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1 space-based elements
Военный термин: элементы космического базирования -
2 space-based elements
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3 space-based elements
English-Russian dictionary of terms that are used in computer games > space-based elements
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4 ABM system with space-based elements
Универсальный англо-русский словарь > ABM system with space-based elements
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5 ABM system with space-based elements
English-Russian military dictionary > ABM system with space-based elements
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6 ABM system with space-based elements
English-Russian dictionary of terms that are used in computer games > ABM system with space-based elements
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7 implicit-cost elements
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8 trace elements
мин. рассеянные элементы, микроэлементы -
9 actinide elements
English-Russian dictionary on nuclear energy > actinide elements
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10 BE
1) Медицина: base excess2) Американизм: Buzzword Enhanced3) Спорт: Bike Evolution4) Военный термин: Basic Encyclopedia, Battle Energy, Battlefield Environment, Bombing Encyclopedia, Brilliant Eyes, British element, Bureau of Explosives, base ejecting ejection, base exploding5) Техника: Bank of England, band elimination, band elimination filter, best estimate, beveled end, bounding event, break-even (analysis), bus error handler, bus error handling, butyl epoxystearate6) Сельское хозяйство: bacillary emulsion7) Шутливое выражение: Both Everton8) Химия: Bond Energy9) Религия: Baha'i Era, Bahai Era10) Бухгалтерия: Bonehead Economics, Budget Entity11) Страхование: Extreme breadth12) Астрономия: Bright Elements13) Ветеринария: Bear Extinction, Bur Extractor14) Оптика: beam expander15) Политика: Belgium16) Сокращение: Base Ejection, Belgium (NATO country code), Brilliant Eyes (Military Space program), Brilliant Eyes (Space-based monitoring system (USA)), Byelorussian, back end, bell end, breaker end, Basic Engineering (Базовый инжиниринг), binding energy17) Физика: Bose Einstein18) Физиология: Below The Elbow, Brisk And Equal19) Электроника: Band Edge, Bound Exciton, Boundary Element20) Вычислительная техника: Boolean expression, byte enable21) Литература: Best Evaluator (Toastmasters)22) Нефть: bevelled end, с коническим концом (beveled end), со скошенным концом23) Иммунология: Barium enema24) Банковское дело: переводный вексель (bill of exchange), тратта25) СМИ: Business Edition26) Деловая лексика: Bentley Empowered, Business Entrepreneurship27) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: со скосом кромки на одном конце28) Инвестиции: bill of exchange29) Сетевые технологии: basic equipment, основное оборудование30) Полимеры: bowing effect31) Расширение файла: Below or Equal32) SAP.тех. средство фактурирования33) Электротехника: bus exchange34) Фантастика Battlefield Earth35) Должность: Bachelor Of Engineering -
11 Be
1) Медицина: base excess2) Американизм: Buzzword Enhanced3) Спорт: Bike Evolution4) Военный термин: Basic Encyclopedia, Battle Energy, Battlefield Environment, Bombing Encyclopedia, Brilliant Eyes, British element, Bureau of Explosives, base ejecting ejection, base exploding5) Техника: Bank of England, band elimination, band elimination filter, best estimate, beveled end, bounding event, break-even (analysis), bus error handler, bus error handling, butyl epoxystearate6) Сельское хозяйство: bacillary emulsion7) Шутливое выражение: Both Everton8) Химия: Bond Energy9) Религия: Baha'i Era, Bahai Era10) Бухгалтерия: Bonehead Economics, Budget Entity11) Страхование: Extreme breadth12) Астрономия: Bright Elements13) Ветеринария: Bear Extinction, Bur Extractor14) Оптика: beam expander15) Политика: Belgium16) Сокращение: Base Ejection, Belgium (NATO country code), Brilliant Eyes (Military Space program), Brilliant Eyes (Space-based monitoring system (USA)), Byelorussian, back end, bell end, breaker end, Basic Engineering (Базовый инжиниринг), binding energy17) Физика: Bose Einstein18) Физиология: Below The Elbow, Brisk And Equal19) Электроника: Band Edge, Bound Exciton, Boundary Element20) Вычислительная техника: Boolean expression, byte enable21) Литература: Best Evaluator (Toastmasters)22) Нефть: bevelled end, с коническим концом (beveled end), со скошенным концом23) Иммунология: Barium enema24) Банковское дело: переводный вексель (bill of exchange), тратта25) СМИ: Business Edition26) Деловая лексика: Bentley Empowered, Business Entrepreneurship27) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: со скосом кромки на одном конце28) Инвестиции: bill of exchange29) Сетевые технологии: basic equipment, основное оборудование30) Полимеры: bowing effect31) Расширение файла: Below or Equal32) SAP.тех. средство фактурирования33) Электротехника: bus exchange34) Фантастика Battlefield Earth35) Должность: Bachelor Of Engineering -
12 be
