second+theme

chaîne° [∫εn]

1. feminine noun

   a. (de métal) chain

• chaîne de bicyclette bicycle chain

• briser ses chaînes to throw off one's chains

   b. ( = ensemble, suite) chain ; [de montagnes] range

• la chaîne des Alpes the Alpine range

• des catastrophes en chaîne a series of disasters

   c. (Industry) assembly line

• travailler à la chaîne to work on an assembly line

   d. (TV) channel

• sur la première/deuxième chaîne on the first/second channel

   e. (stéréo) stereo system

• chaîne hi-fi hi-fi system

2. compounds

► chaîne alimentaire food chain

► chaîne câblée cable channel

► chaîne de caractères character string

► chaîne compacte mini-system

► chaîne de fabrication, chaîne de montage assembly line

► chaîne payante or à péage pay TV channel

► chaîne stéréo stereo system

* * *

1) ( entrave) chain

2) ( de transmission) chain

3) Industrie assembly line

4) ( bijou) chain

5) ( succession) chain

6) ( organisation) network

7) Géographie chain, range

8) ( de télévision) channel

9) Commerce chain

10) Audio system

11) Chimie chain

chaînes nom féminin pluriel Automobile snow chains

- chaîne de fabrication

- chaîne de montage

- chaîne thématique

* * *

1. nf

1) (pour lier, décorer) chain

2) TV channel

3) (stéréo) hi-fi system

4) INFORMATIQUE string

5) (= enchaînement)

6) (montagneuse) range

2. chaînes nfpl

(= liens, asservissement) chains, shackles

* * *

chaîne

A nf

1 ( entrave) chain; mettre les chaînes à qn to put sb in chains; attacher qn avec des chaînes to chain sb up; attacher son chien à une chaîne to put one's dog on a chain; briser ses chaînes to cast off one's chains;

2 Mécan chain; chaîne de transmission/de vélo transmission/bicycle chain; chaîne de sécurité safety chain;

3 Ind assembly line; être/travailler à la chaîne to be/to work on the assembly line; produire (qch) à la chaîne to mass-produce (sth); production à la chaîne mass production; on n'est pas à la chaîne○! fig we're not machines, you know!; système éducatif à la chaîne conveyor-belt education system;

4 ( bijou) chain; chaîne en or gold chain; chaîne de montre watch chain;

5 ( succession) chain; des catastrophes en chaîne a series of disasters; réaction en chaîne chain reaction;

6 ( organisation) network; chaîne de solidarité support network; faire la chaîne to make a chain;

7 Géog chain, range; chaîne de montagnes/des Pyrénées mountain/Pyrenean chain;

8 ( de télévision) channel; chaîne de télévision television channel; deuxième chaîne channel 2; chaîne câblée/musicale/publique cable/music/public channel;

9 Comm chain; chaîne de magasins chain of stores; chaîne d'hôtels hotel chain;

10 Audio ( système) chaîne hi-fi hi-fi system; chaîne stéréo stereo system; chaîne compacte music centre;

11 Chimie chain; chaîne moléculaire molecular chain;

12 Tex warp.

B chaînes nfpl Aut snow chains; mettre les chaînes to put the snow chains on.

chaîne alimentaire food chain; chaîne d'arpenteur surveyor's chain; chaîne d'assemblage assembly line; chaîne de caractères character string; chaîne de commandement chain of command; chaîne éditoriale editorial process; chaîne de fabrication Ind production line; chaîne du froid cold chain; chaîne de montage Ind assembly line; chaîne nerveuse Anat sympathetic chain; chaîne des osselets Anat (chain of) bonelets; chaîne parlée Ling speech chain; chaîne de survie Méd chain of survival; chaîne thématique special interest channel.

ⓘ Chaînes de télévision In all, France has 6 terrestrial TV channels. There are two state-owned channels, France 2 and France 3 where programmes are financed mostly by revenue from the TV licences paid by all TV owners, as well as four privately-owned channels. These are TF1 (télévision française 1) which has an obligation to ensure that 50% of its programmes are of French origin; Canal Plus, a subscription-operated channel which requires the use of a decoder except during brief periods when programmes are not scrambled (i.e. when they are broadcast en clair); la Cinquième (an educational channel) and Arte (a Franco-German cultural channel) which broadcast programmes on the same frequency but at different times of the day; and finally M6, a popular commercial channel.

[ʃɛn] nom féminin

1. [attache, bijou] chain

a. [sur un bijou] safety chain

b. [sur une porte] (door) chain

2. [suite] chain, series

3. TÉLÉVISION channel

4. AUDIO

5. COMMERCE [de restaurants, de supermarchés] chain

6. INDUSTRIE

7. INFORMATIQUE string

8. CHIMIE & PHYSIQUE chain

9. TEXTILES warp

10. DANSE chain

————————

chaînes nom féminin pluriel

AUTOMOBILE (snow) chains

————————

à la chaîne locution adjectivale

[travail] assembly-line (modificateur), production-line (modificateur)

————————

à la chaîne locution adverbiale

[travailler, produire] on the production line

faire quelque chose à la chaîne to mass-produce something

————————

en chaîne locution adjectivale

des catastrophes en chaîne a whole catalogue of disasters

mf (ā) n. being in the interior, interior;

1) f. becoming light, dawning, morning RV. VS. (gen. vástoḥ, in the morning;

2) n. the seat orﾠ place of ( seeﾠ kapila-, vraṇa-v-);

take again

( prendere indietro) take back

lavoro go back to

photography record

riprendere coscienza regain consciousness

riprendere a fare qualcosa start doing something again

* * *

riprendere v.tr.

