research+efforts

1) spend one's money (one's income, one's savings, etc.) тратить /расходовать/ свои деньги и т.д.

2) spend one's strength /one's force/ (all one's ammunition, etc.) истратить /израсходовать/ свои силы и т.д.

3) spend a sleepless night (a pleasant evening, a few instructive hours, etc.) проводить бессонную ночь и т.д.;

1) spend smth. in some manner spend smth. quickly (freely, liberally /lavishly/, right and left, economically, wisely, foolishly, rashly /recklessly/, etc.) быстро и т.д. тратить /расходовать/ что-л.; how do you spend your time? как вы проводите время?; spend smth. in some time spend much money every day (ten dollars today, t 200 a year, etc.) тратить много денег каждый день и т.д.

2) spend time somewhere spend too much time here (the winter abroad, etc.) проводить слишком много времени здесь и т.д.; I meant to spend the night here я хотел переночевать здесь /провести здесь ночь/

1) be spent ill-gotten money is soon spent что нечестно наживается, то быстро проживается; be spent towards smth. he contributed a lot of money to be spent towards the improvement of medical care он пожертвовал много денег на улучшение /усовершенствование/ медицинского обслуживания

2) be spent in doing smth. a week may be spent in seeing the sights на осмотр достопримечательностей отводится неделя

1) spend smth. on (for) smb., smth. spend money [lavishly (recklessly, etc.)] on oneself (on books, on smb.'s education, on a mere hobby, on cigarettes, etc.) [щедро и т.д.] тратить /расходовать/ деньги на себя и т.д.; spend too much money (very little money, all one's fortune, five pounds, etc.) on smb., smth. тратить /расходовать/ слишком много денег и т.д. на кого-л., что-л.; I spent my whole life on it я этому посвятил всю свою жизнь; spend a lot of money for clothes (for amusements, for books, etc.) тратить много денег на одежду и т.д.; spend a lot of money for nought тратить много денег впустую; I'm willing to spend a lot for a piano на рояль я денег не пожалею; spend smth. in some time we spent more money than ever during our holidays во время нашего отпуска мы истратили больше денег, чем всегда

2) spend smth. on (for, over, etc.) smth. spend a whole chapter on unimportant details (so many pages on the incident, etc.) отводить целую главу мелким /незначительным/ деталям и т.д.; spend one's blood and life for the cause of liberty отдавать силы и жизнь борьбе за свободу; spend one's strength (one's efforts) in vain (to no purpose) тратить силы напрасно (безрезультатно); spend one's words /one's breath/ in vain тратить слова впустую; it is useless to spend any more pains over it что толку заниматься этим дальше?; spend time on smth. spend much time on research (nearly twenty years on a project, etc.) тратить много времени на изыскания и т.д.; spend time in /at/ some place spend a lot of time in the library (a day at the beach, a delightful day in the country, more than half his life in Paris, the remainder of his years in Japan, etc.) проводить много времени в библиотеке и т.д.; spend many hours in a pleasant conversation проводить часы в приятной беседе, часами вести приятную беседу; spend all one's life in poverty прожить всю жизнь в нищете; spend time with smb. spend months (a fortnight, the day and evening, an afternoon, etc.) with smb. проводить долгие месяцы и т.д. с кем-л.; come and spend a week with us приезжайте и поживите у нас недельку; spend time over smth. spend time over books (over newspapers, etc.) проводить время за книгами и т.д.

1) spend money in doing smth. spend money in buying books (in drinking, in gambling, etc.) тратить деньги на покупку книг и т.д.

2) spend smth. in doing smth. spend one's trouble (one's breath) in trying to help (in convincing him, etc.) тратить немало труда (немало слов), чтобы попытаться помочь и т.д.; spend time in (on) doing smth. spend much time in gardening тратить на свой сад много времени; spend part of the time in fishing часть своего времени заниматься рыбной ловлей; spend a lot of time in dressing уделять много времени своему туалету; spend one's holidays in reading провести весь свой отпуск за чтением /за книгами/; spend a lifetime on developing this theory посвятить всю жизнь разработке этой темы

1) throw smth. throw a ball (a stone, a pebble, a book, a plate, etc.) бросать /кидать, швырять/ мяч и т.д.; throw the discus (the javelin, etc.) sport. метать диск и т.д.; who threw that? кто это бросил?; а hose throws water из шланга бьет вода; [learn] to throw a fly [научиться] забрасывать удочку с "мухой", ловить рыбу на "муху"; throw a good line быть хорошим рыболовом; throw smb. throw a rider сбрасывать всадника; the horse threw him лошадь сбросила его; he threw his opponent он бросил противника на ковер

2) throw smth. throw one's skin (one's horns, one's antlers, hoofs) сбрасывать /менять/ кожу и т.д.

