raisonnables
    ∎ within the hour or an hour she had finished en moins d'une heure, elle avait fini;
    ∎ I'll let you know within a week je vous dirai ce qu'il en est dans le courant de la semaine;
    ∎ within the required time dans le délai prescrit;
    ∎ within twenty-four hours dans les vingt-quatre heures;
    ∎ use within two days of purchase (on packaging) à consommer dans les deux jours suivant la date d'achat;
    ∎ within a week of taking the job, she knew it was a mistake moins d'une semaine après avoir accepté cet emploi, elle sut qu'elle avait fait une erreur;
    ∎ within the next five years, within five years from now d'ici cinq ans
    (d) (indicating distance, measurement)
    ∎ they were within 10 km of Delhi ils étaient à moins de 10 km de Delhi;
    ∎ we are within walking distance of the shops nous pouvons aller faire nos courses à pied;
    ∎ accurate to within 0.1 of a millimetre précis au dixième de millimètre près;
    ∎ within a radius of ten kilometres dans un rayon de dix kilomètres;
    ∎ she came within seconds of beating the record elle a failli battre le record à quelques secondes près;
    ∎ we were within sight of the shore nous avions la côte en vue
    ∎ enormous changes have taken place within a single generation de grands changements ont eu lieu en l'espace d'une seule génération;
    ∎ did the accident take place within the period covered by the insurance? l'accident a-t-il eu lieu pendant la période couverte par l'assurance?
    dedans, à l'intérieur;
    ∎ enquire within (sign) renseignements à l'intérieur;
    ∎ from within de l'intérieur;
    ∎ the appointment will be made from within la nomination se fera au sein de l'entreprise

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > within

  • 33 environment

    n
    окружающая среда; окружение

    to adjust to a new environment — приспосабливаться к новым условиям / к новому окружению

    - anything-goes environment
    - business environment
    - catastrophic effects for the environment
    - changed economic environment
    - contamination of environment
    - culturally deprived environment
    - deterioration of environment
    - economic and political environment
    - economic environment
    - hostile environment
    - human environment
    - improvement of the environment
    - industrial environment
    - international economic environment
    - international environment
    - law-of-the-jungle environment
    - littoral environment
    - local environment
    - marine environment
    - modification of the environment
    - near-shore environment     - peaceful utilization of the environment
    - permissive environment
    - petty-bourgeois environment
    - physical environment     - quality environment
    - social and economic environment
    - sociocultural environment
    - sociohistorical environment
    - strategic environment
    - survival-of-the-fittest environment

