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the+great+story

  • 61 Watt, James

    [br]
    b. 19 January 1735 Greenock, Renfrewshire, Scotland
    d. 19 August 1819 Handsworth Heath, Birmingham, England
    [br]
    Scottish engineer and inventor of the separate condenser for the steam engine.
    [br]
    The sixth child of James Watt, merchant and general contractor, and Agnes Muirhead, Watt was a weak and sickly child; he was one of only two to survive childhood out of a total of eight, yet, like his father, he was to live to an age of over 80. He was educated at local schools, including Greenock Grammar School where he was an uninspired pupil. At the age of 17 he was sent to live with relatives in Glasgow and then in 1755 to London to become an apprentice to a mathematical instrument maker, John Morgan of Finch Lane, Cornhill. Less than a year later he returned to Greenock and then to Glasgow, where he was appointed mathematical instrument maker to the University and was permitted in 1757 to set up a workshop within the University grounds. In this position he came to know many of the University professors and staff, and it was thus that he became involved in work on the steam engine when in 1764 he was asked to put in working order a defective Newcomen engine model. It did not take Watt long to perceive that the great inefficiency of the Newcomen engine was due to the repeated heating and cooling of the cylinder. His idea was to drive the steam out of the cylinder and to condense it in a separate vessel. The story is told of Watt's flash of inspiration as he was walking across Glasgow Green one Sunday afternoon; the idea formed perfectly in his mind and he became anxious to get back to his workshop to construct the necessary apparatus, but this was the Sabbath and work had to wait until the morrow, so Watt forced himself to wait until the Monday morning.
    Watt designed a condensing engine and was lent money for its development by Joseph Black, the Glasgow University professor who had established the concept of latent heat. In 1768 Watt went into partnership with John Roebuck, who required the steam engine for the drainage of a coal-mine that he was opening up at Bo'ness, West Lothian. In 1769, Watt took out his patent for "A New Invented Method of Lessening the Consumption of Steam and Fuel in Fire Engines". When Roebuck went bankrupt in 1772, Matthew Boulton, proprietor of the Soho Engineering Works near Birmingham, bought Roebuck's share in Watt's patent. Watt had met Boulton four years earlier at the Soho works, where power was obtained at that time by means of a water-wheel and a steam engine to pump the water back up again above the wheel. Watt moved to Birmingham in 1774, and after the patent had been extended by Parliament in 1775 he and Boulton embarked on a highly profitable partnership. While Boulton endeavoured to keep the business supplied with capital, Watt continued to refine his engine, making several improvements over the years; he was also involved frequently in legal proceedings over infringements of his patent.
    In 1794 Watt and Boulton founded the new company of Boulton \& Watt, with a view to their retirement; Watt's son James and Boulton's son Matthew assumed management of the company. Watt retired in 1800, but continued to spend much of his time in the workshop he had set up in the garret of his Heathfield home; principal amongst his work after retirement was the invention of a pantograph sculpturing machine.
    James Watt was hard-working, ingenious and essentially practical, but it is doubtful that he would have succeeded as he did without the business sense of his partner, Matthew Boulton. Watt coined the term "horsepower" for quantifying the output of engines, and the SI unit of power, the watt, is named in his honour.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    FRS 1785. Honorary LLD, University of Glasgow 1806. Foreign Associate, Académie des Sciences, Paris 1814.
    Further Reading
    H.W.Dickinson and R Jenkins, 1927, James Watt and the Steam Engine, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
    L.T.C.Rolt, 1962, James Watt, London: B.T. Batsford.
    R.Wailes, 1963, James Watt, Instrument Maker (The Great Masters: Engineering Heritage, Vol. 1), London: Institution of Mechanical Engineers.
    IMcN

    Biographical history of technology > Watt, James

  • 62 film

    1. [fılm] n
    1. плёнка; тонкий слой (чего-л.)

    film crust - тех. твёрдая плёнка

    2. фотоплёнка; киноплёнка
    3. (кино)фильм, (кино)картина

    feature [documentary] film - художественный [документальный] фильм

    three-dimensional / часто 3 D/ film - стереофильм

    art film - а) экспериментальный, некоммерческий фильм; б) документальная картина о художественных выставках, работе художников и т. п.

    to screen [to shoot] a film - показывать [снимать] фильм

    the film is on /playing, showing/ - фильм идёт

    4. 1) кино, киноискусство

    film people - кинематографисты, деятели кино

    film writer - сценарист, кинодраматург

    film company - кинокомпания, кинофирма

    film analysis - спец. исследование с помощью киносъёмки

    2) (the films) pl разг. кино
    5. лёгкий туман, дымка
    6. тонкая нить
    7. тех. перепонка, оболочка
    2. [fılm] v
    1. снимать (кино)фильм; производить киносъёмки; снимать на киноплёнку
    2. экранизировать ( литературное произведение)
    3. сниматься в кино; быть киноактёром

    this actor has been filming for many years - этот актёр уже много лет снимается в кино

    4. быть подходящим материалом для кино
    5. 1) покрывать плёнкой, оболочкой
    2) покрываться плёнкой; застилаться дымкой, туманом (тж. film over)

    НБАРС > film

  • 63 fish

    I
    1. [fıʃ] n (pl часто без измен.)
    1. 1) рыба

    fresh-water fish - пресноводная /речная/ рыба

    young fish - мальки, молодь

    dried fish - вяленая /сушёная/ рыба

    to catch ten fishes [a lot of fish] - поймать десять рыб [много рыбы]

    2) рыба, рыбные блюда

    fish soup - рыбный суп, уха

    2. разг. крабы, устрицы и т. п.
    3. разг. рыбная ловля

    fish stakes - сети на кольях, рыбный закол

    5. разг. тип, персона

    big fish - «кит», большая шишка

    cold fish - неприветливый, необщительный человек; бука

    cool fish - нахал, наглец

    dull fish - скучный /нудный/ человек

    odd /queer, strange/ fish - чудак, странный тип

    shy fish - робкий /застенчивый/ человек

    6. амер. сл. доллар
    7. = fish-dive

    ♢ to feel like a fish out of water - чувствовать себя как рыба, вынутая из воды

    to cry stinking fish - а) хулить свой товар; б) ≅ выносить сор из избы

    to feed the fishes - а) утонуть, «кормить рыб»; б) страдать морской болезнью

    the great fish eat the small - ≅ сильные пожирают слабых

    to have other fish to fry - иметь другие /более важные/ дела

    to hook /to land/ one's fish - добиться своего, поймать (кого-л.) на удочку

    to make fish of one and flesh /fowl/ of another - относиться к людям пристрастно

    neither fish nor flesh /nor good red herring/, neither fish, flesh nor fowl - ни рыба ни мясо; ни то ни сё

    never fry a fish till it's caught - не радуйся раньше времени; ≅ не дели шкуру неубитого медведя

    never offer to teach fish to swim - смешно учить рыбу плавать; ≅ не учи учёного

    to venture a small fish to catch a great one - ≅ рискнуть малым ради большого

    as drunk as a fish - ≅ пьян в стельку

    a fish story - ≅ «охотничий» рассказ; преувеличение

    all is fish that comes to his net - посл. он ничем не брезгует; ≅ доброму вору всё впору

    the best fish swim near the bottom - посл. лучшая рыба по дну ходит; хорошее нелегко даётся

    he who would catch fish must not mind getting wet - посл. ≅ без труда не вынешь и рыбку из пруда

    it is a silly fish that is caught twice with the same bait - посл. глуп тот, кто дважды попадается на ту же удочку

    2. [fıʃ] v
    1. 1) ловить, удить рыбу
    2) использовать для рыбной ловли

    to fish a stream [a lake] - ловить рыбу в ручье [в озере]

    the men who fish the waters - люди, занимающиеся рыболовством в этих водах

    2. быть пригодным для рыбной ловли
    3. (for)
    1) искать (в воде)
    2) разг. стараться получить

    to fish for information - добывать сведения /информацию/

    to fish for compliments [for an invitation] - напрашиваться на комплименты [на приглашение]

    4. разг. вытаскивать, извлекать (тж. fish out)

    several derelict cars are fished out of the river every year - из реки каждый год извлекают несколько брошенных автомобилей

    why are you fishing around in your pockets? - что вы ищете у себя в карманах?