3) throw smth. throw a switch включить рубильник; you'll have to throw that switch to get the machine started нужно включить ток, чтобы пустить машину в ход

4) throw smth. sl. throw a party (a ball, etc.) устроить /закатить/ вечеринку и т.д.; throw a dinner давать обед; I nearly threw a fit when I heard it я чуть в обморок не упал, когда об этом услышал

5) semiaux throw smb. coll. it was her falsetto voice that really threw me что меня действительно поразило /удивило/, так это ее фальцет

1) throw smth., smb. somewhere throw smth. high (far, down, back, etc.) бросать что-л. высоко и т.д..; throw the ball up and catch it as it falls подбросьте мяч вверх и поймайте его, когда он будет падать; she threw her body backward она откинулась назад; throw aside all caution отбрасывать всякую предосторожность; throw aside all decorum отбросить всякое внешнее приличие /всякий этикет/; throw smth., smb. over /overboard/ выбрасывать что-л., кого-л. за борт; throw a scheme overboard отказываться от плана; he threw the letter down он бросил /швырнул/ письмо; throw down one's arms бросать оружие, сдаваться; he threw his opponent down он сбил с ног или повалял на землю своего противника; throw smth., smb. in some manner throw smth., smb. quickly (deliberately, defiantly, violently, suddenly, etc.) бросать /кидать, швырять/ что-л., кого-л. быстро и т.д..

2) throw smth. somewhere throw the light ever here направьте сюда свет; she threw a glance backwards она взглянула /бросила взгляд/ назад

1) throw smb. smth. throw smb. a ball (a book, а горе, а bone, etc.) бросать /кидать/ кому-л. мяч и т.д.; throw smth. some distance throw smth. three yards (ten feet, etc.) бросить что-л. на три ярда и т.д.

2) throw smb. smth. throw smb. a kiss послать кому-л. воздушный поцелуй

1) be thrown in smth. two of the jockeys were thrown in the second race во втором заезде были сброшены с лошадей два жокея; be thrown off /from/ smb., smth. he was thrown off his horse его сбросила лошадь; he was thrown from a moving car его на ходу выбросили из машины; be thrown (up)on (into, etc.) smth. be thrown (up)on an unknown coast (on a reef, on the rocks, etc.) быть выброшенным на незнакомый берег и т.д.; the sacks were thrown into the river мешки сбросили в воду; be thrown on the streets быть выброшенным на улицу; be thrown out of the hall быть вышвырнутым из зала; be thrown out of work быть выброшенным с работы

2) be thrown (up)on smth. the view appeared as if it had been suddenly thrown on a screen перед нами открылся вид, словно его внезапно спроектировали на экране; new light has been thrown on the text об этом тексте узнали новое; new light may be thrown upon the cause of cancer by research исследования могут пролить новый свет на причину [возникновения] рака || be thrown into [the] shade померкнуть; the old teacher was thrown into the shade by the new master новый учитель затмил старого

3) be thrown at (from) smb., smth. he had these words thrown at him ему /в его адрес/ бросили эти слова; angry words of disapproval were thrown from the audience из зала неслись возгласы неодобрения

4) || be thrown out of gear a) tech. быть выключенным (о передаче); б) быть дезорганизованным /расстроенным/

5) be thrown open all the windows were thrown open распахнули /были распахнуты/ все окна; the [royal] gardens will be thrown open on Sundays по воскресеньям [королевские] сады будут открыты для доступа широкой публики; be thrown open to foreign trade быть [широко] открытым для внешней торговли

6) be thrown into smth. be thrown into confusion (into discord, into utter despair, into an uproar, into an upheaval into a state of anarchy, etc.) быть приведенным /быть ввергнутым, впасть/ в замешательство и т.д.; the city was thrown into a panic through a report that... в городе возникла паника из-за сообщения о том, что...; the whole assembly was thrown into fits of laughter присутствующие на собрании разразились смехом

7) be thrown into smth. I was thrown into their company by accident в их компанию я попал случайно; he was thrown into a dilemma он оказался перед дилеммой /был поставлен в затруднительное положение/ || be thrown upon /on/ one's own resources оказаться предоставленным самому себе

1) throw oneself into (on, upon, to, etc.) smth. throw oneself into the water (into a chair, upon the floor, on to one's knees, to the ground, under an approaching train, etc.) бросаться /кидаться/ в воду и т.д.; he threw himself down on the bed он бросился на кровать; he threw himself on the horse он взлетел /одним махом сел/ на лошадь; throw oneself into smb.'s arms броситься в чьи-л. объятия; throw oneself blindly into smb.'s hands слепо подчиниться кому-л.; throw oneself from smth. throw oneself from the tower (from the rock, from the loth storey, etc.) бросаться /кидаться/ с башни и т.д. ; throw oneself [uneasily] from side to side of the bed [беспокойно] метаться по кровати

2) throw oneself against /at/ smb., smth. throw oneself against /at/ the enemy ринуться на врага; oneself against the fence кидаться на /биться о/ забор; throw oneself at smb. /at smb.'s head/ бросаться /вешаться/ кому-л. на шею

3) throw oneself into smth. throw oneself into the work посвятить себя работе, с головой уйти в работу; throw oneself eagerly into the task of... энергично взяться за выполнение задачи...; throw oneself into the fray ввязаться /влезть/ в драку

4) throw oneself (apian smth. throw oneself on smb.'s generosity (upon smb.'s kindness, etc.) довериться чьему-л. великодушию и т.д., положиться на чье-л. великодушие и т.д.; the author throws himself upon the kind indulgence of his readers автор полагается /рассчитывает/ на доброту /снисхождение своих читателей; throw oneself upon the mercy of the court (of the judge, of one's captors, etc.) отдаться на милость правосудия и т.д.