1) Медицина: base excess2) Американизм: Buzzword Enhanced3) Спорт: Bike Evolution4) Военный термин: Basic Encyclopedia, Battle Energy, Battlefield Environment, Bombing Encyclopedia, Brilliant Eyes, British element, Bureau of Explosives, base ejecting ejection, base exploding5) Техника: Bank of England, band elimination, band elimination filter, best estimate, beveled end, bounding event, break-even (analysis), bus error handler, bus error handling, butyl epoxystearate6) Сельское хозяйство: bacillary emulsion7) Шутливое выражение: Both Everton8) Химия: Bond Energy9) Религия: Baha'i Era, Bahai Era10) Бухгалтерия: Bonehead Economics, Budget Entity11) Страхование: Extreme breadth12) Астрономия: Bright Elements13) Ветеринария: Bear Extinction, Bur Extractor14) Оптика: beam expander15) Политика: Belgium16) Сокращение: Base Ejection, Belgium (NATO country code), Brilliant Eyes (Military Space program), Brilliant Eyes (Space-based monitoring system (USA)), Byelorussian, back end, bell end, breaker end, Basic Engineering (Базовый инжиниринг), binding energy17) Физика: Bose Einstein18) Физиология: Below The Elbow, Brisk And Equal19) Электроника: Band Edge, Bound Exciton, Boundary Element20) Вычислительная техника: Boolean expression, byte enable21) Литература: Best Evaluator (Toastmasters)22) Нефть: bevelled end, с коническим концом (beveled end), со скошенным концом23) Иммунология: Barium enema24) Банковское дело: переводный вексель (bill of exchange), тратта25) СМИ: Business Edition26) Деловая лексика: Bentley Empowered, Business Entrepreneurship27) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: со скосом кромки на одном конце28) Инвестиции: bill of exchange29) Сетевые технологии: basic equipment, основное оборудование30) Полимеры: bowing effect31) Расширение файла: Below or Equal32) SAP.тех. средство фактурирования33) Электротехника: bus exchange34) Фантастика Battlefield Earth35) Должность: Bachelor Of Engineering -
13 Creativity
Put in this bald way, these aims sound utopian. How utopian they areor rather, how imminent their realization-depends on how broadly or narrowly we interpret the term "creative." If we are willing to regard all human complex problem solving as creative, then-as we will point out-successful programs for problem solving mechanisms that simulate human problem solvers already exist, and a number of their general characteristics are known. If we reserve the term "creative" for activities like discovery of the special theory of relativity or the composition of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, then no example of a creative mechanism exists at the present time. (Simon, 1979, pp. 144-145)Among the questions that can now be given preliminary answers in computational terms are the following: how can ideas from very different sources be spontaneously thought of together? how can two ideas be merged to produce a new structure, which shows the influence of both ancestor ideas without being a mere "cut-and-paste" combination? how can the mind be "primed," so that one will more easily notice serendipitous ideas? why may someone notice-and remember-something fairly uninteresting, if it occurs in an interesting context? how can a brief phrase conjure up an entire melody from memory? and how can we accept two ideas as similar ("love" and "prove" as rhyming, for instance) in respect of a feature not identical in both? The features of connectionist AI models that suggest answers to these questions are their powers of pattern completion, graceful degradation, sensitization, multiple constraint satisfaction, and "best-fit" equilibration.... Here, the important point is that the unconscious, "insightful," associative aspects of creativity can be explained-in outline, at least-by AI methods. (Boden, 1996, p. 273)There thus appears to be an underlying similarity in the process involved in creative innovation and social independence, with common traits and postures required for expression of both behaviors. The difference is one of product-literary, musical, artistic, theoretical products on the one hand, opinions on the other-rather than one of process. In both instances the individual must believe that his perceptions are meaningful and valid and be willing to rely upon his own interpretations. He must trust himself sufficiently that even when persons express opinions counter to his own he can proceed on the basis of his own perceptions and convictions. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 58)he average level of ego strength and emotional stability is noticeably higher among creative geniuses than among the general population, though it is possibly lower than among men of comparable intelligence and education who go into administrative and similar positions. High anxiety and excitability appear common (e.g. Priestley, Darwin, Kepler) but full-blown neurosis is quite rare. (Cattell & Butcher, 1970, p. 315)he insight that is supposed to be required for such work as discovery turns out to be synonymous with the familiar process of recognition; and other terms commonly used in the discussion of creative work-such terms as "judgment," "creativity," or even "genius"-appear to be wholly dispensable or to be definable, as insight is, in terms of mundane and well-understood concepts. (Simon, 1989, p. 376)From the sketch material still in existence, from the condition of the fragments, and from the autographs themselves we can draw definite conclusions about Mozart's creative process. To invent musical ideas he did not need any stimulation; they came to his mind "ready-made" and in polished form. In contrast to Beethoven, who made numerous attempts at shaping his musical ideas until he found the definitive formulation of a theme, Mozart's first inspiration has the stamp of finality. Any Mozart theme has completeness and unity; as a phenomenon it is a Gestalt. (Herzmann, 1964, p. 28)Great artists enlarge the limits of one's perception. Looking at the world through the eyes of Rembrandt or Tolstoy makes one able to perceive aspects of truth about the world which one could not have achieved without their aid. Freud believed that science was adaptive because