    5. амер. с.-х. удобрять ( землю) рыбными отходами

    ♢ to fish in troubled waters - ловить рыбку в мутной воде

    to fish or cut bait - амер. принять то или иное решение

    II
    1. [fıʃ] n
    1. мор.
    2) шкало ( у мачты)
    2. = fish-plate
    3. ав. жарг. торпеда
    2. [fıʃ] v
    1. мор.
    1) брать на фиш ( якорь)
    2) накладывать шкало ( у мачты)
    2. ав. жарг. торпедировать
    II [fıʃ] n IV
    1. [fıʃ] n тех.
    2. [fıʃ] v тех.

    НБАРС > fish

  • 64 Я-25

    РАЗВЯЗЫВАТЬ/РАЗВЯЗАТЬ ЯЗЫК coll VP
    1. - кому ( subj: abstr or a noun denoting an alcoholic beverage) to encourage, induce a person to begin talking, speak freely, without reservation
    X развязал язык Y-y = X loosened Y% tongue.
    Выпитое ли вино, или потребность откровенности, или мысль, что этот человек не знает и не узнает никого из действующих лиц его истории, или всё вместе развязало язык Пьеру. И он... рассказал всю свою историю: и свою женитьбу, и историю любви Наташи к его лучшему другу, и её измену, и все свои несложные отношения к ней (Толстой 6). Whether it was the wine he had drunk or an impulse of frankness or the thought that this man did not, and never would, know any of those who played a part in his story, or whether it was all these things together, something loosened Pierre's tongue....He told the whole story of his life: his marriage, Natasha's love for his best friend, her betrayal of him, and all his own simple relations with her (6a).
    2. - кому (subj: human to force, impel a person to speak, divulge a secret
    X развяжет Y-y язык - X will loosen Y's tongue
    X will make Y talk.
    3. (subj: human fearing punishment, reprisal, to speak after a silence and divulge some secret
    X развязал язык — X started talking
    (in limited contexts) X came clean.
    «Ещё раз повторяю вам, что на подобные вопросы отвечать не стану». - «На выбор: или ты, собака, сейчас же развяжешь язык, или через десять минут будешь поставлен к стенке! Ну?!» (Шолохов 5). "I repeat, I refuse to answer such questions." "You have the choice. Either you come clean, you dog, or in ten minutes from now we'll have you up against a wall! Now then?" (5a).
    4. often disapprov (subj: human to become talkative ( usu. after a silence), talk a great deal
    X развязал язык - X began to talk (a lot)
    X began to wag his tongue X began to jabber (chatter) away.

    Большой русско-английский фразеологический словарь > Я-25

  • 65 развязать язык

    • РАЗВЯЗЫВАТЬ/РАЗВЯЗАТЬ ЯЗЫК coll
    [VP]
    =====
    1. развязать язык кому [subj: abstr or a noun denoting an alcoholic beverage]
    ⇒ to encourage, induce a person to begin talking, speak freely, without reservation:
    - X развязал язык Y-y ≈ X loosened Y's tongue.
         ♦ Выпитое ли вино, или потребность откровенности, или мысль, что этот человек не знает и не узнает никого из действующих лиц его истории, или всё вместе развязало язык Пьеру. И он... рассказал всю свою историю: и свою женитьбу, и историю любви Наташи к его лучшему другу, и её измену, и все свои несложные отношения к ней (Толстой 6). Whether it was the wine he had drunk or an impulse of frankness or the thought that this man did not, and never would, know any of those who played a part in his story, or whether it was all these things together, something loosened Pierre's tongue....He told the whole story of his life: his marriage, Natasha's love for his best friend, her betrayal of him, and all his own simple relations with her (6a).
    ⇒ to force, impel a person to speak, divulge a secret:
    - X развяжет Y-y язык≈ X will loosen Y's tongue;
    - X will make Y talk.
    3. [subj: human]
    ⇒ fearing punishment, reprisal, to speak after a silence and divulge some secret:
    - X развязал язык≈ X started talking;
    - [in limited contexts] X came clean.
         ♦ "Ещё раз повторяю вам, что на подобные вопросы отвечать не стану". - " На выбор: или ты, собака, сейчас же развяжешь язык, или через десять минут будешь поставлен к стенке! Ну?!" (Шолохов 5). "I repeat, I refuse to answer such questions." "You have the choice. Either you come clean, you dog, or in ten minutes from now we'll have you up against a wall! Now then?" (5a).
    4. often disapprov [subj: human]
    ⇒ to become talkative (usu. after a silence), talk a great deal:
    - X развязал язык≈ X began to talk (a lot);
    - X began to jabber (chatter) away.

    Большой русско-английский фразеологический словарь > развязать язык

  • 66 развязывать язык

    • РАЗВЯЗЫВАТЬ/РАЗВЯЗАТЬ ЯЗЫК coll
    [VP]
    =====
    1. развязывать язык кому [subj: abstr or a noun denoting an alcoholic beverage]
    ⇒ to encourage, induce a person to begin talking, speak freely, without reservation:
    - X развязал язык Y-y ≈ X loosened Y's tongue.
         ♦ Выпитое ли вино, или потребность откровенности, или мысль, что этот человек не знает и не узнает никого из действующих лиц его истории, или всё вместе развязало язык Пьеру. И он... рассказал всю свою историю: и свою женитьбу, и историю любви Наташи к его лучшему другу, и её измену, и все свои несложные отношения к ней (Толстой 6). Whether it was the wine he had drunk or an impulse of frankness or the thought that this man did not, and never would, know any of those who played a part in his story, or whether it was all these things together, something loosened Pierre's tongue....He told the whole story of his life: his marriage, Natasha's love for his best friend, her betrayal of him, and all his own simple relations with her (6a).
    ⇒ to force, impel a person to speak, divulge a secret:
    - X развяжет Y-y язык≈ X will loosen Y's tongue;
    - X will make Y talk.
    3. [subj: human]
    ⇒ fearing punishment, reprisal, to speak after a silence and divulge some secret:
    - X развязал язык≈ X started talking;
    - [in limited contexts] X came clean.
         ♦ "Ещё раз повторяю вам, что на подобные вопросы отвечать не стану". - " На выбор: или ты, собака, сейчас же развяжешь язык, или через десять минут будешь поставлен к стенке! Ну?!" (Шолохов 5). "I repeat, I refuse to answer such questions." "You have the choice. Either you come clean, you dog, or in ten minutes from now we'll have you up against a wall! Now then?" (5a).
    4. often disapprov [subj: human]
    ⇒ to become talkative (usu. after a silence), talk a great deal:
    - X развязал язык≈ X began to talk (a lot);
    - X began to jabber (chatter) away.

    Большой русско-английский фразеологический словарь > развязывать язык

  • 67 unendlich

    I Adj. PHYS., MATH., MUS. infinite (auch fig. Sorgfalt, Vergnügen etc.); unendliche Größe oder Zahl MATH. infinite quantity; unendliche Reihe MATH. infinite series; das Unendliche infinity (auch MATH.); unendlicher Kreislauf recurring spiral; auf unendlich einstellen FOT. focus at infinity; ( bis) ins Unendliche on and on and on, endlessly, ad infinitum; das geht ins Unendliche it’s never-ending; unendliche Geduld ( mit jemandem) haben have infinite patience (with s.o.); Die unendliche Geschichte Roman: The Neverending Story
    II Adv. infinitely; fig. (sehr) exceedingly, incredibly umg.; sich unendlich freuen etc. be pleased etc. no end umg.; unendlich traurig / glücklich tremendously sad / happy; unendlich klein infinitesimal; unendlich lang endless; unendlich lange warten umg. wait for absolute(ly) ages; unendlich viel(e ) Zahl: an infinite number (of); Menge: an infinite amount (of); mit Ergänzung: auch no end of umg.; unendlich viel(e) Sorgen etc. no end of trouble etc.; er hat sich unendlich bemüht he took infinite (umg. no end of) pains; jemanden unendlich lieben love s.o. so very much ( oder infinitely geh., oder to bits, Am. pieces umg.)
    * * *
    unending; infinite; endless
    * * *
    un|ẹnd|lich
    1. adj
    infinite; (zeitlich) endless; Universum infinite, boundless
    2. adv
    endlessly; infinitely; (fig = sehr) terribly

    unendlich viele Dinge/Leute etc — no end of things/people etc

    * * *
    1) (extremely; to a very great degree: The time at which our sun will finally cease to burn is infinitely far away.) infinitely
    2) (without end or limits: We believe that space is infinite.) infinite
    * * *
    un·end·lich
    [ʊnˈʔɛntlɪç]
    I. adj
    2. (unbegrenzt) endless, infinite, boundless
    3. (überaus groß) infinite, immense
    mit \unendlicher Liebe/Geduld/Güte with infinite [or endless] love/patience/goodness
    \unendliche Strapazen immense [or endless] strain
    etw auf \unendlich einstellen to focus sth at infinity
    II. adv (fam) endlessly, infinitely
    \unendlich viele Leute heaven [or god] knows how many people
    \unendlich froh sein, sich akk \unendlich freuen to be terribly [or immensely] happy
    * * *
    1.
    Adjektiv infinite, boundless <space, sea, expanse, fig.: love, care, patience, etc.>; (zeitlich) endless; never-ending

    das Unendliche — the infinite (Philos.); infinity (Math.)