1) throw smth., smb. in (to) (over, on, through, out of, etc.) smth. throw a stone into the water (a cap into the air, him into the dust, a ball over the wall, a book on the floor, etc.) бросать /кидать, швырять/ камень в воду и т.д.; throw a ball through the window забросить мяч в окно; throw smb. out of the window (a rowdy out of the house, the opposition out of a meeting, etc.) вышвырнуть кого-л. из окна и т.д.; he threw the letter in the waste-paper basket он выкинул письмо в мусорную корзину; throw smb. out of work (the workers out of employment, etc.) выбросить /уволить/ кого-л. с работы и т.д.; throw a train off the rails спускать /сбрасывать/ поезд под откос; the hose threw water upon the conflagration из шланга в огонь била вода; throw smth. to smb. throw a bone to a dog (a ball to one's sister, kisses to one another, etc.) бросать /кидать, швырять/ кость собаке и т.д. ; throw a sop to smb. бросать кому-л. подачку; they were throwing a ball to each other они перебрасывались мячом; throw smth. at smb., smth. throw a stone at a dog (a knife at the soldier, a pebble at the window, a plate at her, etc.) бросать /кидать, швырять/ камнем в собаку и т.д.; throw mud /dirt/ at smb. а) забрызгать грязью кого-л.; б) обливать кого-л. грязью, чернить кого-л.; throw smb., smth. to (on, etc.) smth. he seized the man and threw him to the ground он схватил мужчину и швырнул его на землю; she threw her hat on the bed она бросила шляпу на кровать

2) throw smth. on (at, upon, etc.) smb., smth. he threw an angry (hasty, merry, etc.) look /glance/ on me он бросил на меня сердитый и т.д. взгляд; she threw a glance at him backward over her shoulder она быстро взглянула на него через плечо; throw doubt's) upon smth. брать что-л. под сомнение, подвергать что-л. сомнению; throw suspicion upon smth. навлекать подозрение на что-л.; throw difficulties in the way of smth. создавать трудности /препятствия/ на пути к чему-л.; throw obstacles in smb.'s way чинить препятствия кому-л.; throw temptation in smb.'s way искушать кого-л. || throw smth. to the wind пренебрегать чем-л.; they threw to the wind all respect for things or persons они перестали относиться с уважением к кому-л. и чему-л.

3) throw smth. on smth. throw light on smth. a) отбрасывать свет на что-л.; the lamp threw a strong light on the table лампа отбрасывала яркий свет на стол; б) проливать свет на что-л.; can you throw any light on this question? вы можете как-нибудь объяснить этот вопрос?; throw a /one's/ shadow on smth. а) отбрасывать /бросать/ тень на что-л.; the trees threw long shadows on the ground на землю от деревьев ложились длинные тени; б) порочить что-л. || throw smb. into the shade задвинуть /оттеснять/ кого-л. на второе место

4) throw smb. into smth. throw troops into action (more soldiers into action, an army into battle, etc.) вводить /бросать/ войска в бой и т.д.; throw smb. into prison бросить кого-л. в тюрьму; throw smth. against smb. throw a division against the enemy бросить против противника целую дивизию

5) throw smth. over (round, across, etc.) smb., smth. throw a pail of water over smb. окатить /облить/ кого-л. ведром воды; throw a sheet over smth. набрасывать чехол на что-л.; throw a cloak round smb. набрасывать /накидывать/ плащ на кого-л.; throw a shawl (a wrap, etc.) over one's shoulders накидывать шаль и т.д. на плечи; she threw her arms round his neck она обвила его шею руками; throw a bridge across /over/ a river (over a stream, etc.) перебрасывать /наводить/ мост через реку и т.д.

6) throw smth. on smb. throw the blame (the responsibility) on smb. сваливать /перекладывать/ вину (ответственность) на кого-л.