1 ( prendere di nuovo) to take* again; to retake*; ( riacchiappare) to catch* (again): devo riprendere la medicina?, shall I take my medicine again?; ha ripreso l'abitudine di fumare, he has taken up smoking again; temo di aver ripreso il raffreddore, I am afraid I have caught a cold again (o I have caught another cold); lanciava la palla in aria e la riprendeva, he threw the ball up into the air and caught it; riprendere il proprio posto, to sit down in one's place again; (fig.) to take one's seat again; verrò a riprendere il bambino dopo il lavoro, I'll come to pick up the child after work; riprendere le armi, to take up arms again; riprendere il cammino, to take to the road again; riprese il cammino verso casa, he set out for home again // lo ha ripreso la febbre, he has (had) another bout of fever; lo riprese la malinconia, he fell back in a state of gloom // riprendere moglie, marito, to remarry // riprendere coraggio, to take courage again // riprendere sonno, to get back to sleep // riprendere un punto, ( nel lavoro a maglia) to pick up a stitch // riprendere quota, (aer.) to regain height

2 ( riassumere) to resume; ( personale) to re-engage, to re-employ, to hire again: ripresi la segretaria che avevo licenziato, I re-engaged (o took on again) the secretary I had dismissed; riprendere il comando della nave, to resume command of the ship

3 ( ricominciare) to start again, to begin* again, to resume: ha ripreso a piovere, it has started raining again; riprendere a scrivere, a lavorare, to begin writing, working again; riprendere il lavoro, la lettura, to resume work, reading

4 ( ricatturare, riconquistare) to retake*, to recapture: riprendemmo il prigioniero fuggito, we recaptured the escaped prisoner; riprendere una fortezza, una città, to retake (o to recapture) a fortress, a town // (sport): riprendere il gruppo di testa, to catch up again with the leaders; riprendere il primo posto in classifica, to regain the top position in the table

5 ( prendere indietro) to take* back, to get* back; ( ricuperare) to recover: la casa editrice riprese le copie invendute del libro, the publishing house took back the unsold copies of the book; quando posso riprendere i miei libri?, when can I take (o get) back my books?; sono andata a riprendere l'ombrello che avevo dimenticato, I went to collect the umbrella I had left behind; riprendere forza, to recover strength; riprendere conoscenza, i sensi, to recover consciousness, to come to one's senses again; riprendere fiato, to get one's breath back // la malavita sta riprendendo piede nella zona, the underworld is recovering ground in the area

6 ( riutilizzare) to draw* on; ( derivare) to take*: questo compositore ha ripreso alcune danze popolari, this composer has drawn on popular dance tunes; alcuni versi sono ripresi da Shakespeare, some verses are taken from Shakespeare

7 ( ripetere) to take* up: il tema iniziale viene ripreso nella seconda parte, the opening theme is taken up in the second part

8 ( rimproverare) to tell* off, to reprimand, to reprove, to find* fault with (s.o.): la maestra l'ha ripreso perché parlava troppo, the teacher told him off because he talked too much; mi riprende sempre, he always finds fault with me; riprendere severamente qlcu., to reprimand s.o. sharply

9 ( sartoria) to take* in: questo vestito deve essere ripreso in vita, this dress must be taken in at the waist

10 (teatr.) to revive: questa commedia è stata ripresa dopo venti anni, this play has been revived after twenty years

11 (cinem.) to shoot*: riprendere una scena, to shoot a scene; l'hanno ripreso mentre sbadigliava, they caught him (on film) while he was yawning

◆ v. intr.

1 ( ricominciare) to start again, to begin* again; ( a parlare) to go* on: aveva smesso di fumare, ma poi ha ripreso, he had given up smoking but then he started again; riprendiamo da dove eravamo rimasti, let's begin again from where we were; si riprende fra dieci minuti, we'll start again in ten minutes; le trasmissioni riprenderanno appena possibile, normal service will be resumed as soon as possible; ''Dimmi'', riprese, ''quando sei arrivato?'', ''Tell me'', he went on, ''when did you arrive?'' // la vita riprende, things are looking up again

2 ( rinvigorire) to recover; to revive: i fiori riprendono nell'acqua, flowers revive in water; il vecchio riprende lentamente, the old man is slowly recovering.

◘ riprendersi v.intr.pron.

1 ( da malattia) to recover, to get* over, to rally; ( da turbamento) to collect oneself: dopo la malattia si riprese lentamente, after his illness he recovered slowly; datemi il tempo di riprendermi, give me time to collect myself; dopo la morte di suo padre, non si è più ripreso, after his father's death he was no longer his former self // dopo aver fatto bancarotta, non si riprese più, after he went bankrupt he never got on his legs again; il mercato azionario non si è ripreso dal crollo, the stock market has not recovered from the crash

2 ( correggersi) to correct oneself: fece un errore madornale, ma si riprese subito, he made a huge mistake but he corrected himself at once.

* * *

1. [ri'prɛndere]

1) (prendere di nuovo: gen) to take again, (prigioniero) to recapture, (città) to retake, (impiegato) to take on again, re-employ, (raffreddore) to catch again, (velocità) to pick up again, (quota) to regain

2) (riavere) to get back, (ritirare: oggetto riparato) to collect

3) (ricominciare: viaggio, lavoro) to resume, start again

4) Cine, TV to shoot

5) (rimproverare) to reprimand

6) (restringere: abito) to take in

7) (Sport: raggiungere) to catch up with

2. vip (riprendersi)

1) (riaversi) to recover, (pianta) to revive

2) (correggersi) to correct o.s.

* * *

verbo transitivo

1) (prendere di nuovo) to regain [controllo, comando]; to recover [ territorio]; to take* back [impiegato, regalo]

2) (ricatturare) to recapture [ prigioniero]

3) (riavere) to retrieve [ oggetto]; [ persona] to revert to [ abitudine]

4) (ricominciare) to go* back to, to restart, to resume, to return to [lavoro, scuola]; to pick up, to take* up, to resume [conversazione, carriera]; to renew, to restart, to resume [ negoziati]

5) (recuperare)

6) cinem. fot. to shoot*; (con videocamera) to video(tape)

7) sart. (stringere) to take* in [vestito, cucitura]; to pick up [ punto]

8) (utilizzare di nuovo) to draw* on [idea, tesi]

9) (sgridare) to pick up, to pull up, to tell* off

10) mus. to repeat

verbo intransitivo (aus. avere)

1) (ricominciare) [attività, ciclo] to restart, to resume; [discussione, processo, scuola] to reopen, to resume