it facilitated mastery of the external world; but was it not the case that many scientific theories, like works of art, also originated in phantasy? Certainly, reading accounts of scientific discovery by men of the calibre of Einstein compelled me to conclude that phantasy was not merely escapist, but a way of reaching new insights concerning the nature of reality. Scientific hypotheses require proof; works of art do not. Both are concerned with creating order, with making sense out of the world and our experience of it. (Storr, 1993, p. xii)The importance of self-esteem for creative expression appears to be almost beyond disproof. Without a high regard for himself the individual who is working in the frontiers of his field cannot trust himself to discriminate between the trivial and the significant. Without trust in his own powers the person seeking improved solutions or alternative theories has no basis for distinguishing the significant and profound innovation from the one that is merely different.... An essential component of the creative process, whether it be analysis, synthesis, or the development of a new perspective or more comprehensive theory, is the conviction that one's judgment in interpreting the events is to be trusted. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 59)In the daily stream of thought these four different stages [preparation; incubation; illumination or inspiration; and verification] constantly overlap each other as we explore different problems. An economist reading a Blue Book, a physiologist watching an experiment, or a business man going through his morning's letters, may at the same time be "incubating" on a problem which he proposed to himself a few days ago, be accumulating knowledge in "preparation" for a second problem, and be "verifying" his conclusions to a third problem. Even in exploring the same problem, the mind may be unconsciously incubating on one aspect of it, while it is consciously employed in preparing for or verifying another aspect. (Wallas, 1926, p. 81)he basic, bisociative pattern of the creative synthesis [is] the sudden interlocking of two previously unrelated skills, or matrices of thought. (Koestler, 1964, p. 121)11) The Earliest Stages in the Creative Process Involve a Commerce with DisorderEven to the creator himself, the earliest effort may seem to involve a commerce with disorder. For the creative order, which is an extension of life, is not an elaboration of the established, but a movement beyond the established, or at least a reorganization of it and often of elements not included in it. The first need is therefore to transcend the old order. Before any new order can be defined, the absolute power of the established, the hold upon us of what we know and are, must be broken. New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive that world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." (Ghiselin, 1985, p. 4)New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive our world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." Chaos and disorder are perhaps the wrong terms for that indeterminate fullness and activity of the inner life. For it is organic, dynamic, full of tension and tendency. What is absent from it, except in the decisive act of creation, is determination, fixity, and commitment to one resolution or another of the whole complex of its tensions. (Ghiselin, 1952, p. 13)[P]sychoanalysts have principally been concerned with the content of creative products, and with explaining content in terms of the artist's infantile past. They have paid less attention to examining why the artist chooses his particular activity to express, abreact or sublimate his emotions. In short, they have not made much distinction between art and neurosis; and, since the former is one of the blessings of mankind, whereas the latter is one of the curses, it seems a pity that they should not be better differentiated....Psychoanalysis, being fundamentally concerned with drive and motive, might have been expected to throw more light upon what impels the creative person that in fact it has. (Storr, 1993, pp. xvii, 3)A number of theoretical approaches were considered. Associative theory, as developed by Mednick (1962), gained some empirical support from the apparent validity of the Remote Associates Test, which was constructed on the basis of the theory.... Koestler's (1964) bisociative theory allows more complexity to mental organization than Mednick's associative theory, and postulates "associative contexts" or "frames of reference." He proposed that normal, non-creative, thought proceeds within particular contexts or frames and that the creative act involves linking together previously unconnected frames.... Simonton (1988) has developed associative notions further and explored the mathematical consequences of chance permutation of ideas....Like Koestler, Gruber (1980; Gruber and Davis, 1988) has based his analysis on case studies. He has focused especially on Darwin's development of the theory of evolution. Using piagetian notions, such as assimilation and accommodation, Gruber shows how Darwin's system of ideas changed very slowly over a period of many years. "Moments of insight," in Gruber's analysis, were the culminations of slow long-term processes.... Finally, the information-processing approach, as represented by Simon (1966) and Langley et al. (1987), was considered.... [Simon] points out the importance of good problem representations, both to ensure search is in an appropriate problem space and to aid in developing heuristic evaluations of possible research directions.... The work of Langley et al. (1987) demonstrates how such search processes, realized in computer programs, can indeed discover many basic laws of science from tables of raw data.... Boden (1990a, 1994) has stressed the importance of restructuring the problem space in creative work to develop new genres and paradigms in the arts and sciences. (Gilhooly, 1996, pp. 243-244; emphasis in original)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Creativity