7) throw smth. into smth. throw all one's energy (one's soul, one's heart, one's spirit, one's efforts, etc.) into one's work вложить всю свою энергию и т.д. в работу

8) semiaux throw smb., smth. into (on, off) some state throw smb. into confusion (into a state of agitation, into [а] [high] fever, etc.) приводить кого-л. в замешательство и т.д.; throw smb. into ecstasy привести кого-л. в экстаз; throw smb. into a fever of excitement (of joy) сильно взволновать (обрадовать) кого-л.; throw smb. into a dilemma поставить кого-л. перед дилеммой /выбором/; the tempest threw the room into darkness с приближением бури комната погрузилась в темноту; he threw the manuscript into a form suitable for publication он привел рукопись в приемлемый для печати вид; throw the enemy on the defensive mil. заставить противника занять оборону; throw smb. off balance выводить кого-л. из себя; throw the dogs off the scent сбить собак со следа || throw smb. upon his own resources заставить положиться на себя; his father's death threw him upon his own resources смерть отца заставила его рассчитывать только на себя

(19061980)

   Marcello Caetano, as the last prime minister of the Estado Novo, was both the heir and successor of Antônio de Oliveira Salazar. In a sense, Caetano was one of the founders and sustainers of this unusual regime and, at various crucial stages of its long life, Caetano's contribution was as important as Salazar's.

   Born in Lisbon in 1906 to a middle-class family, Caetano was a member of the student generation that rebelled against the unstable parliamentary First Republic and sought answers to Portugal's legion of troubles in conservative ideologies such as integralism, Catholic reformism, and the Italian Fascist model. One of the most brilliant students at the University of Lisbon's Law School, Caetano soon became directly involved in government service in various ministries, including Salazar's Ministry of Finance. When Caetano was not teaching full-time at the law school in Lisbon and influencing new generations of students who became critical of the regime he helped construct, Caetano was in important government posts and working on challenging assignments. In the 1930s, he participated in reforms in the Ministry of Finance, in the writing of the 1933 Constitution, in the formation of the new civil code, of which he was in part the author, and in the construction of corporativism, which sought to control labor-management relations and other aspects of social engineering. In a regime largely directed by academics from the law faculties of Coimbra University and the University of Lisbon, Caetano was the leading expert on constitutional law, administrative law, political science, and colonial law. A prolific writer as both a political scientist and historian, Caetano was the author of the standard political science, administrative law, and history of law textbooks, works that remained in print and in use among students long after his exile and death.

   After his apprenticeship service in a number of ministries, Caetano rose steadily in the system. At age 38, he was named minister for the colonies (1944 47), and unlike many predecessors, he "went to see for himself" and made important research visits to Portugal's African territories. In 1955-58, Caetano served in the number-three position in the regime in the Ministry of the Presidency of the Council (premier's office); he left office for full-time academic work in part because of his disagreements with Salazar and others on regime policy and failures to reform at the desired pace. In 1956 and 1957, Caetano briefly served as interim minister of communications and of foreign affairs.

   Caetano's opportunity to take Salazar's place and to challenge even more conservative forces in the system came in the 1960s. Portugal's most prominent law professor had a public falling out with the regime in March 1962, when he resigned as rector of Lisbon University following a clash between rebellious students and the PIDE, the political police. When students opposing the regime organized strikes on the University of Lisbon campus, Caetano resigned his rectorship after the police invaded the campus and beat and arrested some students, without asking permission to enter university premises from university authorities.

   When Salazar became incapacitated in September 1968, President Américo Tomás named Caetano prime minister. His tasks were formidable: in the midst of remarkable economic growth in Portugal, continued heavy immigration of Portuguese to France and other countries, and the costly colonial wars in three African colonies, namely Angola, Guinea- Bissau, and Mozambique, the regime struggled to engineer essential social and political reforms, win the wars in Africa, and move toward meaningful political reforms. Caetano supported moderately important reforms in his first two years in office (1968-70), as well as the drafting of constitutional revisions in 1971 that allowed a slight liberalization of the Dictatorship, gave the opposition more room for activity, and decentrali zed authority in the overseas provinces (colonies). Always aware of the complexity of Portugal's colonial problems and of the ongoing wars, Caetano made several visits to Africa as premier, and he sought to implement reforms in social and economic affairs while maintaining the expensive, divisive military effort, Portugal's largest armed forces mobilization in her history.

   Opposed by intransigent right-wing forces in various sectors in both Portugal and Africa, Caetano's modest "opening" of 1968-70 soon narrowed. Conservative forces in the military, police, civil service, and private sectors opposed key political reforms, including greater democratization, while pursuing the military solution to the African crisis and personal wealth. A significant perspective on Caetano's failed program of reforms, which could not prevent the advent of a creeping revolution in society, is a key development in the 1961-74 era of colonial wars: despite Lisbon's efforts, the greater part of Portuguese emigration and capital investment during this period were directed not to the African colonies but to Europe, North America, and Brazil.