2) (continuare)

verbo pronominale riprendersi

1) (ristabilirsi) to recover, to gather oneself; (riaversi) to collect one's wits, to collect oneself, to perk up, to recollect oneself

2) (rinverdire) [ pianta] to perk up, to revive

3) econ. [commercio, economia] to recover, to perk up

4) (correggersi) to correct oneself

* * *

riprendere

/ri'prεndere/ [10]

I verbo transitivo

 1 (prendere di nuovo) to regain [controllo, comando]; to recover [ territorio]; to take* back [impiegato, regalo]; riprendere sonno to fall asleep again, to go back to sleep; riprendere marito, moglie (riposarsi) to marry again, to remarry

 2 (ricatturare) to recapture [ prigioniero]

 3 (riavere) to retrieve [ oggetto]; [ persona] to revert to [ abitudine]

 4 (ricominciare) to go* back to, to restart, to resume, to return to [lavoro, scuola]; to pick up, to take* up, to resume [conversazione, carriera]; to renew, to restart, to resume [ negoziati]; riprendere servizio to report back for duty; riprendere la lettura to return to one's book

 5 (recuperare) riprendere quota to gain height again; riprendere terreno to catch up; riprendere conoscenza to come round BE o around AE o to life, to regain consciousness; riprendere colore to get one's colour back

 6 cinem. fot. to shoot*; (con videocamera) to video(tape)

 7 sart. (stringere) to take* in [vestito, cucitura]; to pick up [ punto]

 8 (utilizzare di nuovo) to draw* on [idea, tesi]

 9 (sgridare) to pick up, to pull up, to tell* off

 10 mus. to repeat

II verbo intransitivo

 (aus. avere)

 1 (ricominciare) [attività, ciclo] to restart, to resume; [discussione, processo, scuola] to reopen, to resume; "i programmi riprenderanno il più presto possibile" "normal service will be resumed as soon as possible"

 2 (continuare) "strano," riprese lui "strange", he continued

III riprendersi verbo pronominale

 1 (ristabilirsi) to recover, to gather oneself; (riaversi) to collect one's wits, to collect oneself, to perk up, to recollect oneself; - rsi da uno shock to recover from o get over the shock

 2 (rinverdire) [ pianta] to perk up, to revive

 3 econ. [commercio, economia] to recover, to perk up

 4 (correggersi) to correct oneself.

Drūsus, i, m., a well-known Roman surname in the Livian family, first assumed by the Livius who slew the Gallic general Drausus, Suet. Tib. 3.—Esp.

M. Livius Drusus, uncle of Cato Uticensis, murdered by Q. Varius, Cic. Arch. 3, 6; Vell. 2, 13.—

Claudius Drusus Nero, son of Tib. Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla, father of Germanicus, the theme of Hor. C. 4, 4; Suet. Claud. 1; Tac. A. 1, 33.— Hence, Drūsĭānus, a, um, adj.:

fossa,

Tac. A. 2, 8, or Drūsīnus, a, um, adj.:

fossae,

a canal on the Lower Rhine, constructed by Drusus, the son of Livia, Suet. Claud. 1.— Drūsilla, ae, f., the name of [p. 613] several females of the Livian family. — Esp.

Livia Drusilla, the second wife of Augustus, v. Livius.—

Drusilla, daughter of Drusus Germanicus, Tac. A. 6, 15; Suet. Calig. 7; 24 al.

Drūsus, i, m., a well-known Roman surname in the Livian family, first assumed by the Livius who slew the Gallic general Drausus, Suet. Tib. 3.—Esp.

M. Livius Drusus, uncle of Cato Uticensis, murdered by Q. Varius, Cic. Arch. 3, 6; Vell. 2, 13.—

Claudius Drusus Nero, son of Tib. Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla, father of Germanicus, the theme of Hor. C. 4, 4; Suet. Claud. 1; Tac. A. 1, 33.— Hence, Drūsĭānus, a, um, adj.:

fossa,

Tac. A. 2, 8, or Drūsīnus, a, um, adj.:

fossae,

a canal on the Lower Rhine, constructed by Drusus, the son of Livia, Suet. Claud. 1.— Drūsilla, ae, f., the name of [p. 613] several females of the Livian family. — Esp.

Livia Drusilla, the second wife of Augustus, v. Livius.—

Drusilla, daughter of Drusus Germanicus, Tac. A. 6, 15; Suet. Calig. 7; 24 al.

Drūsus, i, m., a well-known Roman surname in the Livian family, first assumed by the Livius who slew the Gallic general Drausus, Suet. Tib. 3.—Esp.

M. Livius Drusus, uncle of Cato Uticensis, murdered by Q. Varius, Cic. Arch. 3, 6; Vell. 2, 13.—

Claudius Drusus Nero, son of Tib. Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla, father of Germanicus, the theme of Hor. C. 4, 4; Suet. Claud. 1; Tac. A. 1, 33.— Hence, Drūsĭānus, a, um, adj.:

fossa,

Tac. A. 2, 8, or Drūsīnus, a, um, adj.:

fossae,

a canal on the Lower Rhine, constructed by Drusus, the son of Livia, Suet. Claud. 1.— Drūsilla, ae, f., the name of [p. 613] several females of the Livian family. — Esp.

Livia Drusilla, the second wife of Augustus, v. Livius.—

Drusilla, daughter of Drusus Germanicus, Tac. A. 6, 15; Suet. Calig. 7; 24 al.

Drūsus, i, m., a well-known Roman surname in the Livian family, first assumed by the Livius who slew the Gallic general Drausus, Suet. Tib. 3.—Esp.

M. Livius Drusus, uncle of Cato Uticensis, murdered by Q. Varius, Cic. Arch. 3, 6; Vell. 2, 13.—

Claudius Drusus Nero, son of Tib. Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla, father of Germanicus, the theme of Hor. C. 4, 4; Suet. Claud. 1; Tac. A. 1, 33.— Hence, Drūsĭānus, a, um, adj.:

fossa,

Tac. A. 2, 8, or Drūsīnus, a, um, adj.:

fossae,

a canal on the Lower Rhine, constructed by Drusus, the son of Livia, Suet. Claud. 1.— Drūsilla, ae, f., the name of [p. 613] several females of the Livian family. — Esp.