    auf unendlich stellen — (Fot.) focus < lens> on infinity

    2.
    adverbial infinitely <lovable, sad>; immeasurably < happy>
    * * *
    A. adj PHYS, MATH, MUS infinite (auch fig Sorgfalt, Vergnügen etc);
    Zahl MATH infinite quantity;
    unendliche Reihe MATH infinite series;
    das Unendliche infinity ( auch MATH);
    unendlicher Kreislauf recurring spiral;
    auf unendlich einstellen FOTO focus at infinity;
    (bis) ins Unendliche on and on and on, endlessly, ad infinitum;
    das geht ins Unendliche it’s never-ending;
    unendliche Geduld (mit jemandem) haben have infinite patience (with sb);
    Die unendliche Geschichte Roman: The Neverending Story
    B. adv infinitely; fig (sehr) exceedingly, incredibly umg;
    sich unendlich freuen etc be pleased etc no end umg;
    unendlich traurig/glücklich tremendously sad/happy;
    unendlich klein infinitesimal;
    unendlich lang endless;
    unendlich lange warten umg wait for absolute(ly) ages;
    unendlich viel(e) Zahl: an infinite number (of); Menge: an infinite amount (of); mit Ergänzung: auch no end of umg;
    unendlich viel(e) Sorgen etc no end of trouble etc;
    er hat sich unendlich bemüht he took infinite (umg no end of) pains;
    jemanden unendlich lieben love sb so very much ( oder infinitely geh, oder to bits, US pieces umg)
    * * *
    1.
    Adjektiv infinite, boundless <space, sea, expanse, fig.: love, care, patience, etc.>; (zeitlich) endless; never-ending

    das Unendliche — the infinite (Philos.); infinity (Math.)

    auf unendlich stellen — (Fot.) focus < lens> on infinity

    2.
    adverbial infinitely <lovable, sad>; immeasurably < happy>
    * * *
    (Mathematik) adj.
    infinity n. (Mathematik) adv.
    infinite n. adj.
    infinite adj. adv.
    indefinitely adv.
    infinitely adv.
    unendingly adv.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > unendlich

  • 68 figure

    رَسْم تَوْضِيحيّ \ figure: a drawing that explains sth.; a shape: A circle is a round figure. \ شَخْصِيّة بارِزة \ figure: a person of importance: Churchill is one of the great figures of modern history. \ شَكْل الجِسْم البَشَري \ figure: a human form: A dark figure was standing in the moonlight. That girl has a graceful figure. \ عَلَمٌ (شَخْصٌ)‏ \ figure: a person of importance: Churchill is one of the great figures of modern history. \ لَعِبَ دورًا \ figure: to appear (in a story or report): Well-known sportsmen often figure in the newspaper.

    Arabic-English glossary > figure

  • 69 Philosophy

       And what I believe to be more important here is that I find in myself an infinity of ideas of certain things which cannot be assumed to be pure nothingness, even though they may have perhaps no existence outside of my thought. These things are not figments of my imagination, even though it is within my power to think of them or not to think of them; on the contrary, they have their own true and immutable natures. Thus, for example, when I imagine a triangle, even though there may perhaps be no such figure anywhere in the world outside of my thought, nor ever have been, nevertheless the figure cannot help having a certain determinate nature... or essence, which is immutable and eternal, which I have not invented and which does not in any way depend upon my mind. (Descartes, 1951, p. 61)
       Let us console ourselves for not knowing the possible connections between a spider and the rings of Saturn, and continue to examine what is within our reach. (Voltaire, 1961, p. 144)
       As modern physics started with the Newtonian revolution, so modern philosophy starts with what one might call the Cartesian Catastrophe. The catastrophe consisted in the splitting up of the world into the realms of matter and mind, and the identification of "mind" with conscious thinking. The result of this identification was the shallow rationalism of l'esprit Cartesien, and an impoverishment of psychology which it took three centuries to remedy even in part. (Koestler, 1964, p. 148)
       It has been made of late a reproach against natural philosophy that it has struck out on a path of its own, and has separated itself more and more widely from the other sciences which are united by common philological and historical studies. The opposition has, in fact, been long apparent, and seems to me to have grown up mainly under the influence of the Hegelian philosophy, or, at any rate, to have been brought out into more distinct relief by that philosophy.... The sole object of Kant's "Critical Philosophy" was to test the sources and the authority of our knowledge, and to fix a definite scope and standard for the researches of philosophy, as compared with other sciences.... [But Hegel's] "Philosophy of Identity" was bolder. It started with the hypothesis that not only spiritual phenomena, but even the actual world-nature, that is, and man-were the result of an act of thought on the part of a creative mind, similar, it was supposed, in kind to the human mind.... The philosophers accused the scientific men of narrowness; the scientific men retorted that the philosophers were crazy. And so it came about that men of science began to lay some stress on the banishment of all philosophic influences from their work; while some of them, including men of the greatest acuteness, went so far as to condemn philosophy altogether, not merely as useless, but as mischievous dreaming. Thus, it must be confessed, not only were the illegitimate pretensions of the Hegelian system to subordinate to itself all other studies rejected, but no regard was paid to the rightful claims of philosophy, that is, the criticism of the sources of cognition, and the definition of the functions of the intellect. (Helmholz, quoted in Dampier, 1966, pp. 291-292)
       Philosophy remains true to its classical tradition by renouncing it. (Habermas, 1972, p. 317)
       I have not attempted... to put forward any grand view of the nature of philosophy; nor do I have any such grand view to put forth if I would. It will be obvious that I do not agree with those who see philosophy as the history of "howlers" and progress in philosophy as the debunking of howlers. It will also be obvious that I do not agree with those who see philosophy as the enterprise of putting forward a priori truths about the world.... I see philosophy as a field which has certain central questions, for example, the relation between thought and reality.... It seems obvious that in dealing with these questions philosophers have formulated rival research programs, that they have put forward general hypotheses, and that philosophers within each major research program have modified their hypotheses by trial and error, even if they sometimes refuse to admit that that is what they are doing. To that extent philosophy is a "science." To argue about whether philosophy is a science in any more serious sense seems to me to be hardly a useful occupation.... It does not seem to me important to decide whether science is philosophy or philosophy is science as long as one has a conception of both that makes both essential to a responsible view of the world and of man's place in it. (Putnam, 1975, p. xvii)
       What can philosophy contribute to solving the problem of the relation [of] mind to body? Twenty years ago, many English-speaking philosophers would have answered: "Nothing beyond an analysis of the various mental concepts." If we seek knowledge of things, they thought, it is to science that we must turn. Philosophy can only cast light upon our concepts of those things.
       This retreat from things to concepts was not undertaken lightly. Ever since the seventeenth century, the great intellectual fact of our culture has been the incredible expansion of knowledge both in the natural and in the rational sciences (mathematics, logic).
       The success of science created a crisis in philosophy. What was there for philosophy to do? Hume had already perceived the problem in some degree, and so surely did Kant, but it was not until the twentieth century, with the Vienna Circle and with Wittgenstein, that the difficulty began to weigh heavily. Wittgenstein took the view that philosophy could do no more than strive to undo the intellectual knots it itself had tied, so achieving intellectual release, and even a certain illumination, but no knowledge. A little later, and more optimistically, Ryle saw a positive, if reduced role, for philosophy in mapping the "logical geography" of our concepts: how they stood to each other and how they were to be analyzed....
       Since that time, however, philosophers in the "analytic" tradition have swung back from Wittgensteinian and even Rylean pessimism to a more traditional conception of the proper role and tasks of philosophy. Many analytic philosophers now would accept the view that the central task of philosophy is to give an account, or at least play a part in giving an account, of the most general nature of things and of man. (Armstrong, 1990, pp. 37-38)
       8) Philosophy's Evolving Engagement with Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Science
       In the beginning, the nature of philosophy's engagement with artificial intelligence and cognitive science was clear enough. The new sciences of the mind were to provide the long-awaited vindication of the most potent dreams of naturalism and materialism. Mind would at last be located firmly within the natural order. We would see in detail how the most perplexing features of the mental realm could be supported by the operations of solely physical laws upon solely physical stuff. Mental causation (the power of, e.g., a belief to cause an action) would emerge as just another species of physical causation. Reasoning would be understood as a kind of automated theorem proving. And the key to both was to be the depiction of the brain as the implementation of multiple higher level programs whose task was to manipulate and transform symbols or representations: inner items with one foot in the physical (they were realized as brain states) and one in the mental (they were bearers of contents, and their physical gymnastics were cleverly designed to respect semantic relationships such as truth preservation). (A. Clark, 1996, p. 1)
       Socrates of Athens famously declared that "the unexamined life is not worth living," and his motto aptly explains the impulse to philosophize. Taking nothing for granted, philosophy probes and questions the fundamental presuppositions of every area of human inquiry.... [P]art of the job of the philosopher is to keep at a certain critical distance from current doctrines, whether in the sciences or the arts, and to examine instead how the various elements in our world-view clash, or fit together. Some philosophers have tried to incorporate the results of these inquiries into a grand synoptic view of the nature of reality and our human relationship to it. Others have mistrusted system-building, and seen their primary role as one of clarifications, or the removal of obstacles along the road to truth. But all have shared the Socratic vision of using the human intellect to challenge comfortable preconceptions, insisting that every aspect of human theory and practice be subjected to continuing critical scrutiny....
       Philosophy is, of course, part of a continuing tradition, and there is much to be gained from seeing how that tradition originated and developed. But the principal object of studying the materials in this book is not to pay homage to past genius, but to enrich one's understanding of central problems that are as pressing today as they have always been-problems about knowledge, truth and reality, the nature of the mind, the basis of right action, and the best way to live. These questions help to mark out the territory of philosophy as an academic discipline, but in a wider sense they define the human predicament itself; they will surely continue to be with us for as long as humanity endures. (Cottingham, 1996, pp. xxi-xxii)
       In his study of ancient Greek culture, The Birth of Tragedy, Nietzsche drew what would become a famous distinction, between the Dionysian spirit, the untamed spirit of art and creativity, and the Apollonian, that of reason and self-control. The story of Greek civilization, and all civilizations, Nietzsche implied, was the gradual victory of Apollonian man, with his desire for control over nature and himself, over Dionysian man, who survives only in myth, poetry, music, and drama. Socrates and Plato had attacked the illusions of art as unreal, and had overturned the delicate cultural balance by valuing only man's critical, rational, and controlling consciousness while denigrating his vital life instincts as irrational and base. The result of this division is "Alexandrian man," the civilized and accomplished Greek citizen of the later ancient world, who is "equipped with the greatest forces of knowledge" but in whom the wellsprings of creativity have dried up. (Herman, 1997, pp. 95-96)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Philosophy