   Prime Minister Caetano, discouraged by events and by opposition to his reforms from the so-called "Rheumatic Brigade" of superannuated regime loyalists, attempted to resign his office, but President Américo Tomás convinced him to remain. The publication and public reception of African hero General Antônio Spinola's best-selling book Portugal e Futuro (Portugal and the Future) in February 1974 convinced the surprised Caetano that a coup and revolution were imminent. When the virtually bloodless, smoothly operating military coup was successful in what became known as the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Caetano surrendered to the Armed Forces Movement in Lisbon and was flown to Madeira Island and later to exile in Brazil, where he remained for the rest of his life. In his Brazilian exile, Caetano was active writing important memoirs and histories of the Estado Novo from his vantage point, teaching law at a private university in Rio de Janeiro, and carrying on a lively correspondence with persons in Portugal. He died at age 74, in 1980, in Brazil.

    See also Empire, Portuguese overseas.

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vers l'arrière ⇒ 1 (a) re + verbe ⇒ 1 (b), 1 (c) de derrière ⇒ 2 (a) arrière ⇒ 2 (a), 3 (g) dos ⇒ 3 (a)-(c), 3 (e), 3 (f) fond ⇒ 3 (d) reculer ⇒ 4 (a), 5 (a) financer ⇒ 4 (b) parier sur ⇒ 4 (c)

1 adverb

(a) (towards the rear) vers l'arrière, en arrière;

∎ he stepped back il a reculé d'un pas, il a fait un pas en arrière;

∎ I pushed back my chair j'ai reculé ma chaise;

∎ she tied her hair back elle a attaché ses cheveux;

∎ he glanced back il a regardé derrière lui;

∎ house set or standing back from the road maison écartée du chemin ou en retrait

(b) (into or in previous place)

∎ to come back revenir;

∎ to go back (return) retourner;

∎ to go or turn back (retrace footsteps) rebrousser chemin;

∎ American familiar to go back on sb (betray) doubler qn;

∎ we went back home nous sommes rentrés (à la maison);

∎ my headache's back j'ai de nouveau mal à la tête, mon mal de tête a recommencé;

∎ they'll be back on Monday ils rentrent ou ils seront de retour lundi;

∎ I'll be right back je reviens tout de suite;

∎ I'll be back (threat) vous me reverrez;

∎ we expect him back tomorrow il doit rentrer demain;

∎ as soon as you get back dès votre retour;

∎ is he back at work? a-t-il repris le travail?;

∎ he's just back from Moscow il arrive ou rentre de Moscou;

∎ we went to town and back nous avons fait un saut en ville;

∎ he went to his aunt's and back il a fait l'aller et retour chez sa tante;

∎ the trip to Madrid and back takes three hours il faut trois heures pour aller à Madrid et revenir;

∎ meanwhile, back in Washington entre-temps, à Washington;

∎ back home, there's no school on Saturdays chez moi ou nous, il n'y a pas d'école le samedi;

∎ Commerce the back-to-school sales les soldes fpl de la rentrée

(c) (indicating return to previous state)

∎ she wants her children back elle veut qu'on lui rende ses enfants;

∎ he went back to sleep il s'est rendormi;

∎ business soon got back to normal les affaires ont vite repris leur cours normal;

∎ miniskirts are coming back (in fashion) les minijupes reviennent à la mode

(d) (earlier)

∎ six pages back six pages plus haut;

∎ back in the 17th century au 17ème siècle;

∎ as far back as I can remember d'aussi loin que je m'en souvienne;

∎ back in November déjà au mois de novembre;

∎ familiar ten years back il y a dix ans^□

(e) (in reply, in return)

∎ you should ask for your money back vous devriez demander un remboursement ou qu'on vous rembourse;

∎ I hit him back je lui ai rendu son coup;

∎ if you kick me I'll kick you back si tu me donnes un coup de pied, je te le rendrai;

∎ she smiled back at him elle lui a répondu par un sourire;

∎ to write back répondre (par écrit);

∎ to get one's own back (on sb) prendre sa revanche (sur qn);

∎ that's her way of getting back at you c'est sa façon de prendre sa revanche sur toi

2 adjective

(a) (rear → door, garden) de derrière; (→ wheel) arrière (inv); (→ seat) arrière (inv), de derrière;

∎ the back legs of a horse les pattes fpl arrière d'un cheval;

∎ back entrance entrée f située à l'arrière;

∎ the back room is the quietest la pièce qui donne sur l'arrière est la plus calme;

∎ the back page of the newspaper la dernière page du journal;

∎ to put sth on the back burner remettre qch à plus tard

(b) (quiet → lane, road) écarté, isolé

(c) (overdue) arriéré

(d) Linguistics (vowel) postérieur

3 noun

(a) (part of body) dos m;

∎ back pain mal m de dos;

∎ to have a back problem avoir des problèmes de dos;

∎ she carried her baby on her back elle portait son bébé sur son dos;

∎ I fell flat on my back je suis tombé à la renverse ou sur le dos;

∎ we lay on our backs nous étions allongés sur le dos;

∎ my back aches j'ai mal au dos;

∎ the cat arched its back le chat a fait le gros dos;

∎ I only saw them from the back je ne les ai vus que de dos;

∎ she sat with her back to the window elle était assise le dos tourné à la fenêtre;

∎ sitting with one's back to the light assis à contre-jour;

