the+june+number

SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology, Telecommunications

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Baudot had no formal education beyond his local primary school and began his working life as a farmer, as was his father. However, in September 1869 he joined the French telegraph service and was soon sent on a course on the recently developed Hughes printing telegraph. After service in the Franco-Prussian war as a lieutenant with the military telegraph, he returned to his civilian duties in Paris in 1872. He was there encouraged to develop (in his own time!) a multiple Hughes system for time-multiplexing of several telegraph messages. By using synchronized clockwork-driven rotating switches at the transmitter and receiver he was able to transmit five messages simultaneously; the system was officially adopted by the French Post \& Telegraph Administration five years later. In 1874 he patented the idea of a 5-bit (i.e. 32-permutation) code, with equal on and off intervals, for telegraph transmission of the Roman alphabet and punctuation signs and for control of the typewriter-like teleprinter used to display the message. This code, known as the Baudot code, was found to be more economical than the existing Morse code and was widely adopted for national and international telegraphy in the twentieth century. In the 1970s it was superseded by 7—and 8-bit codes.

Further development of his ideas on multiplexing led in 1894 to methods suitable for high-speed telegraphy. To commemorate his contribution to efficient telegraphy, the unit of signalling speed (i.e. the number of elements transmitted per second) is known as the baud.

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SUBJECT AREA: Medical technology

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Chain graduated in Berlin at the Charite Hospital in 1930. A refugee from political persecution, in 1933 he went to the School of Biochemistry in Cambridge, and in 1935 moved to the School of Pathology at Oxford. He became a British subject in 1939. His interests had involved the study of enzymes and the isolation of physiologically active substances from natural sources. In 1938 he drew Florey's attention to Fleming's note of 1929 reporting the bacterial growth inhibiting qualities of Penicillium mould. Using makeshift equipment and with little initial support, they isolated small quantities of penicillin, which they were then able to use clinically with dramatic effect.

Chain had always hoped for adequate resources to develop penicillin and other antibiotics in Britain. This was not forthcoming, however, and in 1948 a research chair and institute was created for him in Rome, at the International Research Centre for Chemical Microbiology. In 1961 he returned to London to the Chair of Biochemistry at Imperial College. There, with the help of a large donation from the Wolfson Foundation, an appropriate building with facilities for the large-scale development and production of biochemical substances was finally made available. His co-equal part in the development of penicillin was recognized by the sharing of the Nobel Prize for Medicine between Florey, Fleming and himself, and he received numerous honours and honorary degrees from a large number of governments and international institutions.

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SUBJECT AREA: Domestic appliances and interiors

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Thomas Chippendale was the son of a carpenter. The business that he set up in London was so well established by 1753 that he was able to move to larger premises—a workshop, timberyard and shop—in the furniture-making centre of London, at 60–62 St Martin's Lane. In 1754 he published his folio work The Gentleman and Cabinet-Maker's Director, which contained illustrations of every conceivable type of furniture. No previously published book was as comprehensive. The Director, as it came to be called, made Chippendale famous and he became the best known of all such English craftsmen and designers. Further editions of the book followed in 1755 and 1762.

Stylistically most of the furniture designs in the Director followed the contemporary rococo fashion, but a number followed other popular themes such as the so-called "literary Gothic" and chinoiserie. Indeed, the Chinese versions became so well known that such furniture became known as "Chinese Chippendale". Chippendale's later work was more neo-classical, much of it produced at the request of Robert Adam for the many great houses whose interiors he was re-designing in the 1760s and 1770s.

From a technical viewpoint, Chippendale's furniture was made from a variety of woods and incorporated diverse decoration. Mahogany was the fashionable wood of the age, particularly during the middle years of the eighteenth century, and lent itself especially to the fine and elaborate carving that characterized Chippendale's intricate chair and settee backs. By the later 1760s other woods were also often in use, sometimes gilded and turned, sometimes inlaid with materials such as ivory or ceramic plaques and fine ormolu mounts. Later still, painted designs were applied to panel surfaces. Alternatively, a delicate form of marquetry had been fashionably revived.