  • 70 name

    1. [neım] n
    1. имя; фамилия

    Christian /first, given/ name - имя

    middle name - а) второе имя (напр., May в Louise May Smith); б) разг. характерная черта

    family /last/ name - фамилия

    full name - полное имя; все имена и фамилия

    what is your name? - как вас зовут?

    a tenant, John Jones by name - арендатор по имени Джон Джонс

    a person of /by/ the name of Smith - человек по фамилии Смит

    to know by name - а) знать понаслышке; б) знать по именам /фамилиям/, знать лично каждого

    under the name of - под именем; под псевдонимом

    to put one's name to smth. - подписаться под чем-л.; подписать что-л. (воззвание и т. п.)

    to put one's name down for - а) подписаться на (какую-л. сумму); записаться на (билет и т. п.); б) выставить свою кандидатуру на (какой-л. пост)

    of no name, without a name - а) безымянный; б) не поддающийся описанию ( о поступке)

    to send in one's name - а) записываться (на конкурс и т. п.); б) велеть доложить о себе

    what name shall I say? - как о вас доложить?

    to change one's name of Higgins to Jones - сменить фамилию Хиггинс на Джоунз

    to use smb.'s name - ссылаться на кого-л., использовать чьё-л. имя как рекомендацию

    in the name of smb., smth. - а) во имя кого-л., чего-л.; in the name of common sense - во имя здравого смысла; in God's name!, in the name of heaven! - боже!, во имя всего святого!; б) от чьего-л. имени; именем кого-л., чего-л.; in the name of the law - именем закона; in one's own name - от своего имени; в) юр. от имени, по поручению кого-л.; г) на имя кого-л., чего-л. (о вкладе и т. п.)

    2. название, наименование; обозначение

    trade name - а) название фирмы; б) фирменное название (тж. proprietary name)

    a popular [playful] name for smth. - народное [шутливое] название чего-л.

    in name (only) - (только) номинально; (только) по названию

    a mere name, only a name - пустой звук, одно название

    there is only the name of friendship between them - их дружба - одно название

    the town derived it's name from... - город получил название от... /назван в честь.../

    3. 1) тк. sing репутация; слава; (доброе) имя

    bad /ill/ name - плохая репутация, дурная слава

    to get /to make, to win/ oneself a name - создать себе имя, получить известность

    to perpetuate one's name - увековечить себя, обессмертить своё имя

    to have a name for honesty [for generosity], to have the name of being honest [generous] - славиться честностью [щедростью]

    to bear /to carry/ the name - уст. пользоваться заслуженной репутацией

    he is not entitled to the name of scholar - он недостоин называться учёным

    2) личность; человек (особ. выдающийся)

    people of name - люди с именем; известные деятели; знаменитости

    the great names of history - великие люди /имена/, исторические личности

    4. род, фамилия
    5. pl брань, бранные слова

    to call smb. names - поносить кого-л.; обзывать кого-л.

    6. грам. имя существительное
    7. лог. термин; логическое понятие

    ♢ their name is legion - библ. имя им легион

    to keep smb.'s name off the books - не допускать кого-л. в организацию, не принимать кого-л. в члены клуба и т. п.

    to take smb.'s name off the books - исключить кого-л. из организации, клуба, учебного заведения и т. п.

    to lend one's name /the shelter of one's name/ to smb. - разрешить кому-л. воспользоваться своим именем, дать кому-л. рекомендацию, поддержать кого-л. своим авторитетом

    give it a name! - выбирайте, я плачу ( при угощении)

    the name of the game - самое главное, суть

    in fishing, patience is the name of the game - на рыбалке самое главное - терпение

    2. [neım] a
    1. именной

    name tag - именной жетон; медальон с фамилией; личный знак ( военнослужащего)

    2. авторский

    name entry - спец. авторское описание, описание под именем автора (в каталоге, списке)

    3. заглавный

    name role /part/ - заглавная роль

    name story - рассказ, давший название сборнику рассказов

    4. амер. разг. известный; с именем
    3. [neım] v
    1. 1) называть, давать имя

    to name a child John - назвать /наречь, окрестить/ ребёнка Джоном

    to name after /from, амер. for/ - называть в честь

    cambric is so named from its place of origin, Cambray - ткань называется кембрик, потому что её начали производить в Камбре

    the college is named for George Washington - колледжу присвоено имя Джорджа Вашингтона

    2) называть, перечислять поимённо

    to name all the flowers in the garden - перечислить названия всех цветов в (этом) саду

    to name the States of the Union - назвать все штаты, входящие в состав США

    2. указывать, назначать

    to name the day - а) назначить день свадьбы (тк. о невесте); б) принять предложение руки и сердца

    3. назначать ( на должность)

    Mr. X. has been named for the directorship - г-на X. назначили на пост директора

    4. упоминать; приводить ( в качестве примера)

    the measures we have named - перечисленные /упомянутые/ нами мероприятия

    5. парл. призвать к порядку

    to name a member - канад. удалить из зала ( участника заседания)

    he was named by the Chairman and warned - председатель призвал его к порядку и сделал ему предупреждение

    ♢ not to be named on /in/ the same day /breath/ with - ≅ никакого сравнения быть не может

    he is not to be named on the same day with his brother - смешно сравнивать его с братом

    to name names - упоминать фамилии (замешанных в чём-л.)

    the witness threatened to name names - свидетель угрожал тем, что он может кое-кого назвать