∎ he was sitting with his back to the wall il était assis, dos au mur;

∎ figurative to have one's back to the wall être au pied du mur;

∎ to turn one's back on sb tourner le dos à qn; figurative abandonner qn;

∎ when my back was turned quand j'avais le dos tourné;

∎ you had your back to me tu me tournais le dos;

∎ they have the police at their backs (in support) ils ont la police avec eux; (in pursuit) ils ont la police à leurs trousses;

∎ with an army at his back (supporting him) soutenu par une armée;

∎ to do sth behind sb's back faire qch dans le dos de qn;

∎ he laughs at you behind your back il se moque de vous quand vous avez le dos tourné ou dans votre dos;

∎ to talk about sb behind their back dire du mal de qn dans son dos;

∎ the decision was taken behind my back la décision a été prise derrière mon dos;

∎ he went behind my back to the boss il est allé voir le patron derrière mon dos ou à mon insu;

∎ to be flat on one's back (bedridden) être alité ou cloué au lit;

∎ familiar get off my back! fiche-moi la paix!;

∎ mind your backs! attention, s'il vous plaît!;

∎ the rich live off the backs of the poor les riches vivent sur le dos des pauvres;

∎ to put sb's back up énerver qn;

∎ to put one's back into sth mettre toute son énergie dans qch;

∎ familiar that's it, put your back into it! allez, un peu de nerf!;

∎ to put one's back out se faire mal au dos;

∎ I'll be glad to see the back of her je serai content de la voir partir ou d'être débarrassé d'elle

(b) (part opposite the front → gen) dos m, derrière m; (→ of coat, shirt, door) dos m; (→ of vehicle, building, head) arrière m; (→ of train) queue f; (→ of book) fin f;

∎ to sit in the back (of car) monter à l'arrière;

∎ to sit at the back (of bus) s'asseoir à l'arrière;

∎ the carriage at the back of the train la voiture en queue de ou du train;

∎ at the back of the book à la fin du livre;

∎ the garden is out or round the back le jardin se trouve derrière la maison;

∎ the dress fastens at the back or American in back la robe s'agrafe dans le dos;

∎ there was an advert on the back of the bus il y avait une publicité à l'arrière du bus;

∎ familiar she's got a face like the back of a bus elle est moche comme un pou

(c) (other side → of hand, spoon, envelope) dos m; (→ of carpet, coin, medal) revers m; (→ of fabric) envers m; (→ of page) verso m; Finance (→ of cheque) dos m, verso m;

∎ I know this town like the back of my hand je connais cette ville comme ma poche;

∎ familiar you'll feel the back of my hand in a minute! tu vas en prendre une!

(d) (farthest from the front → of cupboard, room, stage) fond m;

∎ back of the mouth arrière-bouche f;

∎ back of the throat arrière-gorge f;

∎ we'd like a table at the or in the very back nous voudrions une table tout au fond;

∎ familiar in the back of beyond en pleine brousse, au diable vauvert;

∎ it was always there at the back of his mind that… l'idée ne le quittait pas que…;

∎ it's something to keep at the back of your mind c'est quelque chose à ne pas oublier;

∎ I've had it or it's been at the back of my mind for ages j'y pense depuis longtemps, ça fait longtemps que ça me travaille

(e) (binding) dos m

(f) (of chair) dos m, dossier m

(g) Sport arrière m;

∎ (full) back arrière m;

∎ right/left back arrière m droit/gauche

4 transitive verb

(a) (move backwards → bicycle, car) reculer; (→ horse) faire reculer; (→ train) refouler;

∎ I backed the car into the garage j'ai mis la voiture dans le garage en marche arrière;

∎ she backed him into the next room elle l'a fait reculer dans la pièce d'à côté

(b) Commerce (support financially → company, venture) financer, commanditer; Finance (→ loan) garantir;

∎ Finance to back a bill avaliser ou endosser un effet

(c) (encourage → efforts, person, venture) encourager, appuyer, soutenir; Politics (→ candidate, bill) soutenir;

∎ we backed her in her fight against racism nous l'avons soutenue dans sa lutte contre le racisme;

(d) (bet on) parier sur, miser sur;

∎ Sport to back a winner (horse, team) parier ou miser sur un gagnant; Finance & Commerce (company, stock) bien placer son argent; figurative jouer la bonne carte;

∎ figurative to back the wrong horse parier ou miser sur le mauvais cheval

(e) Textiles (strengthen, provide backing for → curtain, material) doubler; (→ picture, paper) renforcer

(f) Music (accompany) accompagner

(g) Nautical (sail) masquer

5 intransitive verb

(a) (go in reverse → car, train) faire marche arrière; (→ horse, person) reculer;

∎ the car backed into the driveway la voiture est entrée en marche arrière dans l'allée;

∎ I backed into my neighbour's car je suis rentré dans la voiture de mon voisin en reculant;