Livia Drusilla, the second wife of Augustus, v. Livius.—

Drusilla, daughter of Drusus Germanicus, Tac. A. 6, 15; Suet. Calig. 7; 24 al.

SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping

[br]

[br]

[br]

He was the son of a country lawyer who became legal advisor and travelling companion to certain rich Americans. At an early age Cousteau acquired a love of travel, of the sea and of cinematography: he made his first film at the age of 13. After an interrupted education he nevertheless passed the difficult entrance examination to the Ecole Navale in Brest, but his naval career was cut short in 1936 by injuries received in a serious motor accident. For his long recuperation he was drafted to Toulon. There he met Philippe Tailliez, a fellow naval officer, and Frédéric Dumas, a champion spearfisher, with whom he formed a long association and began to develop his underwater swimming and photography. He apparently took little part in the Second World War, but under cover he applied his photographic skills to espionage, for which he was awarded the Légion d'honneur after the war.

Cousteau sought greater freedom of movement underwater and, with Emile Gagnan, who worked in the laboratory of Air Liquide, he began experimenting to improve portable underwater breathing apparatus. As a result, in 1943 they invented the aqualung. Its simple design and robust construction provided a reliable and low-cost unit and revolutionized scientific and recreational diving. Gagnan shunned publicity, but Cousteau revelled in the new freedom to explore and photograph underwater and exploited the publicity potential to the full.

The Undersea Research Group was set up by the French Navy in 1944 and, based in Toulon, it provided Cousteau with the Opportunity to develop underwater exploration and filming techniques and equipment. Its first aims were minesweeping and exploration, but in 1948 Cousteau pioneered an extension to marine archaeology. In 1950 he raised the funds to acquire a surplus US-built minesweeper, which he fitted out to further his quest for exploration and adventure and named Calypso. Cousteau also sought and achieved public acclaim with the publication in 1953 of The Silent World, an account of his submarine observations, illustrated by his own brilliant photography. The book was an immediate success and was translated into twenty-two languages. In 1955 Calypso sailed through the Red Sea and the western Indian Ocean, and the outcome was a film bearing the same title as the book: it won an Oscar and the Palme d'Or at the Cannes film festival. This was his favoured medium for the expression of his ideas and observations, and a stream of films on the same theme kept his name before the public.

Cousteau's fame earned him appointment by Prince Rainier as Director of the Oceanographie Institute in Monaco in 1957, a post he held until 1988. With its museum and research centre, it offered Cousteau a useful base for his worldwide activities.

In the 1980s Cousteau turned again to technological development. Like others before him, he was concerned to reduce ships' fuel consumption by harnessing wind power. True to form, he raised grants from various sources to fund research and enlisted technical help, namely Lucien Malavard, Professor of Aerodynamics at the Sorbonne. Malavard designed a 44 ft (13.4 m) high non-rotating cylinder, which was fitted onto a catamaran hull, christened Moulin à vent. It was intended that its maiden Atlantic crossing in 1983 should herald a new age in ship propulsion, with large royalties to Cousteau. Unfortunately the vessel was damaged in a storm and limped to the USA under diesel power. A more robust vessel, the Alcyone, was fitted with two "Turbosails" in 1985 and proved successful, with a 40 per cent reduction in fuel consumption. However, oil prices fell, removing the incentive to fit the new device; the lucrative sales did not materialize and Alcyone remained the only vessel with Turbosails, sharing with Calypso Cousteau's voyages of adventure and exploration. In September 1995, Cousteau was among the critics of the decision by the French President Jacques Chirac to resume testing of nuclear explosive devices under the Mururoa atoll in the South Pacific.

[br]

SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building

[br]

[br]

[br]

Mies van der Rohe was the son of a stonemason and his early constructional training came from his father. As a young man he gained experience of the modern school from study of the architecture of the earlier leaders, notably Peter Behrens, Hendrik Berlage and Frank Lloyd Wright. He commenced architectural practice in 1913 and soon after the First World War was establishing his own version of modern architecture. His building materials were always of the highest quality, of marble, stone, glass and, especially, steel. He stripped his designs of all extraneous decoration: more than any of his contemporaries he followed the theme of elegance, functionalism and an ascetic concentration on essentials. He believed that architectural design should not look backwards but should reflect the contemporary achievement of advanced technology in both its construction and the materials used, and he began early in his career to act upon these beliefs. Typical was his early concrete and glass office building of 1922, after which, more importantly, came his designs for the German Pavilion at the Barcelona Exposition of 1929. These designs included his famous Barcelona chair, made from chrome steel and leather in a geometrical design, one which has survived as a classic and is still in production. Another milestone was his Tugendhat House in Brno (1930), a long, low, rectilinear structure in glass and steel that set a pattern for many later buildings of this type. In 1930 Mies followed his colleagues as third Director of the Bauhaus, but due to the rise of National Socialism in Germany it was closed in 1933. He finally left Germany for the USA in 1937, and the following year he took up his post as Director of Architecture in Chicago at what is now known as the Illinois Institute of Technology and where he remained for twenty years. In America Mies van der Rohe continued to develop his work upon his original thesis. His buildings are always recognizable for their elegance, fine proportions, high-quality materials and clean, geometrical forms; nearly all are of glass and steel in rectangular shapes. The structure and design evolved according to the individual needs of each commission, and there were three fundamental types of design. One type was the single or grouped high-rise tower, built for apartments for the wealthy, as in his Lake Shore Drive Apartments in Chicago (1948–51), or for city-centre offices, as in his Seagram Building in New York (1954–8, with Philip Johnson) or his Chicago Federal Centre (1964). Another form was the long, low rectangle based upon the earlier Tugendhat House and seen again in the New National Gallery in Berlin (1965–8). Third, there were the grouped schemes when the commission called for buildings of varied purpose on a single, large site. Here Mies van der Rohe achieved a variety and interest in the different shapes and heights of buildings set out in spatial harmony of landscape. Some examples of this type of scheme were housing estates (Lafayette Park Housing Development in Detroit, 1955–6), while others were for educational, commercial or shopping requirements, as at the Toronto Dominion Centre (1963–9).