    НБАРС > name

  • 71 fire

    1. noun
    1) (anything that is burning, whether accidentally or not: a warm fire in the kitchen; Several houses were destroyed in a fire.) ild, fyr, brann, bål
    2) (an apparatus for heating: a gas fire; an electric fire.) varmeapparat, ovn, kamin
    3) (the heat and light produced by burning: Fire is one of man's greatest benefits.) ild
    4) (enthusiasm: with fire in his heart.) glød
    5) (attack by gunfire: The soldiers were under fire.) (under) ild
    2. verb
    1) ((of china, pottery etc) to heat in an oven, or kiln, in order to harden and strengthen: The ceramic pots must be fired.) brenne
    2) (to make (someone) enthusiastic; to inspire: The story fired his imagination.) sette fast i, oppildne
    3) (to operate (a gun etc) by discharging a bullet etc from it: He fired his revolver three times.) fyre av, skyte
    4) (to send out or discharge (a bullet etc) from a gun etc: He fired three bullets at the target.) løsne skudd, fyre, skyte
    5) ((often with at or on) to aim and operate a gun at; to shoot at: They suddenly fired on us; She fired at the target.) sikte mot, skyte
    6) (to send away someone from his/her job; to dismiss: He was fired from his last job for being late.) gi sparken
    •
    - firearm
    - fire-brigade
    - fire-cracker
    - fire-engine
    - fire-escape
    - fire-extinguisher
    - fire-guard
    - fireman
    - fireplace
    - fireproof
    - fireside
    - fire-station
    - firewood
    - firework
    - firing-squad
    - catch fire
    - on fire
    - open fire
    - play with fire
    - set fire to something / set something on fire
    - set fire to / set something on fire
    - set fire to something / set on fire
    - set fire to / set on fire
    - under fire
    brann
    --------
    bål
    --------
    flamme
    --------
    fyr
    --------
    fyre
    --------
    varme
    I
    subst. \/ˈfaɪə\/
    1) ild, bål, varme, fyr
    2) ild (i ildsted), kaminild, bål
    3) ildebrann, brann
    4) ( militærvesen) ild, skuddløsning
    5) skinn (som av ild), glans
    6) feber
    7) ( overført) flamme, ild, hete, glød, entusiasme, inspirasjon
    be on fire brenne, stå i lys lue
    ( overført) være i fyr og flamme
    between two fires ( også overført) under dobbelt ild
    be under fire bli beskutt ( overført) være i ilden, være utsatt for kritikk
    catch fire eller take fire ta fyr, bli brann, begynne å brenne, antennes, flamme opp
    eyes full of fire glødende øyne
    fire! ilden er løs! ( militærvesen) gi ild!, fyr!
    fire and brimstone alle helvetes kvaler
    go through fire and water for gå gjennom ild og vann for
    hang fire ( om skytevåpen) ikke gå av med en gang ( overført) trekke i langdrag, gå tregt
    have fire in one's belly ( overført) være i fyr og flamme
    hold one's fire ( militærvesen) vente med å gi ild ( overført) spare på kruttet
    light the fire tenne ilden, tenne bålet
    make a fire gjøre opp ild
    open fire ( militærvesen) åpne ild åpen ild
    pour oil on the fire eller add fuel to the fire puste til ilden, fyre opp under
    put something to fire and sword herje, plyndre og brenne
    set fire to eller set on fire tenne fyr på, tenne på, antenne, sette fyr på
    strike fire slå ild
    where's the fire? hvor brenner det? ( overført) hva er det som er galt?
    II
    verb \/ˈfaɪə\/
    1) avfyre, fyre av (også overført), løsne skudd, skyte, brenne av
    2) sprenge
    3) antenne, sette fyr på, tenne fyr på
    4) ( hverdagslig) sparke, gi avskjed
    5) steke, brenne (tegl), tørke
    6) ( veterinærfag) brenne
    7) mate (en dampkjele e.l.)
    8) ( overført) fyre opp (under), egge, stimulere, sette i brann, fylle
    9) ta fyr, tenne (om motor)
    10) bli het, bli rød, rødme
    fire a salute saluttere, gi salutt, avgi salutt, skyte salutt
    fire at skyte mot
    fire away sette i gang, begynne skyte bort, skyte seg tom for
    fired case tom patronhylse
    fire off fyre av, løsne skudd, brenne av
    fire on skyte på
    fire somebody's imagination stimulere noens fantasi
    fire up starte (en motor) inspirere, vekke (sinnet) ( om ild) tenne, nøre opp under ( overført) bruse opp

    English-Norwegian dictionary > fire

  • 72 inscribirse

    1 (gen) to register; (para un concurso) to enter; (para un curso) to enrol (US enroll)
    * * *
    VPR
    1) (=apuntarse) [en colegio, curso] to enrol, enroll (EEUU), register; [en partido político] to join; [en concurso, competición] to enter; [en lista] to put one's name down, register

    de los 25 equipos inscritos, solo se presentaron 14 — of the 25 teams on the list, only 14 turned up

    • inscribirse en el censo electoral — to register o.s. on the electoral roll

    • inscribirse en el registro — [pareja] to sign the marriage register

    2) (=incluirse)

    • inscribirse dentro de o en — [+ movimiento, tradición] to fall within; [+ clasificación] to be classed among

    * * *
    (v.) = register (with), sign up, enrol [enroll -USA]
    Ex. Once a user is registered, a password will be issued which provides access to all or most of the data bases offered by the host as and when the user wishes.
    Ex. One of the first publishers to sign up for the new service is Tower Publishing, UK.
    Ex. Summer enrollment generally exceeds 5,000, while various extension programs throughout the state enroll approximately 4,000 students.
    * * *
    (v.) = register (with), sign up, enrol [enroll -USA]

    Ex: Once a user is registered, a password will be issued which provides access to all or most of the data bases offered by the host as and when the user wishes.

    Ex: One of the first publishers to sign up for the new service is Tower Publishing, UK.
    Ex: Summer enrollment generally exceeds 5,000, while various extension programs throughout the state enroll approximately 4,000 students.

    * * *

    ■inscribirse verbo reflexivo
    1 (en un registro) to register
    (en un club, etc) to join
    2 (matricularse) to enrol, US enroll
    ' inscribirse' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    federarse
    - anotar
    - apuntar
    - inscribir
    - registrar
    English:
    register
    - enroll
    - enter
    - sign
    * * *
    vpr
    1. [apuntarse]
    inscribirse en [colegio] to enrol in;
    [curso] to enrol on; [asociación, partido] to join; [concurso] to enter;
    me inscribí en el censo electoral I put my name on the electoral roll o register;
    se inscribieron en la maratón they entered (for) the marathon
    2. [incluirse]
    esta medida se inscribe dentro de nuestra política de cooperación this measure forms part of our policy of cooperation;
    una guerra que se inscribe dentro del expansionismo romano a war which was waged as part of the Roman policy of expansionism
    * * *
    v/r en curso enroll, Br
    enrol, register; en concurso enter
    * * *
    vr
    : to register, to sign up
    * * *
    1. (matricularse) to enrol [pt. & pp. enrolled]
    2. (en un club, organización) to join
    3. (en un concurso) to enter