    Politics english-russian dictionary > environment

  • 34 resist

    1. I
    often in tine negative not to resist не противиться, не сопротивляться; he did not resist but surrendered quietly он не сопротивлялся, a спокойно сдался
    2. II
    resist in some manner resist stubbornly (quietly, deliberately, heroically, etc.) упорно и т.д. сопротивляться; resist for some time resist no longer больше не сопротивляться
    3. III
    1) resist smb. resist an enemy (an opponent, an adversary, the police, etc.) сопротивляться /оказывать сопротивление/ врагу и т.д.; resist smth. resist an invasion (arrest, smb.'s will, etc.) оказывать сопротивление /сопротивляться, давать отпор/ вторжению и т.д.; resist an attack (a charge of cavalry, a blow, etc.) отбивать /сдерживать/ атаку и т.д., resist authority (the authority of the court, the law, etc.) не признавать авторитета /власти/ и т.д.; non-conductors resist the passage of an electric current непроводники противодействуют прохождению электрического тока; resist changes противиться переменам
    2) resist smth. resist fire (the wind, the force of the waves, damp, heat, etc.) устоять против огня и т.д.; this fabric resists water это непромокаемая ткань; some substances resist the action of acid некоторые вещества не поддаются действию кислот /не окисляются/; gold resists rust золото не ржавеет; a roof that will resist the weather крыша, которая выдерживает любую погоду; a plant that resists cold морозоустойчивое растение; resist disease (infection. the cold, etc.) сопротивляться /не поддаваться/ болезни и т.д.; resist old age не поддаваться старости, не стареть
    3) resist smth. usually in the negative resist temptation (pleasure, smb.'s charm. a joke. strong drink, etc.) не поддаваться искушению и т.д.; I can't resist a chocolate (strawberries and cream, etc.) не могу удержаться [от того], чтобы не съесть шоколадку и т.д.; I can't resist a cigarette я не могу удержаться, чтобы не выкурить сигарету it was so ludicrous, she could not resist a smile это было так забавно, что она не удержалась от улыбки
    4. IV
    resist smb., smth. in some manner resist smb., smth. stubbornly (vigorously, heroically, effectively, successfully, feebly, etc.) сопротивляться кому-л., чему-л. упорно и т.д.
    5. VII
    resist smth. to do smth. the window resisted his efforts to open it несмотря на все его усилия, окно не открывалось; I can't resist your invitation to shoot не могу удержаться от того, чтобы не принять вашего приглашения поохотиться
    6. XI 7. XIV
    resist doing smth.
    1) resist being tied up (being kissed, being taken away, etc.) не давать себя связать и т.д.
    2) usually in the negative I can't resist making a joke (taking the money, telling him about it, etc.) не могу удержаться, чтобы не пошутить и т.д.; he couldn't resist laughing at her mistake он не мог не посмеяться над ее ошибкой
    8. XXI1
    resist smth. by smth. resist violence by violence противодействовать насилию, отвечать на насилие насилием; resist smb. by open fighting сопротивляться кому-л., открыто сражаясь

    English-Russian dictionary of verb phrases > resist

  • 35 reason

    ['riːz(ə)n] 1. сущ.
    1)
    а) причина, повод, основание

    by reason of — по причине; из-за

    to have a reason for not going — иметь уважительную причину, чтобы не идти (куда-л.)

    The real reason behind their decision was never made public. — Настоящая причина их решения так и осталась неизвестной.

    The reason why she did it is a mystery. — По какой причине она это сделала, остается загадкой.

    - convincing reason
    - compelling reasons
    - every reason
    - plausible reason
    - strong reason
    - urgent reason
    - valid reason
    - sufficient reason
    - underlying reason
    б) соображение, мотив; оправдание

    He quit for personal reasons. — Он уволился по личным причинам.

    2) разум, рассудок, ум, интеллект
    Syn:
    3) благоразумие, здравомыслие

    to stand to reason — быть ясным, понятным; казаться само собой разумеющимся

    It stands to reason that the majority party will be reelected. — Совершенно ясно, что партия большинства снова будет избрана.

    I'll do anything for you within reason. — Я сделаю для вас всё в пределах разумного.

    Syn:
    •
    Gram:
    [ref dict="LingvoGrammar (En-Ru)"]Adverbial clause of reason[/ref]
    2. гл.
    1) рассуждать, размышлять (о чём-л.); делать выводы
    Syn:
    2) убеждать, уговаривать

    to reason out of smth. — разубеждать в чём-л.

    to reason with smb. — урезонивать кого-л.

    The teacher tried to reason with the boy but he refused to listen. — Учитель попытался уговорить ребёнка, но тот не хотел и слушать.

    See if you can reason the members into agreeing with the plan. — Попробуй убедить членов комитета согласиться с планом.

    3) аргументировать, обосновывать; доказывать, приводить доводы

    The lawyer reasoned against any changes being made in the law. — Юрист высказывал аргументированное возражение против любых изменений в законе.