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SUBJECT AREA: Electricity

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When he was 14 years old Davenport was apprenticed to a blacksmith for seven years. At the close of his apprenticeship in 1823 he opened a blacksmith's shop in Brandon, Vermont. He began experimenting with electromagnets after observing one in use at the Penfield Iron Works at Crown Point, New York, in 1831. He saw the device as a possible source of power and by July 1834 had constructed his first electric motor. Having totally abandoned his regular business, Davenport built and exhibited a number of miniature machines; he utilized an electric motor to propel a model car around a circular track in 1836, and this became the first recorded instance of an electric railway. An application for a patent and a model were destroyed in a fire at the United States Patent Office in December 1836, but a second application was made and Davenport received a patent the following year for Improvements in Propelling Machinery by Magnetism and Electromagnetism. A British patent was also obtained. A workshop and laboratory were established in New York, but Davenport had little financial backing for his experiments. He built a total of over one hundred motors but was defeated by the inability to obtain an inexpensive source of power. Using an electric motor of his own design to operate a printing press in 1840, he undertook the publication of a journal, The Electromagnet and Mechanics' Intelligencer. This was the first American periodical on electricity, but it was discontinued after a few issues. In failing health he retired to Vermont where in the last year of his life he continued experiments in electromagnetism.

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SUBJECT AREA: Medical technology

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After graduating form the University of Berne in 1894, Gonin was appointed Assistant to Marc Dufour, Professor of Ophthalmology at the Hôpital de l'Asile des Aveugles, Lausanne. At the International Congress of Ophthalmology at Lucerne in 1904, the general opinion was expressed that the condition of retinal detachment was untreatable. Gonin spent the following decade studying the condition, and by 1920 he was able to inform the French Ophthalmological Society that he had been able to cure a number of cases by the use of localized cautery. In the same year Gonin succeeded to the chair in Lausanne, which became a centre for the treatment of retinal detachment; despite initial scepticism, by 1929 a convincing series of cases led to international acceptance and the further development of the technique with the use of diathermy. On his death he left a substantial bequest to the blind of Lausanne whom he had not been able to cure. The Gonin Medal is awarded quadrennially to the outstanding international figure in ophthalmology.

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SUBJECT AREA: Land transport

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In 1816 he was apprenticed to his father, who was a joiner. After a year his abilities in design and construction were so marked that it was decided that he would have more scope as an architect. He was accordingly apprenticed to a Mr Phillips in York, becoming a clerk to Phillips in 1820. While he served his time he also worked on his own account and taught at a night school. In 1825 he married Hannah Glover and settled in Halifax, where he became Assistant to another architect. In 1828 he became a partner of Edward Welch, with whom he built a number of churches in the north of England. He designed the Town Hall for Birmingham and was responsible for the constructional work until 1833, but he had to become bond because the builders caused him to become bankrupt. He was appointed Manager of the business affairs of Dempster Hemming of Caldicote Hall, which included the landed estates, banking and coal-mining. It was during this period that he designed the "Patent Safety Cab" named after him and popular in Victorian days. The safety element consisted in lowering the centre of gravity by the use of the cranked axle. Hansom sold his rights for £10,000 to a company proposing to exploit the patent, but he was never paid, for the company got into difficulties; Hansom became its temporary Manager in 1839 and put matters right, for which he was paid £300, all he ever made out of the Hansom Cab. In 1842 he brought out the first issue of The Builder, but lack of capital caused him to retire from the journal. He devoted himself from then on to domestic and ecclesiastical architecture, designing many churches, colleges, convents and schools all over Britain and even in Australia and South America. Of note is St Walburga's church, Preston, Lancashire, whose spire is 306 ft (93 m) high. At various times he was in partnership with his younger brother, his eldest son, and with E.W.Pugin with whom he had a disagreement. He was a Catholic and much of his work was for the Catholic Church.