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14 Memory
To what extent can we lump together what goes on when you try to recall: (1) your name; (2) how you kick a football; and (3) the present location of your car keys? If we use introspective evidence as a guide, the first seems an immediate automatic response. The second may require constructive internal replay prior to our being able to produce a verbal description. The third... quite likely involves complex operational responses under the control of some general strategy system. Is any unitary search process, with a single set of characteristics and inputoutput relations, likely to cover all these cases? (Reitman, 1970, p. 485)[Semantic memory] Is a mental thesaurus, organized knowledge a person possesses about words and other verbal symbols, their meanings and referents, about relations among them, and about rules, formulas, and algorithms for the manipulation of these symbols, concepts, and relations. Semantic memory does not register perceptible properties of inputs, but rather cognitive referents of input signals. (Tulving, 1972, p. 386)The mnemonic code, far from being fixed and unchangeable, is structured and restructured along with general development. Such a restructuring of the code takes place in close dependence on the schemes of intelligence. The clearest indication of this is the observation of different types of memory organisation in accordance with the age level of a child so that a longer interval of retention without any new presentation, far from causing a deterioration of memory, may actually improve it. (Piaget & Inhelder, 1973, p. 36)4) The Logic of Some Memory Theorization Is of Dubious Worth in the History of PsychologyIf a cue was effective in memory retrieval, then one could infer it was encoded; if a cue was not effective, then it was not encoded. The logic of this theorization is "heads I win, tails you lose" and is of dubious worth in the history of psychology. We might ask how long scientists will puzzle over questions with no answers. (Solso, 1974, p. 28)We have iconic, echoic, active, working, acoustic, articulatory, primary, secondary, episodic, semantic, short-term, intermediate-term, and longterm memories, and these memories contain tags, traces, images, attributes, markers, concepts, cognitive maps, natural-language mediators, kernel sentences, relational rules, nodes, associations, propositions, higher-order memory units, and features. (Eysenck, 1977, p. 4)The problem with the memory metaphor is that storage and retrieval of traces only deals [ sic] with old, previously articulated information. Memory traces can perhaps provide a basis for dealing with the "sameness" of the present experience with previous experiences, but the memory metaphor has no mechanisms for dealing with novel information. (Bransford, McCarrell, Franks & Nitsch, 1977, p. 434)7) The Results of a Hundred Years of the Psychological Study of Memory Are Somewhat DiscouragingThe results of a hundred years of the psychological study of memory are somewhat discouraging. We have established firm empirical generalisations, but most of them are so obvious that every ten-year-old knows them anyway. We have made discoveries, but they are only marginally about memory; in many cases we don't know what to do with them, and wear them out with endless experimental variations. We have an intellectually impressive group of theories, but history offers little confidence that they will provide any meaningful insight into natural behavior. (Neisser, 1978, pp. 12-13)A schema, then is a data structure for representing the generic concepts stored in memory. There are schemata representing our knowledge about all concepts; those underlying objects, situations, events, sequences of events, actions and sequences of actions. A schema contains, as part of its specification, the network of interrelations that is believed to normally hold among the constituents of the concept in question. A schema theory embodies a prototype theory of meaning. That is, inasmuch as a schema underlying a concept stored in memory corresponds to the mean ing of that concept, meanings are encoded in terms of the typical or normal situations or events that instantiate that concept. (Rumelhart, 1980, p. 34)Memory appears to be constrained by a structure, a "syntax," perhaps at quite a low level, but it is free to be variable, deviant, even erratic at a higher level....Like the information system of language, memory can be explained in part by the abstract rules which underlie it, but only in part. The rules provide a basic competence, but they do not fully determine performance. (Campbell, 1982, pp. 228, 229)When people think about the mind, they often liken it to a physical space, with memories and ideas as objects contained within that space. Thus, we speak of ideas being in the dark corners or dim recesses of our minds, and of holding ideas in mind. Ideas may be in the front or back of our minds, or they may be difficult to grasp. With respect to the processes involved in memory, we talk about storing memories, of searching or looking for lost memories, and sometimes