    Spanish-English dictionary > inscribirse

  • 73 Bright, Sir Charles Tilston

    SUBJECT AREA: Telecommunications
    [br]
    b. 8 June 1832 Wanstead, Essex, England
    d. 3 May 1888 Abbey Wood, London, England
    [br]
    English telegraph engineer responsible for laying the first transatlantic cable.
    [br]
    At the age of 15 years Bright left the London Merchant Taylors' School to join the two-year-old Electric Telegraph Company. By 1851 he was in charge of the Birmingham telegraph station. After a short time as Assistant Engineer with the newly formed British Telegraph Company, he joined his brother (who was Manager) as Engineer-in-Chief of the English and Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company in Liverpool, for which he laid thousands of miles of underground cable and developed a number of innovations in telegraphy including a resistance box for locating cable faults and a two-tone bell system for signalling. In 1853 he was responsible for the first successful underwater cable between Scotland and Ireland. Three years later, with the American financier Cyrus Field and John Brett, he founded and was Engineer-in-chief of the Atlantic Telegraph Company, which aimed at laying a cable between Ireland and Newfoundland. After several unsuccessful attempts this was finally completed on 5 August 1858, Bright was knighted a month later, but the cable then failed! In 1860 Bright resigned from the Magnetic Telegraph Company to set up an independent consultancy with another engineer, Joseph Latimer Clark, with whom he invented an improved bituminous cable insulation. Two years later he supervised construction of a telegraph cable to India, and in 1865 a further attempt to lay an Atlantic cable using Brunel's new ship, the Great Eastern. This cable broke during laying, but in 1866 a new cable was at last successfully laid and the 1865 cable recovered and repaired. The year 1878 saw extension of the Atlantic cable system to the West Indies and the invention with his brother of a system of neighbourhood fire alarms and even an automatic fire alarm.
    In 1861 Bright presented a paper to the British Association for the Advancement of Science on the need for electrical standards, leading to the creation of an organization that still exists in the 1990s. From 1865 until 1868 he was Liberal MP for Greenwich, and he later assisted with preparations for the 1881 Paris Exhibition.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Knighted 1858. Légion d'honneur. First President, Société Internationale des Electriciens. President, Society of Telegraph Engineers \& Electricians (later the Institution of Electrical Engineers) 1887.
    Bibliography
    1852, British patent (resistance box).
    1855, British patent no. 2,103 (two-tone bell system). 1878, British patent no. 3,801 (area fire alarms).
    1878, British patent no. 596 (automatic fire alarm).
    "The physical \& electrical effects of pressure \& temperature on submarine cable cores", Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers XVII (describes some of his investigations of cable characteristics).
    Further Reading
    C.Bright, 1898, Submarine Cables, Their History, Construction \& Working.
    —1910, The Life Story of Sir Charles Tilston Bright, London: Constable \& Co.
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Bright, Sir Charles Tilston

  • 74 Field, Cyrus West

    SUBJECT AREA: Telecommunications
    [br]
    b. 30 November 1819 Stockbridge, Massachusetts, USA
    d. 12 July 1892 New York City, New York, USA
    [br]
    American financier and entrepreneur noted for his successful promotion of the first transatlantic telegraph cable.
    [br]
    At the age of 15 Field left home to seek his fortune in New York, starting work on Broadway as an errand boy for $1 per week. Returning to Massachusetts, in 1838 he became an assistant to his brother Matthew, a paper-maker, leaving to set up his own business two years later. By the age of 21 he was also a partner in a New York firm of paper wholesalers, but this firm collapsed because of large debts. Out of the wreckage he set up Cyrus W.Field \& Co., and by 1852 he had paid off all the debts. With $250,000 in the bank he therefore retired and travelled in South America. Returning to the USA, he then became involved with the construction of a telegraph line in Newfoundland by an English engineer, F.N. Osborne. Although the company collapsed, he had been fired by the dream of a transatlantic cable and in 1854 was one of the founders of the New York, Newfoundland and London Telegraph Company. He began to promote surveys and hold discussions with British telegraph pioneers and with Isambard Brunel, who was then building the Great Eastern steamship. In 1856 he helped to set up the Atlantic Telegraph Company in Britain and, as a result of his efforts and those of the British physicist and inventor Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), work began in 1857 on the laying of the first transatlantic cable from Newfoundland to Ireland. After many tribulations the cable was completed on 5 August 1857, but it failed after barely a month. Following several unsuccessful attempts to repair and replace it, the cable was finally completed on 27 July 1866. Building upon his success, Field expanded his business interests. In 1877 he bought a controlling interest in and was President of the New York Elevated Railroad Company. He also helped develop the Wabash Railroad and became owner of the New York Mail and Express newspaper; however, he subsequently suffered large financial losses.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Congressional Gold Medal.
    Further Reading
    A.C.Clarke, 1958, Voice Across the Sea, London: Frederick Muller (describes the development of the transatlantic telegraph).
    H.M.Field, 1893, Story of the Atlantic Telegraph (also describes the transatlantic telegraph development).
    L.J.Judson (ed.), 1893, Cyrus W.Field: His Life and Work (a complete biography).
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Field, Cyrus West

  • 75 Haber, Fritz

    SUBJECT AREA: Chemical technology
    [br]
    b. 9 December 1868 Breslau, Germany (now Wroclaw, Poland)
    d. 29 January 1934 Basel, Switzerland
    [br]
    German chemist, inventor of the process for the synthesis of ammonia.
    [br]
    Haber's father was a manufacturer of dyestuffs, so he studied organic chemistry at Berlin and Heidelberg universities to equip him to enter his father's firm. But his interest turned to physical chemistry and remained there throughout his life. He became Assistant at the Technische Hochschule in Karlsruhe in 1894; his first work there was on pyrolysis and electrochemistry, and he published his Grundrisse der technischen Electrochemie in 1898. Haber became famous for thorough and illuminating theoretical studies in areas of growing practical importance. He rose through the academic ranks and was appointed a full professor in 1906. In 1912 he was also appointed Director of the Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry at Dahlem, outside Berlin.
    Early in the twentieth century Haber invented a process for the synthesis of ammonia. The English chemist and physicist Sir William Crookes (1832–1919) had warned of the danger of mass hunger because the deposits of Chilean nitrate were becoming exhausted and nitrogenous fertilizers would not suffice for the world's growing population. A solution lay in the use of the nitrogen in the air, and the efforts of chemists centred on ways of converting it to usable nitrate. Haber was aware of contemporary work on the fixation of nitrogen by the cyanamide and arc processes, but in 1904 he turned to the study of ammonia formation from its elements, nitrogen and hydrogen. During 1907–9 Haber found that the yield of ammonia reached an industrially viable level if the reaction took place under a pressure of 150–200 atmospheres and a temperature of 600°C (1,112° F) in the presence of a suitable catalyst—first osmium, later uranium. He devised an apparatus in which a mixture of the gases was pumped through a converter, in which the ammonia formed was withdrawn while the unchanged gases were recirculated. By 1913, Haber's collaborator, Carl Bosch had succeeded in raising this laboratory process to the industrial scale. It was the first successful high-pressure industrial chemical process, and solved the nitrogen problem. The outbreak of the First World War directed the work of the institute in Dahlem to military purposes, and Haber was placed in charge of chemical warfare. In this capacity, he developed poisonous gases as well as the means of defence against them, such as gas masks. The synthetic-ammonia process was diverted to produce nitric acid for explosives. The great benefits and achievement of the Haber-Bosch process were recognized by the award in 1919 of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, but on account of Haber's association with chemical warfare, British, French and American scientists denounced the award; this only added to the sense of bitterness he already felt at his country's defeat in the war. He concentrated on the theoretical studies for which he was renowned, in particular on pyrolysis and autoxidation, and both the Karlsruhe and the Dahlem laboratories became international centres for discussion and research in physical chemistry.
    With the Nazi takeover in 1933, Haber found that, as a Jew, he was relegated to second-class status. He did not see why he should appoint staff on account of their grandmothers instead of their ability, so he resigned his posts and went into exile. For some months he accepted hospitality in Cambridge, but he was on his way to a new post in what is now Israel when he died suddenly in Basel, Switzerland.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1898, Grundrisse der technischen Electrochemie.
    1927, Aus Leben und Beruf.
    Further Reading
    J.E.Coates, 1939, "The Haber Memorial Lecture", Journal of the Chemical Society: 1,642–72.
    M.Goran, 1967, The Story of Fritz Haber, Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press (includes a complete list of Haber's works).
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Haber, Fritz

  • 76 Krupp, Alfred

    [br]
    b. 26 April 1812 Essen, Germany
    d. 14 July 1887 Bredeney, near Essen, Germany
    [br]
    German manufacturer of steel and armaments.
    [br]
    Krupp's father founded a small cast-steel works at Essen, but at his early death in 1826 the firm was left practically insolvent to his sons. Alfred's formal education ended at that point and he entered the ailing firm. The expansion of trade brought about by the Zollverein, or customs union, enabled him to increase output, and by 1843 he had 100 workers under him, making steel springs and machine parts. Five years later he was able to buy out his co-heirs, and in 1849 he secured his first major railway contract. The quality of his product was usefully advertised by displaying a flawless 2-ton steel ingot at the Great Exhibition of 1851. Krupp was then specializing in the manufacture of steel parts for railways and steamships, notably a weldless steel tire for locomotives, from which was derived the three-ring emblem of the Krupp concern. Krupp made a few cannon from 1847 but sold his first to the Khedive of Egypt in 1857. Two years later he won a major order of 312 cannon from the Prussian Government. With the development of this side of the business, he became the largest steel producer in Europe. In 1862 he adopted the Bessemer steelmaking process. The quality and design of his cannon were major factors in the victory of the Prussian artillery bombardment at Sedan in the Franco- Prussian War of 1870. Krupp expanded further during the boom years of the early 1870s and he was able to gain control of German coal and Spanish iron-ore supplies. He went on to manufacture heavy artillery, with a celebrated testing ground at Osnabrück. By this time he had a workforce of 21,000, whom he ruled with benevolent but strict control. His will instructed that the firm should not be divided.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    P.Batty, 1966, The House of Krupp (includes a bibliography). G.von Klass, 1954, Krupp: The Story of an Industrial Empire.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Krupp, Alfred