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SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology

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Kilby spent most of his childhood in Great Bend, Kansas, where he often accompanied his father, an electrical power engineer, on his maintenance rounds. Working in the blizzard of 1937, his father borrowed a "ham" radio, and this fired Jack to study for his amateur licence (W9GTY) and to construct his own equipment while still a student at Great Bend High School. In 1941 he entered the University of Illinois, but four months later, after the attack on Pearl Harbor, he was enlisted in the US Army and found himself working in a radio repair workshop in India. When the war ended he returned to his studies, obtaining his BSEE from Illinois in 1947 and his MSEE from the University of Wisconsin. He then joined Centralab, a small electronics firm in Milwaukee owned by Globe-Union. There he filed twelve patents, including some for reduced titanate capacitors and for Steatite-packing of transistors, and developed a transistorized hearing-aid. During this period he also attended a course on transistors at Bell Laboratories. In May 1958, concerned to gain experience in the field of number processing, he joined Texas Instruments in Dallas. Shortly afterwards, while working alone during the factory vacation, he conceived the idea of making monolithic, or integrated, circuits by diffusing impurities into a silicon substrate to create P-N junctions. Within less than a month he had produced a complete oscillator on a chip to prove that the technology was feasible, and the following year at the 1ERE Show he demonstrated a germanium integrated-circuit flip-flop. Initially he was granted a patent for the idea, but eventually, after protracted litigation, priority was awarded to Robert Noyce of Fairchild. In 1965 he was commissioned by Patrick Haggerty, the Chief Executive of Texas Instruments, to make a pocket calculator based on integrated circuits, and on 14 April 1971 the world's first such device, the Pocketronic, was launched onto the market. Costing $150 (and weighing some 2½ lb or 1.1 kg), it was an instant success and in 1972 some 5 million calculators were sold worldwide. He left Texas Instruments in November 1970 to become an independent consultant and inventor, working on, amongst other things, methods of deriving electricity from sunlight.

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SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy

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After leaving school before the age of 14 Neilson followed his father in tending colliery-steam engines. He continued in this line while apprenticed to his elder brother and afterwards rose to engine-wright at Irvine colliery. That failed and Neilson obtained work as Foreman at the first gasworks to be set up in Glasgow. After five years he became Manager and Engineer to the works, remaining there for thirty years. He introduced a number of improvements into gas manufacture, such as the use of clay retorts, iron sulphate as a purifier and the swallow-tail burner. He had meanwhile benefited from studying physics and chemistry at the Andersonian University in Glasgow.

Neilson is best known for introducing hot blast into ironmaking. At that time, ironmasters believed that cold blast produced the best results, since furnaces seemed to make more and better iron in the winter than the summer. Neilson found that by leading the air blast through an iron chamber heated by a coal fire beneath it, much less fuel was needed to convert the iron ore to iron. He secured a patent in 1828 and managed to persuade Clyde Ironworks in Glasgow to try out the device. The results were immediately favourable, and the use of hot blast spread rapidly throughout the country and abroad. The equipment was improved, raising the blast temperature to around 300°C (572°F), reducing the amount of coal, which was converted into coke, required to produce a tonne of iron from 10 tonnes to about 3. Neilson entered into a partnership with Charles Macintosh and others to patent and promote the process. Successive, and successful, lawsuits against those who infringed the patent demonstrates the general eagerness to adopt hot blast. Beneficial though it was, the process did not become really satisfactory until the introduction of hot-blast stoves by E.A. Cowper in 1857.

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SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Textiles, Weapons and armour

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Christopher M.Spencer served an apprenticeship from 1847 to 1849 in the machine shop at the silk mills of Cheney Brothers in his native town and remained there for a few years as a journeyman machinist. In 1853 he went to Rochester, New York, to obtain experience with machinery other than that used in the textile industry. He then spent some years with the Colt Armory at Hartford, Connecticut, before returning to Cheney Brothers, where he obtained his first patent, which was for a silk-winding machine.

Spencer had long been interested in firearms and in 1860 he obtained a patent for a repeating rifle. The Spencer Repeating Rifle Company was organized for its manufacture, and before the end of the American Civil War about 200,000 rifles had been produced. He patented a number of other improvements in firearms and in 1868 was associated with Charles E.Billings (1835–1920) in the Roper Arms Company, set up at Amherst, Massachusetts, to manufacture Spencer's magazine gun. This was not a success, however, and in 1869 they moved to Hartford, Connecticut, and formed the Billings \& Spencer Company. There they developed the technology of the drop hammer and Spencer continued his inventive work, which included an automatic turret lathe for producing metal screws. The patent that he obtained for this in 1873 inexplicably failed to protect the essential feature of the machine which provided the automatic action, with the result that Spencer received no patent right on the most valuable feature of the machine.