[br]

SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building

[br]

[br]

[br]

As early as 1926 Terragni helped to found the gruppo sette, the seven architects who joined the Movimento Italiano per l'Archittetura Razion-ale. These architects enunciated a new architectural theme based upon simplicity, a clean use of quality materials and an end to eclecticism. They were all young, strongly imbued with the ideals of the Bauhaus (see Gropius) and of Frank Lloyd Wright in America. Terragni's best and most typical work is the Casa del Popolo (originally built as the Casa del Fascio) in Como (1932–6), a streamline, simple, high-quality building reminiscent of the contemporary work of Le Corbusier (Charles-Edouard Jeanneret). Unfortunately his career was cut short when he was killed in action during the Second World War.

[br]

χράομαι (χρή) mid. dep. pres. 2 sg. χρᾶσαι (B-D-F §87), ind. and subj. 3 sg. χρῆται IRo 9:1; 1 Ti 1:8 (B-D-F §88); impf. ἐχρώμην; fut. χρήσομαι LXX; 1 aor. ἐχρησάμην; pf. κέχρημαι (Mlt-H. 200) (Hom.+) ‘use’, a common multivalent term.

① make use of, employ

ⓐ w. dat. τινί someth. (Appian, Bell. Civ. 4, 102 §427f θαλάσσῃ; Wsd 2:6; 13:18; 4 Macc 9:2; GrBar 6:12; Demetr.: 722 Fgm. 5 Jac.; Philo, Aet. M. 70; 71; Jos., Bell. 3, 341; Just., A I, 14, 2, D. 57, 2; Tat. 12, 5.—B-D-F §193, 5; Rob. 532f) βοηθείαις ἐχρῶντο Ac 27:17 (s. βοήθεια 2).—1 Cor 7:31 v.l.; 9:12, 15; 1 Ti 5:23 (οἶνος 1); 2 Cl 6:5; Dg 6:5; 12:3 (ᾗ μὴ καθαρῶς χρησάμενοι not using it in purity); ITr 6:1; IPhld 4; Hs 9, 16, 4 (of the use of a seal as PHib 72, 16 [III B.C.]). διαλέκτῳ use a language Dg 5:2. Of law (Trag., Hdt. et al.; Jos., C. Ap. 2, 125) τοῖς νόμοις live in accordance with the laws (Jos., Ant. 16, 27; Ath. 1, 1) Hs 1:3f; cp. 6. ἐάν τις αὐτῷ (=τῷ νόμῳ) νομίμως χρῆται 1 Ti 1:8. προφήταις χρῆσθαι appeal to the prophets AcPlCor 1:10. A dat. is to be supplied w. μᾶλλον χρῆσαι make the most of, take advantage of 1 Cor 7:21, either τῇ δουλείᾳ (so the Peshitta, Chrysostom, Theodoret, and many modern interpreters and translators, among the latter, 20th Century, Goodsp., NRSV; s. also HBellen, Ac 6, ’63, 177–80) or τῇ ἐλευθερίᾳ (so Erasmus, Luther, Calvin, FGodet, Lghtf., Zahn, Moffatt, RSV, NRSV mg., REB); s. μᾶλλον 2a.—If μ. χ. is construed without an implied dat., the phrase can be understood in the sense be all the more useful, work all the harder (cp. Vi. Aesopi G 17 P. on the theme of dedication to a task) i.e. as a freedperson be as industrious as a slave. (On this subj.: TZahn, Sklaverei u. Christentum in d. alten Welt [1879]: Skizzen aus dem Leben d. alten Kirche² 1898, 116–59; EvDobschütz, Sklaverei u. Christent.: RE³ XVIII 423–33; XXIV 521; JvWalter, Die Sklaverei im NT 1914; FKiefl, Die Theorien des modernen Sozialismus über den Ursprung d. Christentums, Zugleich ein Komm. zu 1 Cor 7:21, 1915, esp. p. 56–109; JWeiss, Das Urchristentum 1917, 456–60; ASteinmann, Zur Geschichte der Auslegung v. 1 Cor 7:21: ThRev 16, 1918, 341–48; AJuncker, D. Ethik des Ap. Pls II 1919, 175–81; JKoopmans, De Servitute Antiqua et Rel. Christ., diss. Amsterdam 1920, 119ff; ELohmeyer, Soz. Fragen im Urchrist. 1921; FGrosheide, Exegetica [1 Cor 7:21]: GereformTT 24, 1924, 298–302; HGreeven [s.v. πλοῦτος 1]; MEnslin, The Ethics of Paul 1930, 205–10; WWestermann, Enslaved Persons Who Are Free, AJP 59, ’38, 1–30; HGülzow, Christent. u. Sklaverei [to 300 A.D.], ’69, 177–81; SBartchy, MALLON CHRESAI, ’73=SBLDS 11, ’85; TWiedmann, Greek and Roman Slavery ’81; COsiek, Slavery in the Second Testament World: BTB 22, ’92, 174–79 [lit.]; JHarril, The Manumission of Slaves in Early Christianity ’95, esp. 68–128. On slavery in antiquity gener.: WWestermann, Pauly-W. Suppl. VI ’35, 894–1068, The Slave Systems of Gk. and Rom. Antiquity, ’55; WKristensen, De antieke opvatting van dienstbaarheid ’34; MPohlenz, D. hellen. Mensch ’47, 387–96; Kl. Pauly V 230–34; BHHW III 1814f; MFinley, Slavery in Classical Antiquity ’60; KBradley, The Problem of Slavery in Classical Culture: ClPh 92, ’97, 273–82 [lit.]; PGarnsey, Ideas of Slavery from Aristotle to Augustine ’96.) τινὶ εἴς τι use someth. for someth. (Oenomaus in Eus., PE 5, 33, 14; Simplicius In Epict. p. 27, 52 Düb.; cp. Tat. 17, 4 πρὸς τὸ κακοποιεῖν) Hv 3, 2, 8. σὺ αὐτὸς χρᾶσαι ἐκ τῶν αὐτῶν λίθων you yourself function as one from these same stones 3, 6, 7 (s. app. in Whittaker and Joly; for lit. s. Leutzsch, Hermas 418 n. 355).—W. a double dat. (Trag. et al.) σχοινίῳ χρώμενοι τῷ πνεύματι using as a rope the Holy Spirit IEph 9:1. W. double dat. of pers. (Jos., C. Ap. 1, 227; Just., D. 7, 1; Tat. 36, 1; Ath. 32, 1) of the Syrian ἐκκλησία, which ποιμένι τῷ θεῷ χρῆται resorts to God as shepherd IRo 9:1.