∎ I backed into a corner je me suis retiré dans un coin

(b) (wind) tourner en sens inverse des aiguilles d'une montre

6 back and forth adverb

∎ to go back and forth (person) faire des allées et venues; (machine, piston) faire un mouvement de va-et-vient;

∎ his eyes darted back and forth il regardait de droite à gauche

7 back to front adverb

devant derrière, à l'envers;

∎ you've got your pullover on back to front tu as mis ton pull devant derrière

8 in back of preposition

American derrière

►► Technology back boiler = ballon d'eau chaude situé derrière un foyer;

Press back copy vieux numéro m;

Australian & New Zealand back country campagne f, arrière-pays m inv;

back door (of building) porte f de derrière; Finance financement m déguisé;

∎ figurative to get in through or by the back door être pistonné;

(a) (of car, bus) arrière m; (of train) queue f

(b) North of England (autumn) arrière-saison f, automne m;

∎ the back end of the year l'arrière-saison;

Linguistics back formation dérivation f régressive;

American back haul = trajet de retour d'un camion;

Finance back interest arrérages mpl, intérêts mpl arriérés;

Press back issue vieux numéro m;

Golf the back nine les neuf derniers trous mpl;

Press back number vieux numéro m;

Banking back office back-office m;

back office staff personnels mpl de back-office;

Commerce back orders commandes fpl en souffrance;

back page dernière page f;

Football back pass passe f en retrait;

back passage Anatomy rectum m; (alley) ruelle f;

back pay rappel m de salaire;

Cinema & Theatre back projection rétroprojection f;

back rent arriéré m de loyer;

back road petite route f;

back room (in house) pièce f de derrière; (in shop) arrière-boutique f; (for research) laboratoire m de recherche secret;

back seat siège m arrière;

∎ figurative to take a back seat (job, project) passer au second plan; (person) s'effacer;

back shift (people) = équipe du soir;

∎ I hate the back shift je déteste être du soir;

∎ to work or be on the back shift être (de l'équipe) du soir;

Linguistics back slang ≃ verlan m;

back straight ligne f (droite) d'en face;

back street petite rue f;

∎ I grew up in the back streets of Chicago j'ai été élevé dans les mauvais quartiers de Chicago;

Horseracing back stretch (on race course) ligne f d'en face;

American familiar back talk impertinence^□ f, insolence^□ f;

Finance back taxes arriéré m d'impôts

➲ back away intransitive verb

(a) (car) faire marche arrière

(b) (person) (se) reculer;

∎ she backed away from him elle a reculé devant lui;

∎ figurative they have backed away from making a decision ils se sont abstenus de prendre une décision

➲ back down intransitive verb

(accept defeat → in argument) admettre qu'on est dans son tort; (→ in conflict) faire marche arrière;

∎ he finally backed down on the issue of membership il a fini par céder sur la question de l'adhésion

➲ back off intransitive verb

(a) (withdraw) reculer;

∎ familiar figurative back off, will you! fiche-moi la paix!, lâche-moi les baskets!

(b) American (accept defeat → in argument) admettre qu'on est dans son tort; (→ in conflict) faire marche arrière

➲ back onto inseparable transitive verb

(have back facing towards) donner sur (à l'arrière);

∎ the house backs onto the river l'arrière de la maison donne sur la rivière

➲ back out intransitive verb

(a) (car) sortir en marche arrière; (person) sortir à reculons

(b) figurative (withdraw) se dérober, tirer son épingle du jeu;

∎ don't back out now! ne faites pas marche arrière maintenant!;

∎ they backed out of the deal ils se sont retirés de l'affaire;

∎ to back out of a contract se rétracter ou se retirer d'un contrat;

∎ he's trying to back out (of it) il voudrait se dédire

➲ back up

1 intransitive verb

(a) (car) faire marche arrière

(b) (drain) se boucher; (water) refouler

2 separable transitive verb

(a) (car, horse) faire reculer; (train) refouler

(b) (support → claim, story) appuyer, soutenir; (→ person) soutenir, épauler, seconder;

∎ to back sb up in an argument donner raison à qn;

∎ her story is backed up by eye witnesses sa version des faits est confirmée par des témoins oculaires;

∎ he backed this up with a few facts il a étayé ça avec quelques faits

(c) Computing (data, file) sauvegarder

(d) (accumulate)

∎ traffic is backed up for 5 miles ≃ il y a un embouteillage sur 8 km

3 intransitive verb

Computing sauvegarder

✾ Film 'Back to the Future' Zemeckis 'Retour vers le futur'

spare [speə(r)]

pièce de rechange ⇒ 1 (a) roue de secours ⇒ 1 (a) disponible ⇒ 2 (a) libre ⇒ 2 (a) de réserve ⇒ 2 (a) de rechange ⇒ 2 (a) en ⇒ 2 (a) maigre ⇒ 2 (b) austère ⇒ 2 (c) accorder ⇒ 3 (a) se passer de ⇒ 3 (a) épargner ⇒ 3 (b), 3 (c) ménager ⇒ 3 (d)

1 noun

(a) (spare part) pièce f de rechange; (wheel) roue f de secours; (tyre) pneu m de rechange;

∎ I've lost my pencil, have you got a spare? j'ai perdu mon crayon, en as-tu un à me prêter?