In 1874 Spencer withdrew from active connection with Billings \& Spencer, although he remained a director, and in 1876 he formed with others the Hartford Machine Screw Company. However, he withdrew in 1882 to form the Spencer Arms Company at Windsor, Connecticut, for the manufacture of another of his inventions, a repeating shotgun. But this company failed and Spencer returned to the field of automatic lathes, and in 1893 he organized the Spencer Automatic Machine Screw Company at Windsor, where he remained until his retirement.

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SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives, Steam and internal combustion engines

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Webb was a pupil at Crewe Works, London \& North Western Railway (LNWR), under F. Trevithick (son of Richard Trevithick), and was subsequently placed in charge of the works under Trevithick's successor, J.Ramsbottom. After a brief spell away from the LNWR, Webb returned in 1871 and was made Chief Mechanical Engineer, a post he held until his retirement in 1904.

Webb's initial designs included the highly successful "Precedent" or "Jumbo" class 2– 4–0, from which the example Hardwicke (now preserved by the National Railway Museum, York) achieved an average speed of 67.2 mph (108.1 km/h) between Crewe and Carlisle in 1895. His 0–6–0 "coal engines" were straightforward and cheap and were built in large numbers. In 1879 Webb, having noted the introduction of compound locomotives in France by J.T.A. Mallet, rebuilt an existing 2–2–2 locomotive as a two-cylinder compound. Then in 1882, seeking fuel economy and the suppression of coupling rods, he produced a compound locomotive to his own design, the 2–2, 2–0 Experiment, in which two outside high-pressure cylinders drove the rear driving-wheels, and a single inside large-diameter low-pressure cylinder drove the front driving-wheels. This was followed by a large number of compound locomotives: three successive classes of 2–2, 2–0s; some 2–2, 2–2s; some 4–4–0s; and some 0–8–0s for goods traffic. Although these were capable of good performance, their overall value was controversial: Webb, who was notoriously autocratic, may never have been fully informed of their defects, and after his retirement most were quickly scrapped. Webb made many other innovations during his career, one of the most important being the construction of boilers from steel rather than wrought iron.

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See also: Bousquet, Gaston du; Gresley, Sir Herbert Nigel; Joy, David; Worsdell, Thomas William

SUBJECT AREA: Electricity, Public utilities

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Brush graduated from the University of Michigan in 1869 and worked for several years as a chemist. Believing that electric arc lighting would be commercially successful if the equipment could be improved, he completed his first dynamo in 1875 and a simplified arc lamp. His original system operated a maximum of four lights, each on a separate circuit, from one dynamo. Brush envisaged a wider market for his product and by 1879 had available on arc lighting system principally intended for street and other outdoor illumination. He designed a dynamo that generated a high voltage and which, with a carbon-pile regulator, provided an almost constant current permitting the use of up to forty lamps on one circuit. He also improved arc lamps by incorporating a slipping-clutch regulating mechanism and automatic means of bringing into use a second set of carbons, thereby doubling the period between replacements.

Brush's multiple electric arc lighting system was first demonstrated in Cleveland and by 1880 had been adopted in a number of American cities, including New York, Boston and Philadelphia. It was also employed in many European towns until incandescent lamps, for which the Brush dynamo was unsuitable, came into use. To market his apparatus, Brush promoted local lighting companies and thereby secured local capital.

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See also: Hammond, Robert

SUBJECT AREA: Steam and internal combustion engines

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A distinguished hydraulic engineer, Matteucci is more widely known for his work on early internal-combustion engines. In 1851, during a landreclamation project in Florence, he became acquainted with Eugenio Barsanti. Together they succeeded in designing and producing a number of the first type of gas engines to produce a vacuum within a closed cylinder, atmospheric pressure then being utilized to produce the power stroke. The principle was demonstrated by Cecil in 1820 and was used by Samuel Brown in 1827 and by N.A. Otto in 1867. The company Società Promotrice del Nuovo Motore Barsanti e Matteucci was formed in 1860, but ill health forced Matteucci to resign in 1862, and in 1864 Barsanti, whilst negotiating mass production of engines with Cockerill of Seraing, Belgium, contracted typhoid and later died. Efforts to continue the business in Italy subsequently failed and Matteucci returned to his engineering practice.