  • 77 Lewis, John

    SUBJECT AREA: Textiles
    [br]
    fl. c. 1815 England
    [br]
    English developer of a machine for shearing woollen cloth with rotary cutters.
    [br]
    To give a smooth surface to cloth such as the old English broadcloth, the nap was raised and then sheared off. Hand-operated shears of enormous size were used to cut the fibres that stuck up when the cloth was laid over a curved table top. Great skill was required to achieve a smooth finish. Various attempts, such as that in 1784 by James Harmer, a clergyman of Sheffield, were made to mechanize the process by placing several pairs of shears in a frame and operating them by cranks, but success was not achieved. Samuel G. Dow of Albany, New York, patented a rotary shearer in England in 1794, and there was Samuel Dore in the same year too. John Lewis never claimed that he invented the rotary cutter, and it is possible that he made have seen drawings or actual examples of these earlier machines. His claim in his patent of 1815 was that, for the first time, he brought together a number of desirable features in one machine for shearing cloth to achieve the first really successful example. The local story in the Stroudwater district in Gloucestershire is that Lewis obtained this idea from Budding, who as a lad worked for the Lewis family, clothiers at Brinscombe Mills; Budding invented a lawn mower with rotary barrel blades that works on the same principle, patenting it in 1830. In the shearing machine, the cloth was moved underneath the blades, which could be of the same width so that only one operation was needed for each side. Other inventors had similar ideas, and a Stroud engineer, Stephen Price, took out a patent a month after Lewis did. These machines spread quickly in the Gloucestershire textile industry, and by 1830 hand-shearing was extinct. John Lewis was the son of Joseph, who had inherited the Brinscombe Mills in 1790 but must have died before 1815, when his children mortgaged the property for £12,000. Joseph's three sons, George, William and John, worked the mill for a time, but in 1840 William was there alone.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1815, British patent no. 3,945 (rotary shearing machine).
    Further Reading
    J. de L.Mann, 1971, The Cloth Industry in the West of England from 1660 to 1880, Oxford (the best account of the introduction of the shearing machines).
    J.Tann, 1967, Gloucestershire Woollen Mills, Newton Abbot (includes notes about the Brinscombe Mills).
    K.G.Ponting, 1971, The Woollen Industry of South-West England, Bath; and H.A.Randall, 1965–6, "Some mid-Gloucestershire engineers and inventors", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 38 (both mention Lewis's machine).
    RLH

    Biographical history of technology > Lewis, John

  • 78 McCormick, Cyrus

    [br]
    b. 1809 Walnut Grove, Virginia, USA
    d. 1884 USA
    [br]
    American inventor of the first functionally and commercially successful reaping machine; founder of the McCormick Company, which was to become one of the founding companies of International Harvester.
    [br]
    Cyrus McCormick's father, a farmer, began to experiment unsuccessfully with a harvesting machine between 1809 and 1816. His son took up the challenge and gave his first public demonstration of his machine in 1831. It cut a 4 ft swathe, but, wanting to perfect the machine, he waited until 1834 before patenting it, by which time he felt that his invention was threatened by others of similar design. In the same year he entered an article in the Mechanics Magazine, warning competitors off his design. His main rival was Obed Hussey who contested McCormick's claim to the originality of the idea, having patented his own machine six months before McCormick.
    A competition between the two machines was held in 1843, the judges favouring McCormick's, even after additional trials were conducted after objections of unfairness from Hussey. The rivalry continued over a number of years, being avidly reported in the agricultural press. The publicity did no harm to reaper sales, and McCormick sold twenty-nine machines in 1843 and fifty the following year.
    As the westward settlement movement progressed, so the demand for McCormick's machine grew. In order to be more central to his markets, McCormick established himself in Chicago. In partnership with C.M.Gray he established a factory to produce 500 harvesters for the 1848 season. By means of advertising and offers of credit terms, as well as production-line assembly, McCormick was able to establish himself as sole owner and also control all production, under the one roof. By the end of the decade he dominated reaper production but other developments were to threaten this position; however, foreign markets were appearing at the same time, not least the opportunities of European sales stimulated by the Great Exhibition in 1851. In the trials arranged by the Royal Agricultural Society of England the McCormick machine significantly outperformed that of Hussey's, and as a result McCormick arranged for 500 to be made under licence in England.
    In 1874 McCormick bought a half interest in the patent for a wire binder from Charles Withington, a watchmaker from Janesville, Wisconsin, and by 1885 a total of 50,000 wire binders had been built in Chicago. By 1881 McCormick was producing twine binders using Appleby's twine knotter under a licence agreement, and by 1885 the company was producing only twine binders. The McCormick Company was one of the co-founders of the International Harvester Company in 1901.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1972, The Century of the Reaper, Johnson Reprint (the original is in the New York State Library).
    Further Reading
    Graeme Quick and Wesley Buchele, 1978, The Grain Harvesters, American Society of Agricultural Engineers (deals in detail with McCormick's developments).
    G.H.Wendell, 1981, 150 Years of International Harvester, Crestlink (though more concerned with the machinery produced by International Harvester, it gives an account of its originating companies).
    T.W.Hutchinson, 1930, Cyrus Hall McCormick, Seedtime 1809–1856; ——1935, Cyrus Hall McCormick, Harvest 1856–1884 (both attempt to unravel the many claims surrounding the reaper story).
    Herbert N.Casson, 1908, The Romance of the Reaper, Doubleday Page (deals with McCormick, Deering and the formation of International Harvester).
    AP

    Biographical history of technology > McCormick, Cyrus

  • 79 Roebling, Washington Augustus

    SUBJECT AREA: Civil engineering
    [br]
    b. 26 May 1837 Saxonburg, Pennsylvania, USA
    d. 21 July 1926 Trenton, New Jersey, USA.
    [br]
    American civil engineer.
    [br]
    The son of John Augustus Roebling, he graduated in 1857 from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute as a civil engineer, and joined his father in his suspension bridge construction work. He served in the Civil War as a colonel of engineers in the Union Army, and in 1867, two years after the end of the war, he went to Europe to study new methods of sinking underwater foundations by means of compressed air. These new methods were employed in the construction of the Brooklyn Bridge, of which he took charge on his father's death in 1869. Timber pneumatic caissons were used, with a maximum pressure of 34 psi (2.4 kg/cm2) above atmospheric pressure. Two years after work on the piers had started in the caissons, Roebling, who had been working constantly with the men on the foundations of the piers, was carried unconscious out of the caisson, a victim of decompression sickness, then known as “caisson disease”. He was paralysed and lost the use of his voice. From then on he directed the rest of the work from the sickroom of his nearby house, his wife, Emily Warren Roebling, helping with his instructions and notes and carrying them out to the workforce; she even read a statement from him to the American Society of Civil Engineers. The erection of the cables, which were of steel, began in August 1876 and took twenty-six months to complete. In 1881 eleven trustees and Emily Warren Roebling walked across temporary planking, but the decking of the total span was not completed until 1885, fourteen years after construction of the bridge had started. The Brooklyn Bridge was Roebling's last major work, although following the death of his nephew in 1921 he was forced to head again the management of Roebling \& Company, though aged 84 and an invalid.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    D.B.Steinman and S.R.Watson, 1941, Bridges and their Builders, New York: Dover Books.
    D.McCullough, 1982, The Great Bridge: The Epic Story of the Building of the Brooklyn
    Bridge, New York: Simon \& Schuster.
    IMcN