ⓑ w. acc. (X., Ages. 11, 11; Ps.-Aristot., Oecon. 2, 22, 1350a, 7 χρ. τὰ τέλη εἰς διοίκησιν τῆς πόλεως; Ael. Aristid. 13 p. 162 D.; SIG 1170, 27 ἄνηθον μετʼ ἐλαίου χρ.; PTebt 273, 28 ὕδωρ χρ.; Wsd 7:14 v.l.; 2 Macc 4:19.—B-D-F §152, 4; Rob. 476) τὸν κόσμον 1 Cor 7:31 (cp. Simplicius In Epict. p. 29, 30 Düb. τὸ τοῖς μὴ ἐφʼ ἡμῖν ὡς ἐφʼ ἡμῖν οὖσι κεχρῆσθαι=to use that which is not in our power as if it were in our power; s. also MDibelius, Urchristentum u. Kultur 1928).

② act, proceed (Hdt. et al.; POxy 474, 38 et al.) w. dat. of characteristic shown (Aelian, VH 2, 15; Jos., Ant. 10, 25; Just., D. 79, 2; Tat. 40, 1; Mel., HE 4, 26, 13) τῇ ἐλαφρίᾳ 2 Cor 1:17. πολλῇ παρρησίᾳ 3:12. ὑποταγῇ 1 Cl 37:5.—W. adv. (PMagd 6, 12 [III B.C.] et al.) ἀποτόμως 2 Cor 13:10.

③ treat a person in a certain way, w. dat. of pers. and an adv. (X., Mem. 1, 2, 48 φίλοις καλῶς χρ.; OGI 51, 8 [III B.C.] τοῖς τεχνίταις φιλανθρώπως χρῆται; PPetr III, 115, 8 [III B.C.] πικρῶς σοι ἐχρήσατο; POxy 745, 6; Esth 2:9; TestJob 20:3 ὡς ἐβούλετο; Jos., Ant. 2, 315, C. Ap. 1, 153 φιλανθρώπως; Just., A I, 27, 1 αἰσχρῶς) φιλανθρώπως ὁ Ἱούλιος τῷ Παύλῳ χρησάμενος; cp. Hs 5, 2, 10.—DELG s.v. χράομαι p. 1274. M-M. EDNT.

ἴδιος, ία, ον (Hom.+; s. B-D-F §286; W-S. §22, 17; Rob. 691f; Mlt-Turner 191f.—For the spelling ἵδιος s. on ὀλίγος.)

① pert. to belonging or being related to oneself, one’s own

ⓐ in contrast to what is public property or belongs to another: private, one’s own (exclusively) (opp. κοινός, as Pla., Pol. 7, 535b; Appian, Bell. Civ. 5, 41 §171; Ath. 25, 4) οὐδὲ εἷς τι τῶν ὑπαρχόντων αὐτῷ ἔλεγεν ἴδιον εἶναι nor did anyone claim that anything the person had was private property or nor did anyone claim ownership of private possessions Ac 4:32; cp. D 4:8.

ⓑ in respect to circumstance or condition belonging to an individual (opp. ἀλλότριος) κατὰ τὴν ἰδίαν δύναμιν according to each one’s capability (in contrast to that of others) Mt 25:15. τὴν δόξαν τὴν ἰ. ζητεῖ J 7:18; cp. 5:18, 43. ἕκαστος εἰς τὴν ἰδίαν πόλιν Lk 2:3 v.l. (for ἑαυτοῦ); sim. Mt 9:1 (noting the departure of Jesus to his home territory); cp. Dg 5:2. Christ ἐλευθερώσῃ πᾶσαν σάρκα διὰ τῆς ἰδίας σαρκός AcPlCor 2:6; cp. vs. 16 ἕκαστος τῇ ἰ. διαλέκτῳ ἡμῶν Ac 2:8; cp. 1:19 τῇ ἰ. διαλέκτῳ αὐτῶν, without pron. 2:6 (Tat. 26, 1 τὴν ἰ. αὐτῆς … λέξιν); ἰδίᾳ δυνάμει 3:12; cp. 28:30; τἡν ἰ. (δικαιοσύνην) Ro 10:3; cp. 11:24; 14:4f. ἕκαστος τ. ἴ. μισθὸν λήμψεται κατὰ τ. ἴ. κόπον each will receive wages in proportion to each one’s labor 1 Cor 3:8. ἑκάστη τὸν ἴδιον ἄνδρα her own husband 7:2 (Diog. L. 8, 43 πρὸς τὸν ἴδιον ἄνδρα πορεύεσθαι). ἕκαστος ἴδιον ἔχει χάρισμα 7:7. ἕκαστος τὸ ἴδιον δεῖπνον προλαμβάνει (s. προλαμβάνω 1c) 1 Cor 11:21 (Eratosth.: 241 Fgm. 16 Jac. of the festival known as Lagynophoria τὰ κομισθέντα αὑτοῖς δειπνοῦσι κατακλιθέντες … κ. ἐξ ἰδίας ἕκαστος λαγύνου παρʼ αὑτῶν φέροντες πίνουσιν ‘they dine on the things brought them … and they each drink from a flagon they have personally brought’. Evaluation: συνοίκια ταῦτα ῥυπαρά• ἀνάγκη γὰρ τὴν σύνοδον γίνεσθαι παμμιγοῦς ὄχλου ‘that’s some crummy banquet; it’s certainly a meeting of a motley crew’); cp. 1 Cor 9:7; 15:38. ἕκαστος τὸ ἴ. φορτίον βαστάσει Gal 6:5.—Tit 1:12; Hb 4:10; 7:27; 9:12; 13:12.—J 4:44 s. 2 and 3b.