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1) (a day when one does not have to work: Next Monday is a holiday.) fiesta, día festivo

2) ((often in plural) a period of time when one does not have to work: The summer holidays will soon be here; We're going to Sweden for our holiday(s); I'm taking two weeks' holiday in June; (also adjective) holiday clothes.) vacaciones

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- holidaymaker

holiday n fiesta

tr['hɒlɪdeɪ]

noun

1 (one day) fiesta, día nombre masculino de fiesta, día nombre masculino festivo

■ Friday is a holiday el viernes es fiesta

2 (period) vacaciones nombre femenino plural

■ they spend their summer holidays in Spain suelen veranear en España

intransitive verb

1 SMALLBRITISH ENGLISH/SMALL (gen) pasar las vacaciones; (in summer) veranear

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to be on holiday estar de vacaciones

to go on holiday ir de vacaciones

to take a holiday coger unas vacaciones

holiday atmosphere ambiente nombre masculino festivo

holiday pay paga extra (de vacaciones)

holiday resort lugar nombre masculino turístico

holiday ['hɑlə.deɪ] n

1) : día m feriado, fiesta f

2) vacation: vacaciones fpl

• día de fiesta s.m.

• asueto s.m.

• día de fiesta s.m.

• día festivo s.m.

• feria s.f.

• festividad s.f.

• fiesta s.f.

• vacaciones s.f.pl.

a) ( day) fiesta f, día m festivo, (día m) feriado m (AmL)

b) ( period away from work) (esp BrE) (often pl) vacaciones fpl, licencia f (Col, Méx, RPl)

c) (BrE Educ) (often pl) vacaciones fpl

intransitive verb (esp BrE) pasar las vacaciones, vacacionar (Méx); ( in summer) veranear

N (esp Brit) (=period) vacaciones fpl ; (=public) fiesta f ; (=day) día m de fiesta, día m feriado, feriado m (LAm)

VI (Brit) pasar las vacaciones

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a) ( day) fiesta f, día m festivo, (día m) feriado m (AmL)

b) ( period away from work) (esp BrE) (often pl) vacaciones fpl, licencia f (Col, Méx, RPl)

c) (BrE Educ) (often pl) vacaciones fpl

intransitive verb (esp BrE) pasar las vacaciones, vacacionar (Méx); ( in summer) veranear

reference ['refrəns]

1 noun

(a) (allusion) allusion f (to à); (mention) mention f (to de);

∎ to make a reference to sth faire allusion à qch;

∎ if any reference is made to me si on parle de moi;

∎ a talk on the environment with particular reference to… un exposé sur l'environnement abordant tout particulièrement…;

∎ with reference to your request for more funding en ce qui concerne votre demande de fonds supplémentaires;

∎ Commerce with reference to your letter of 25 June… suite à votre courrier du 25 juin…;

∎ with reference to what was said at the meeting à propos de ou en ce qui concerne ce qui a été dit au cours de la réunion

(b) (consultation) consultation f;

∎ without reference to me sans me consulter;

∎ for reference only (on library book) consultation sur place; (on document etc in circulation) pour information seulement;

∎ to keep sth for future reference garder qch à titre d'information;

∎ for future reference, please note… pour votre information à l'avenir, veuillez noter…

(c) (in code, catalogue) référence f; (on map) coordonnées fpl; (in book → allusion) référence f, allusion f; (→ footnote, cross-reference) renvoi m;

∎ look up the reference in the dictionary cherchez la référence dans le dictionnaire;

∎ it's a biblical reference c'est une allusion ou une référence biblique

(d) Commerce référence f;

∎ quote this reference rappelez cette référence;

∎ your reference votre référence;

∎ our reference notre référence

(e) Banking (testimonial) référence f

(f) (recommendation → for job) références fpl;

∎ to give sb a reference fournir une référence à qn;

∎ to have good references avoir de bonnes références;

∎ could you give me a reference please? pouvez-vous me fournir des références, s'il vous plaît?;

∎ I'm often asked for references on me demande souvent de fournir des références;