    Biographical history of technology > Roebling, Washington Augustus

  • 80 κηρύσσω

    κηρύσσω impf. ἐκήρυσσον; fut. κηρύξω; 1 aor. ἐκήρυξα, inf. κηρύξαι (also κηρῦξαι, so Tdf.); on the accent s. B-D-F §13; PKatz-Walters, The Text of the Septuagint, Cambridge ’73, 97); pf. inf. κεκηρυχέναι (Just., D. 49, 2). Pass.: 1 fut. κηρυχθήσομαι; 1 aor. ἐκηρύχθην; pf. κεκήρυγμαι (Just.) (s. two prec. entries; Hom.+; ins, pap, LXX; PsSol 11:1; TestLevi 2:10; GrBar 16:4 [-ττ-]; Philo, Joseph.; loanw. in rabb.; apolog. exc. Ar.).
    ① to make an official announcement, announce, make known, by an official herald or one who functions as such (Maximus Tyr. 1, 6c κηρύττομαι=I am being announced by the herald) MPol 12:1 of the pro-consul, who announced three times that Pol. had confessed to being a Christian.—Rv 5:2.
    ② to make public declarations, proclaim aloud
    ⓐ gener. speak of, mention publicly w. acc. κ. πολλὰ τὸν λόγον spread the story widely Mk 1:45. The hospitality of the Cor. church 1 Cl 1:2. W. indir. discourse foll. Mk 5:20; Lk 8:39. Abs. Mk 7:36.—S. below 2bβ.
    ⓑ of proclamation that is divine in origin or relates to divinity (Epict. 3, 13, 12 of the peace of wise men, which does not originate w. the emperor, but is ὑπὸ τοῦ θεοῦ κεκηρυγμένη διὰ τ. λόγου. Of the [objectionable] myths of the Greeks ταῦτα … οἱ … συγγραφεῖς καὶ ποιηταὶ κ. Theoph. Ant. 1, 9 [p. 78, 13]).
    α. of the proclamation or oracles of the older prophets (Jo 2:1; 4:9; Jon 1:2; 3:2; Jos., Ant. 10, 117; Just., A I, 54, 2) Ἰωνᾶς Νινευί̈ταις καταστροφὴν ἐκήρυξεν 1 Cl 7:7 (Jonah as Jos., Ant. 9, 214; Just., D. 107, 2f; Orig., C. Cels. 7, 57, 3); cp. vs. 6; 9:4 (Noah as SibOr 1, 128); 17:1 (Elijah and Elisha, also Ezekiel); B 6:13 (ὁ προφήτης). προφήτας [ἐξ]έπεμψεν κ. … χριστὸν Ἰησοῦν AcPl Ha 8, 17/Ox 1602, 19–21/BMM recto 21f. Ἰωνᾶς … [ἵνα] εἰς Νεινεύη μὴ κηρύξῃ AcPl Cor 2:29. οἵτινες τὴν ἀπλανῆ θεοσέβειαν ἐκήρυσσον who proclaimed the inerrant way of revering God 2:10.
    β. of contemporary proclaimers (POxy 1381, 35; 144 [II A.D.]: of the great deeds of the gods; Herm. Wr. 1, 27; 4, 4.—Philo, Agr. 112 κήρυξον κήρυγμα τοιοῦτον. S. κῆρυξ 2.—Also of false prophets: Jos., Bell. 6, 285), of Mosaic tradition and its publication, the preaching of John the Baptist, and propagation of the Christian message in the widest sense: Μωϋσῆν preach (= advance the cause of) Moses i.e. the keeping of the law Ac 15:21. περιτομήν proclaim circumcision i.e. the necessity of it Gal 5:11 (here and 2a the mng. praise publicly is also prob.: X., Cyr. 8, 4, 4; Polyb. 30, 29, 6). κ. μὴ κλέπτειν inveigh against stealing (=preach: No stealing!) Ro 2:21.—κ. τι proclaim, someth. (ἕνα θεὸν παντοκράτορα καὶ ἕνα μονογενῆ Χριστὸν Ἰησοῦν κ. Iren. 1, 9, 2 [Harv. I 82, 5]; τὸν ἄγνωστον πατέρα 1, 26, 1 [Harv. I 211, 11]; Hippol., Ref. 1, Prol. 7; Did., Gen. 183, 6; 209, 13) Mt 10:27; pass. Lk 12:3. ἐνιαυτὸν κυρίου δεκτόν 4:19 (cp. Is 61:1f). τὸν λόγον 2 Ti 4:2. τὸ ῥῆμα τῆς πίστεως the message of faith Ro 10:8. τὴν βασιλείαν τοῦ θεοῦ Lk 8:1; 9:2; cp. Ac 20:25; 28:31. τὸ εὐαγγέλιον Mk 16:15; Ac 1:2 D; Gal 2:2; B 5:9; GMary Ox 3525, 28; 32. τὸ εὐ. τ. βασιλείας Mt 4:23; 9:35 (cp. τὸν περὶ τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ τῆς βασιλείας αὐτοῦ λόγον Orig., C. Cels. 3, 40, 20); τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ υἱοῦ τοῦ θεοῦ Hs 9, 16, 5. W. dat. of pers. (Hippol., Ref. 5, 26, 30) 1 Cor 9:27 (on the topic of dreaded failure s. APapathomas, NTS 43, ’97, 240); 1 Pt 3:19 (CCranfield, ET 69, ’57/58, 369–72; see lit. s.v. πνεῦμα 4c); GPt 10:41. εἰς τὰς συναγωγάς in the synagogues Mk 1:39; Lk 4:44. τινί τι someth. to someone (of Jesus κ. μετάνοιαν ὅλῳ τῷ κόσμῳ Orig., C. Cels. 7, 57, 4; τὸ κηρῦξαι αὐτοῖς τὸ εὐαγγέλιον Did., Gen. 53, 13) 4:18; B 14:9 (both Is 61:1). τὶ εἴς τινα someth. to someone τὸ εὐαγγέλιον εἰς ὑμᾶς 1 Th 2:9. εἰς ὅλον τὸν κόσμον Hs 9, 25, 2. Pass. εἰς τὰ ἔθνη Mk 13:10 (DBosch, Die Heidenmission in der Zukunftsschau Jesu ’59, 159–71); κ. τὸ εὐ. Mt 24:14; 26:13; Mk 14:9; Col 1:23.—βάπτισμα proclaim baptism i.e. the necessity of it Mk 1:4; Lk 3:3; Ac 10:37. ἐκηρύχθη ἡ σφραγὶς αὕτη H 9, 16, 4. κηρυχθῆναι … μετάνοιαν εἰς ἄφεσιν ἁμαρτιῶν repentance for the forgiveness of sins Lk 24:47. ἵνα μετανοῶσιν Mk 6:12. [ἀνδρῶν τῶν] κηρυσσόντων, ἵνα μετανοῆται (read:-ῆτε) AcPl Ha 1, 17.—τινά (τινι) someone (to someone) Χριστόν Ac 8:5; cp. 1 Cor 1:23; Phil 1:15. Ἰησοῦν Ac 19:13; 2 Cor 11:4. οὐχ ἑαυτοὺς κηρύσσομεν ἀλλὰ Χριστὸν Ἰησοῦν κύριον we do not publicize ourselves, but Christ Jesus as Lord 4:5. Pass. ὸ̔ς (Χριστός) … ἐκηρύχθη 1 Ti 3:16; cp. Hs 8, 3, 2; 9, 17, 1; Dg 11:3. διά τινος through someone (cp. Epict. 3, 13, 12) Χρ. Ἰ. ὁ ἐν ὑμῖν διʼ ἡμῶν κηρυχθείς 2 Cor 1:19. W. an addition that indicates the content of the proclamation, introduced by ὅτι (cp. Epict. 4, 5, 24): κ. w. acc. and ὅτι foll. Mk 1:14 v.l.; Ac 9:20; pass. Χρ. κηρύσσεται ὅτι ἐκ νεκρῶν ἐγήγερται Christ is proclaimed as having risen fr. the dead 1 Cor 15:12. κ. τινί, ὅτι Ac 10:42; οὕτως κ. 1 Cor 15:11. The content of the proclamation is introduced by λέγων Mt 3:1f; 10:7; Mk 1:7; cp. vs. 14; IPhld 7:2. Beside λέγειν w. direct discourse (Epict. 4, 6, 23) Mt 4:17. Abs. Mt 11:1; Mk 1:38; 3:14; 16:20; Ro 10:15; 1 Cl 42:4; B 5:8 (Jesus’ proclamation defined as teaching and the performance of wonders and signs); 8:3. κηρύσσων a proclaimer Ro 10:14.—S. lit. under κήρυγμα; also MGrumm, translating kērussō and Related Verbs: BT 21, ’70, 176–79.—B. 1478. DELG s.v. κῆρυξ. M-M. EDNT. TW. Sv.

    Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά παλαιοχριστιανική Λογοτεχνία > κηρύσσω

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