② pert. to a striking connection or an exclusive relationship, own (with emphasis when expressed orally, or italicized in written form) κοπιῶμεν ταῖς ἰ. χερσίν with our own hands 1 Cor 4:12 (first pers., cp. UPZ 13, 14 [158 B.C.] εἰμὶ μετὰ τ. ἀδελφοῦ ἰδίου=w. my brother; TestJob 34:3 ἀναχωρήσωμεν εἰς τὰς ἰδίας χώρας). ἐν τῷ ἰ. ὀφθαλμῷ in your own eye Lk 6:41; 1 Th 2:14; 2 Pt 3:17 (here the stability of the orthodox is contrasted with loss of direction by those who are misled by error). Ac 1:7 (God’s authority in sharp contrast to the apostles’ interest in determining a schedule of events). ἰ. θέλημα own will and ἰδία καρδία own heart or mind 1 Cor 7:37ab contrast with μὴ ἔχων ἀνάγκην ‘not being under compulsion’; hence ἰ. is not simply equivalent to the possessive gen. in the phrase ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ αὐτοῦ. 1 Cor 6:18, ἰ. heightens the absurdity of sinning against one’s own body. Lk 10:34 (apparently the storyteller suggests that the wealthy Samaritan had more than one animal, but put his own at the service of the injured traveler). ἐπὶ τὸ ἴδιον ἐξέραμα 2 Pt 2:22 (cp. ἐπὶ τὸν ἑαυτοῦ ἔμετον Pr 26:11), with heightening of disgust. Some would put J 4:44 here (s. 1 end). εἰς τὸν ἴδιον ἀγρόν Mt 22:5 (the rude guest prefers the amenities of his own estate). Mk 4:34b (Jesus’ close followers in contrast to a large crowd). Ac 25:19 (emphasizing the esoteric nature of sectarian disputes). Js 1:14 (a contrast, not between types of desire but of sources of temptation: those who succumb have only themselves to blame). διὰ τοῦ αἵματος τοῦ ἰδίου through his own blood Ac 20:28 (so NRSV mg.; cp. the phrase SIG 547, 37; 1068, 16 ἐκ τῶν ἰδίων commonly associated with the gifts of generous officials, s. 4b. That the ‘blood’ would be associated with Jesus would be quite apparent to Luke’s publics).

③ pert. to a person, through substitution for a pronoun, own. Some of the passages cited in 2 may belong here. ἴ. is used for the gen. of αὐτός or the possess. pron., or for the possess. gen. ἑαυτοῦ, ἑαυτῶν (this use found in Hellenistic wr. [Schmidt 369], in Attic [Meisterhans³-Schw. 235] and Magnesian [Thieme 28f] ins; pap [Kuhring—s. ἀνά beg.—14; Mayser II/2, 73f]. S. also Dssm., B 120f [BS 123f], and against him Mlt. 87–91. LXX oft. uses ἴ. without emphasis to render the simple Hebr. personal suffix [Gen 47:18; Dt 15:2; Job 2:11; 7:10, 13; Pr 6:2 al.], but somet. also employs it without any basis for it in the original text [Job 24:12; Pr 9:12; 22:7; 27:15]. Da 1:10, where LXX has ἴ., Theod. uses μου. 1 Esdr 5:8 εἰς τὴν ἰδίαν πόλιν=2 Esdr 2:1 εἰς πόλιν αὐτοῦ; Mt 9:1 is formally sim., but its position in the narrative suggests placement in 1)

ⓐ with the second pers. (Jos., Bell. 6, 346 ἰδίαις χερσίν=w. your own hands). Eph 5:22 (cp. vs. 28 τὰς ἑαυτῶν γυναῖκας); 1 Th 4:11; 1 Pt 3:1.

ⓑ with the third pers. ἐν τῇ ἰδίᾳ πατρίδι J 4:44 (cp. ἐν τῇ πατρίδι αὐτοῦ: Mt 13:57; Mk 6:4; Lk 4:24, but J 4:44 is expressed in a slightly difft. form and may therefore belong in 1b above); Mt 25:14; 15:20 v.l.; J 1:41 (UPZ 13, s. 2 above: ἀδ. ἴ.); Ac 1:19; 24:24; 1 Ti 6:1; Tit 2:5, 9; 1 Pt 3:5; MPol 17:3; AcPl Ha 3, 21; 4, 27 (context uncertain); τὸ ἴδιον πλάσμα AcPlCor 2:12, 1; ἴδιον χωρίον Papias (3:3).

④ as subst., person or thing associated with an entity

ⓐ associates, relations οἱ ἴδιοι (comrades in battle: Polyaenus, Exc. 14, 20; SIG 709, 19; 22; 2 Macc 12:22; Jos., Bell. 1, 42, Ant. 12, 405; compatriots: ViHab 5 [p. 86, 7 Sch.]; Philo, Mos. 1, 177) fellow-Christians Ac 4:23; 24:23 (Just., D. 121, 3). The disciples (e.g., of a philosopher: Epict. 3, 8, 7) J 13:1. Relatives (BGU 37; POxy 932; PFay 110; 111; 112; 116; 122 al.; Vett. Val. 70, 5 ὑπὸ ἰδίων κ. φίλων; Sir 11:34; Just., A II, 7, 2 σὺν τοῖς ἰδίοις … Νῶε and D. 138, 2 Νῶε … μετὰ τῶν ἰδίων) 1 Ti 5:8; J 1:11b (the worshipers of a god are also so called: Herm. Wr. 1, 31).—Sg. τὸν ἴδιον J 15:19 v.l. (s. b below).