∎ to take up references prendre contact avec ou contacter les personnes dont un candidat se recommande;

∎ you can use my name as a reference vous pouvez me citer comme référence;

∎ banker's reference références fpl bancaires

(g) (remit → of commission) compétence f, pouvoirs mpl;

∎ the question is outside the tribunal's reference la question n'est pas de la compétence du tribunal

(h) Linguistics référence f

(i) Law (of case) renvoi m

2 compound-forming noun

(material, section) de référence; (value, quantity) de référence, étalon

3 transitive verb

(a) (refer to) faire référence à

(b) (thesis) établir la liste des citations dans; (quotation) donner la référence de

(c) Computing référencer

►► reference book ouvrage m de référence;

Marketing reference customer client(e) m,f de référence;

Marketing reference group groupe m de référence;

reference library bibliothèque f d'ouvrages de référence;

reference number numéro m de référence;

reference point point m de repère;

Finance reference rate taux m de référence;

reference room (in public library) salle f de lecture; (in university) salle f de consultation;

Marketing reference sale vente f de référence;

reference work ouvrage m de référence

SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace

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Flying kites as a boy aroused Ellehammer's interest in aeronautics, and he developed a kite that could lift him off the ground. After completing an apprenticeship, he started his own manufacturing business, whose products included motor cycles. He experimented with model aircraft as a sideline and used his mo tor-cycle experience to build an aero engine during 1903–4. It had three cylinders radiating from the crankshaft, making it, in all probability, the world's first air-cooled radial engine. Ellehammer built his first full-size aircraft in 1905 and tested it in January 1906. It ran round a circular track, was tethered to a central mast and was unmanned. A more powerful engine was needed, and by September Ellehammer had improved his engine so that it was capable of lifting him for a tethered flight. In 1907 Ellehammer produced a new five-cylinder radial engine and installed it in the first manned tri-plane, which made a number of free-flight hops. Various wing designs were tested and during 1908–9 Ellehammer developed yet another radial engine, which had six cylinders arranged in two rows of three. Ellehammer's engines had a very good power-to-weight ratio, but his aircraft designs lacked an understanding of control; consequently, he never progressed beyond short hops in a straight line. In 1912 he built a helicopter with contra-rotating rotors that was a limited success. Ellehammer turned his attention to his other interests, but if he had concentrated on his excellent engines he might have become a major aero engine manufacturer.

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1 lyre (Music).

2 lira (moneda).

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► nombre femenino

1 MÚSICA lyre

► nombre femenino

1 (moneda) lira

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1) (Mús) lyre

2) (Literat) 5-line stanza popular in the 16th century

3) (=moneda) lira

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1) (Mús) lyre

2) (Fin) lira

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1) (Mús) lyre

2) (Fin) lira

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lira¹

¹ = lira [lire, -pl.].

lira²

² = lyre.

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A ( Mús) lyre

B ( Fin) lira

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a) (Mús) lyre

b) (Fin) lira

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lira nf

1. Antes [moneda] lira

2. Mús lyre

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1 lira

2 MÚS lyre

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lira nf

: lyre

familiar FINANCE jumbo bond = obligation de valeur très élevée;

familiar FINANCE jumbo certificate of deposit certificat m de très grand dépôt;

American familiar FINANCE jumbo loan prêt m géant;

familiar STOCK EXCHANGE jumbo trade opération f jumbo

¹ = lira [lire, -pl.].

Ex. A number of private companies has been awarded a share in the 600 billion lire allocated for the 39 first projects to be implemented starting June 87.

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* lira italiana = Italian lira.

1 adjective

for further information, phone this number pour tout renseignement complémentaire, appelez ce numéro;

∎ please send me further information concerning the project veuillez m'envoyer de plus amples renseignements concernant le projet;

∎ I would like further details of the programme j'aimerais avoir quelques précisions supplémentaires sur le programme;

∎ until further notice jusqu'à nouvel ordre

2 adverb

further to (in letter) suite à;

∎ further to your letter of 15 June suite à votre lettre du 15 juin;

∎ further to our telephone call suite à notre conversation téléphonique

3 transitive verb

(career) servir, favoriser; (cause) avancer, servir, favoriser