    Syn:
    4) уст. обсуждать, дискутировать
    Syn:
    •

    Англо-русский современный словарь > reason

  • 36 privilege

    privilege ['prɪvɪlɪdʒ]
    1 noun
    (a) (right, advantage) privilège m;
    ∎ the privileges of the nobility les privilèges mpl de la noblesse;
    ∎ to grant sb the privilege of doing sth accorder à qn le privilège de faire qch
    (b) (UNCOUNT) (unfair advantage) a struggle against privilege une lutte contre les privilèges
    (c) (honour) honneur m;
    ∎ it was a privilege doing business with you ce fut un honneur de travailler avec vous;
    ∎ I had the privilege of attending his wedding j'ai eu le bonheur ou la chance d'assister à son mariage;
    ∎ it is my privilege to introduce… j'ai le grand honneur ou le privilège de vous présenter…;
    ∎ it was a privilege to have known her c'est un privilège de l'avoir connue
    (d) Law (of lawyer) droit m de tenir une information secrète;
    ∎ Politics parliamentary privilege immunité f parlementaire
    (e) Computing (for access to network, database) droits mpl d'accès
    privilégier;
    ∎ these tax changes privilege the rich ces modifications fiscales privilégient les riches;
    ∎ I am privileged to be able to present to you… j'ai l'honneur ou le privilège de vous présenter…

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > privilege

  • 37 reason against

    возражать, выступать против( обыкн. используя веские аргументы) The lawyer reasoned against any changes being made in the law. ≈ Юрист высказал аргументированное возражение против изменений в законе.

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > reason against

  • 38 reason against

    reason against возражать, выступать против (обыкн. используя веские аргу-менты); The lawyer reasoned against any changes being made in the law.

    Англо-русский словарь Мюллера > reason against

  • 39 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 40 Salazar, Antônio de Oliveira