ⓑ home, possessions τὰ ἴδια home (Polyb. 2, 57, 5; 3, 99, 4; Appian, Iber. 23; Peripl. Eryth. 65 εἰς τὰ ἴδια; POxy 4, 9f ἡ ἀνωτέρα ψυχὴ τ. ἴδια γεινώσκει; 487, 18; Esth 5:10; 6:12; 1 Esdr 6:31 [τὰ ἴδια αὐτοῦ=2 Esdr 6:11 ἡ οἰκία αὐτοῦ]; 3 Macc 6:27, 37; 7:8; Jos., Ant. 8, 405; 416, Bell. 1, 666; 4, 528) J 16:32 (EFascher, ZNW 39, ’41, 171–230); 19:27; Ac 5:18 D; 14:18 v.l.; 21:6; AcPl Ha 8, 5. Many (e.g. Goodsp, Probs. 87f; 94–96; Field, Notes 84; RSV; but not Bultmann 34f; NRSV) prefer this sense for J 1:11a and Lk 18:28; another probability in both these pass. is property, possessions (POxy 489, 4; 490, 3; 491, 3; 492, 4 al.). ἐκ τῶν ἰδίων from his own well-stocked supply (oft. in ins e.g. fr. Magn. and Priene, also SIG 547, 37; 1068, 16 [in such ins the focus is on the generosity of public-spirited officals who use their own resources to meet public needs]; Jos., Ant. 12, 158) J 8:44. The sg. can also be used in this way τὸ ἴδιον (SIG 1257, 3; BGU 1118, 31 [22 B.C.]) J 15:19 (v.l. τὸν ἴδιον, s. a above).—τὰ ἴδια one’s own affairs (X., Mem. 3, 4, 12; 2 Macc 9:20; 11:23 v.l., 26, 29) 1 Th 4:11, here πράσσειν τὰ ἴδια=mind your own business.— Jd 6 of one’s proper sphere.

⑤ pert. to a particular individual, by oneself, privately, adv. ἰδίᾳ (Aristoph., Thu.; Diod S 20, 21, 5 et al.; ins, pap, 2 Macc 4:34; Philo; Jos., Bell. 4, 224, C. Ap. 1, 225; Ath. 8, 1f) 1 Cor 12:11; IMg 7:1.—κατʼ ἰδίαν (Machon, Fgm. 11 vs. 121 [in Athen. 8, 349b]; Polyb. 4, 84, 8; Diod S 1, 21, 6; also ins [SIG 1157, 12 καὶ κατὰ κοινὸν καὶ κατʼ ἰδίαν ἑκάστῳ al.]; 2 Macc 4:5; 14:21; JosAs 7:1; Philo, Sacr. Abel. 136; Just., D. 5, 2) privately, by oneself (opp. κοινῇ: Jos., Ant. 4, 310) Mt 14:13, 23; 17:1, 19; 20:17; 24:3; Mk 4:34a; 6:31f; 7:33 (Diod S 18, 49, 2 ἕκαστον ἐκλαμβάνων κατʼ ἰδίαν=‘he took each one aside’); 9:2 (w. μόνος added), 28; 13:3; Lk 9:10; 10:23; Ac 23:19; Gal 2:2 (on the separate meeting cp. Jos., Bell. 2, 199 τ. δυνατοὺς κατʼ ἰδίαν κ. τὸ πλῆθος ἐν κοινῷ συλλέγων; Appian, Bell. Civ. 5, 40 §170); ISm 7:2.

⑥ pert. to being distinctively characteristic of some entity, belonging to/peculiar to an individual ἕκαστον δένδρον ἐκ τ. ἰδίου καρποῦ γινώσκεται every tree is known by its own fruit Lk 6:44. τὰ ἴδια πρόβατα his (own) sheep J 10:3f. εἰς τὸν τόπον τ. ἴδιον to his own place (= the place where he belonged) Ac 1:25; cp. 20:28. The expression τοῦ ἰδίου υἱοῦ οὐκ ἐφείσατο Ro 8:32 emphasizes the extraordinary nature of God’s gift: did not spare his very own Son (Paul’s association here with the ref. to pandemic generosity, ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν πάντων παρέδωκεν αὐτο͂ν, contributes a semantic component to ἰ. in this pass.; for the pandemic theme see e.g. OGI 339, 29f; for donation of one’s own resources, ibid. 104; IGR 739, II, 59–62. For the term ὁ ἴδιος υἱός, but in difft. thematic contexts, see e.g. Diod S 17, 80, 1 of Parmenio; 17, 118, 1 of Antipater. In relating an instance in which a son was not spared Polyaenus 8, 13 has υἱὸς αὐτοῦ, evidently without emphasis, but Exc. 3, 7 inserts ἴδιος υἱός to emphasize the gravity of an officer’s own son violating an order.). 1 Cor 7:4ab. ἕκαστος ἐν. τ. ἰδίῳ τάγματι each one in his (own) turn 15:23 (cp. En 2:1 τ. ἰ. τάξιν). καιροὶ ἴδιοι the proper time (cp. Diod S 1, 50, 7 ἐν τοῖς ἰδίοις χρόνοις; likew. 5, 80, 3; Jos., Ant. 11, 171; Ps.-Clemens, Hom. 3, 16; TestSol 6:3 ἐν καιρῷ ἰ.; Just., D. 131, 4 πρὸ τῶν ἰ. καιρῶν; Mel., P. 38, 258ff) 1 Ti 2:6; 6:15; Tit 1:3; 1 Cl 20:4; cp. 1 Ti 3:4f, 12; 4:2; 5:4. ἴδιαι λειτουργίαι … ἴδιος ὁ τόπος … ἴδιαι διακονίαι in each case proper: ministrations, … place, … services 1 Cl 40:5.—In ἰδία ἐπίλυσις 2 Pt 1:20 one’s own private interpretation is contrasted with the meaning intended by the author himself or with the interpretation of another person who is authorized or competent (s. ἐπίλυσις and WWeeda, NThSt 2, 1919, 129–35).—All these pass. are close to mng. 3; it is esp. difficult to fix the boundaries here.—DELG. M-M. EDNT. TW. Spicq. Sv.