of finding them. An examination of common parlance, therefore, suggests that there is general adherence to what might be called the spatial metaphor. The basic assumptions of this metaphor are that memories are treated as objects stored in specific locations within the mind, and the retrieval process involves a search through the mind in order to find specific memories....However, while the spatial metaphor has shown extraordinary longevity, there have been some interesting changes over time in the precise form of analogy used. In particular, technological advances have influenced theoretical conceptualisations.... The original Greek analogies were based on wax tablets and aviaries; these were superseded by analogies involving switchboards, gramophones, tape recorders, libraries, conveyor belts, and underground maps. Most recently, the workings of human memory have been compared to computer functioning... and it has been suggested that the various memory stores found in computers have their counterparts in the human memory system. (Eysenck, 1984, pp. 79-80)Primary memory [as proposed by William James] relates to information that remains in consciousness after it has been perceived, and thus forms part of the psychological present, whereas secondary memory contains information about events that have left consciousness, and are therefore part of the psychological past. (Eysenck, 1984, p. 86)Once psychologists began to study long-term memory per se, they realized it may be divided into two main categories.... Semantic memories have to do with our general knowledge about the working of the world. We know what cars do, what stoves do, what the laws of gravity are, and so on. Episodic memories are largely events that took place at a time and place in our personal history. Remembering specific events about our own actions, about our family, and about our individual past falls into this category. With amnesia or in aging, what dims... is our personal episodic memories, save for those that are especially dear or painful to us. Our knowledge of how the world works remains pretty much intact. (Gazzaniga, 1988, p. 42)The nature of memory... provides a natural starting point for an analysis of thinking. Memory is the repository of many of the beliefs and representations that enter into thinking, and the retrievability of these representations can limit the quality of our thought. (Smith, 1990, p. 1)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Memory
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15 fact
fact [fækt]1. nouna. fait m• in view of the fact that... étant donné que...• despite the fact that... bien que... + subj• is it a fact that...? est-il vrai que... ?• is that a fact? vraiment ?• to know for a fact that... être certain que...• it's time he knew the facts of life il est temps de lui apprendre les choses de la vie ; (about sex) il est temps qu'il sache comment les enfants viennent au monde• only I knew that Phyllis was, in fact, David's sister j'étais le seul à savoir que Phyllis était en fait la sœur de David• he had promised to send the books and in fact they arrived the next day il avait promis d'envoyer les livres et ils sont effectivement arrivés le lendemainb. ( = reality) réalité f• the fact of the matter is that... le fait est que...2. compounds• they were on a fact-finding mission to the front ils étaient partis en mission d'inspection au front* * *[fækt]noun fait mowing ou due to the fact that — étant donné que
in fact —
••to know the facts of life — ( sex) savoir comment les enfants viennent au monde
the facts of life — ( unpalatable truths) les réalités de la vie
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16 Computer Metaphors
Within the AI community there is a growing dissatisfaction concerning the adequacy of sequential models to simulate the cognitive processes....For an example of the dissimilarity between computers and nervous systems, consider that in conventional computers... each piece of data [is] located in its own special space in the memory bank [and] can be retrieved only by a central processor that knows the address in the memory bank for each datum. Human memory appears to be organized along entirely different lines. For one thing, from a partial or a degraded stimulus human memory can "reconstruct" the rest, and there are associative relationships among stored pieces of information based on considerations of context rather than on considerations of location.... t now appears doubtful that individual neurons are so specific that they are tuned to respond to a single item and nothing else. Thus, connectionist models tend to devise and use distributed principles, which means that elements may be selective to a range of stimuli and there are no "grandmother cells."...Information storage, it appears, is in some ill-defined sense a function of connectivity among sets of neurons. This implies that there is something fundamentally wrong in understanding the brain's memory on the model of individual symbols stored at unique addresses in a data bank....A further source of misgivings about the computer metaphor concerns real-time constraints. Although the signal velocities in nervous systems are quite slow in comparison to those in computers, brains are nonetheless far, far faster than electronic devices in the execution of their complex tasks. For example, human brains are incomparably faster than any computer in word-nonword recognition tasks. (P. S. Churchland, 1986, pp. 458-459)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Computer Metaphors
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