    (1889-1970)
       The Coimbra University professor of finance and economics and one of the founders of the Estado Novo, who came to dominate Western Europe's longest surviving authoritarian system. Salazar was born on 28 April 1889, in Vimieiro, Beira Alta province, the son of a peasant estate manager and a shopkeeper. Most of his first 39 years were spent as a student, and later as a teacher in a secondary school and a professor at Coimbra University's law school. Nine formative years were spent at Viseu's Catholic Seminary (1900-09), preparing for the Catholic priesthood, but the serious, studious Salazar decided to enter Coimbra University instead in 1910, the year the Braganza monarchy was overthrown and replaced by the First Republic. Salazar received some of the highest marks of his generation of students and, in 1918, was awarded a doctoral degree in finance and economics. Pleading inexperience, Salazar rejected an invitation in August 1918 to become finance minister in the "New Republic" government of President Sidónio Pais.
       As a celebrated academic who was deeply involved in Coimbra University politics, publishing works on the troubled finances of the besieged First Republic, and a leader of Catholic organizations, Sala-zar was not as modest, reclusive, or unknown as later official propaganda led the public to believe. In 1921, as a Catholic deputy, he briefly served in the First Republic's turbulent congress (parliament) but resigned shortly after witnessing but one stormy session. Salazar taught at Coimbra University as of 1916, and continued teaching until April 1928. When the military overthrew the First Republic in May 1926, Salazar was offered the Ministry of Finance and held office for several days. The ascetic academic, however, resigned his post when he discovered the degree of disorder in Lisbon's government and when his demands for budget authority were rejected.
       As the military dictatorship failed to reform finances in the following years, Salazar was reinvited to become minister of finances in April 1928. Since his conditions for acceptance—authority over all budget expenditures, among other powers—were accepted, Salazar entered the government. Using the Ministry of Finance as a power base, following several years of successful financial reforms, Salazar was named interim minister of colonies (1930) and soon garnered sufficient prestige and authority to become head of the entire government. In July 1932, Salazar was named prime minister, the first civilian to hold that post since the 1926 military coup.
       Salazar gathered around him a team of largely academic experts in the cabinet during the period 1930-33. His government featured several key policies: Portuguese nationalism, colonialism (rebuilding an empire in shambles), Catholicism, and conservative fiscal management. Salazar's government came to be called the Estado Novo. It went through three basic phases during Salazar's long tenure in office, and Salazar's role underwent changes as well. In the early years (1928-44), Salazar and the Estado Novo enjoyed greater vigor and popularity than later. During the middle years (1944—58), the regime's popularity waned, methods of repression increased and hardened, and Salazar grew more dogmatic in his policies and ways. During the late years (1958-68), the regime experienced its most serious colonial problems, ruling circles—including Salazar—aged and increasingly failed, and opposition burgeoned and grew bolder.
       Salazar's plans for stabilizing the economy and strengthening social and financial programs were shaken with the impact of the civil war (1936-39) in neighboring Spain. Salazar strongly supported General Francisco Franco's Nationalist rebels, the eventual victors in the war. But, as the civil war ended and World War II began in September 1939, Salazar's domestic plans had to be adjusted. As Salazar came to monopolize Lisbon's power and authority—indeed to embody the Estado Novo itself—during crises that threatened the future of the regime, he assumed ever more key cabinet posts. At various times between 1936 and 1944, he took over the Ministries of Foreign Affairs and of War (Defense), until the crises passed. At the end of the exhausting period of World War II, there were rumors that the former professor would resign from government and return to Coimbra University, but Salazar continued as the increasingly isolated, dominating "recluse of São Bento," that part of the parliament's buildings housing the prime minister's offices and residence.
       Salazar dominated the Estado Novo's government in several ways: in day-to-day governance, although this diminished as he delegated wider powers to others after 1944, and in long-range policy decisions, as well as in the spirit and image of the system. He also launched and dominated the single party, the União Nacional. A lifelong bachelor who had once stated that he could not leave for Lisbon because he had to care for his aged mother, Salazar never married, but lived with a beloved housekeeper from his Coimbra years and two adopted daughters. During his 36-year tenure as prime minister, Salazar engineered the important cabinet reshuffles that reflect the history of the Estado Novo and of Portugal.
       A number of times, in connection with significant events, Salazar decided on important cabinet officer changes: 11 April 1933 (the adoption of the Estado Novo's new 1933 Constitution); 18 January 1936 (the approach of civil war in Spain and the growing threat of international intervention in Iberian affairs during the unstable Second Spanish Republic of 1931-36); 4 September 1944 (the Allied invasion of Europe at Normandy and the increasing likelihood of a defeat of the Fascists by the Allies, which included the Soviet Union); 14 August 1958 (increased domestic dissent and opposition following the May-June 1958 presidential elections in which oppositionist and former regime stalwart-loyalist General Humberto Delgado garnered at least 25 percent of the national vote, but lost to regime candidate, Admiral Américo Tomás); 13 April 1961 (following the shock of anticolonial African insurgency in Portugal's colony of Angola in January-February 1961, the oppositionist hijacking of a Portuguese ocean liner off South America by Henrique Galvão, and an abortive military coup that failed to oust Salazar from office); and 19 August 1968 (the aging of key leaders in the government, including the now gravely ill Salazar, and the defection of key younger followers).
       In response to the 1961 crisis in Africa and to threats to Portuguese India from the Indian government, Salazar assumed the post of minister of defense (April 1961-December 1962). The failing leader, whose true state of health was kept from the public for as long as possible, appointed a group of younger cabinet officers in the 1960s, but no likely successors were groomed to take his place. Two of the older generation, Teotónio Pereira, who was in bad health, and Marcello Caetano, who preferred to remain at the University of Lisbon or in private law practice, remained in the political wilderness.
       As the colonial wars in three African territories grew more costly, Salazar became more isolated from reality. On 3 August 1968, while resting at his summer residence, the Fortress of São João do Estoril outside Lisbon, a deck chair collapsed beneath Salazar and his head struck the hard floor. Some weeks later, as a result, Salazar was incapacitated by a stroke and cerebral hemorrhage, was hospitalized, and became an invalid. While hesitating to fill the power vacuum that had unexpectedly appeared, President Tomás finally replaced Salazar as prime minister on 27 September 1968, with his former protégé and colleague, Marcello Caetano. Salazar was not informed that he no longer headed the government, but he never recovered his health. On 27 July 1970, Salazar died in Lisbon and was buried at Santa Comba Dão, Vimieiro, his village and place of birth.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Salazar, Antônio de Oliveira

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