(b) (in ten-pin bowling) honneur m simple;

∎ to get or to score a spare réussir un honneur simple

2 adjective

(a) (free, not in use) disponible, libre; (kept in reserve) de réserve, de rechange; (extra, surplus) en plus, de trop, en trop;

∎ take a spare pullover prenez un pull de rechange;

∎ have you got a spare piece of paper? est-ce que tu as une feuille de papier à me prêter?;

∎ have you got any spare cash on you? est-ce que tu peux me prêter de l'argent?;

∎ we had no spare cash left to buy souvenirs nous n'avions plus assez d'argent pour acheter des souvenirs;

∎ with the spare cash they bought a table avec l'argent qui leur restait ils ont acheté une table;

∎ I've got two spare tickets for the match j'ai deux billets en plus ou en trop pour le match;

∎ you can stay here if you want, we have a spare bed tu peux rester ici si tu veux, nous avons un lit pour toi;

∎ there are plenty of spare seats at the back il y a de nombreuses places libres au fond;

∎ call in next time you have a spare moment passez la prochaine fois que vous aurez un moment de libre;

∎ familiar I'll have some more cake if there's any going spare je vais reprendre du gâteau s'il en reste^□

(b) (lean) maigre, sec (sèche)

(c) (austere → style, decor) austère; (frugal → meal) frugal

(d) British familiar (mad)

∎ to go spare péter les plombs, péter une durite;

∎ to drive sb spare rendre qn chèvre, faire tourner qn en bourrique

3 transitive verb

(a) (make available, give) accorder, consacrer; (do without) se passer de;

∎ Mr Austen can spare you a few minutes this afternoon M. Austen peut vous consacrer quelques minutes cet après-midi;

∎ come and see us if you can spare the time venez nous voir si vous avez le temps;

∎ I can't spare the time to finish it je n'ai pas le temps de le finir;

∎ spare a thought for their poor parents! pensez un peu à leurs pauvres parents!;

∎ less money can be spared for research these days on ne peut plus consacrer autant d'argent à la recherche aujourd'hui;

∎ can you spare (me) a few pounds? vous n'auriez pas quelques livres (à me passer)?;

∎ I need £50, if you think you can spare it j'aurais besoin de 50 livres si c'est possible;

∎ I'm afraid we can't spare anyone at the moment je regrette mais nous ne pouvons nous passer de personne ou nous avons besoin de tout le monde en ce moment;

∎ young people with money to spare des jeunes qui ont de l'argent à dépenser;

∎ to have nothing to spare n'avoir que le strict nécessaire, ne rien avoir de superflu;

∎ he's got enough money and to spare il a plus d'argent qu'il ne lui en faut;

∎ there is room to spare la place ne manque pas;

∎ I've got no time to spare je n'ai pas le temps;

∎ there's no time to spare! il n'y a de temps ou pas une minute à perdre!;

∎ to have no time to spare for sb/sth ne pas avoir de temps à consacrer à qn/qch;

∎ do you have a few minutes to spare? avez-vous quelques minutes de libres ou devant vous?;

∎ we got to the airport with over an hour to spare nous sommes arrivés à l'aéroport avec plus d'une heure d'avance;

∎ I caught the train with just a few seconds to spare à quelques secondes près je ratais le train

(b) (refrain from harming, punishing, destroying) épargner;

∎ a few villages were miraculously spared par miracle, quelques villages furent épargnés;

∎ the flood spared nothing l'inondation n'a rien épargné;

∎ the report spared no one le rapport ne ménageait personne;

∎ to spare sb's life épargner la vie de qn;

∎ spare me! (don't kill me) de grâce!, épargnez-moi!; (don't expose me to that etc) par pitié, pas ça!;

∎ to spare sb's feelings ménager les sentiments de qn;

∎ to spare sb's blushes épargner qn;

∎ spare my blushes! ne me faites pas rougir!

(c) (save → trouble, suffering) épargner, éviter;

∎ I could have spared myself the bother j'aurais pu m'épargner le dérangement;

∎ to spare sb the trouble of doing sth éviter à qn la peine de faire qch;

∎ you could have spared yourself/us the trouble vous auriez pu vous/nous éviter cette peine;

∎ she was spared further distress by the judge's intervention l'intervention du juge mit fin à ses tortures;

∎ he was spared the shame of a public trial la honte d'un procès public lui a été épargnée;

∎ spare me the details! épargne-moi les détails!;

∎ I'll spare you the rest je vous fais grâce du reste

(d) (economize) ménager;

∎ they spared no expense on the celebrations ils n'ont reculé devant aucune dépense pour les fêtes;

∎ the first prize is a real luxury trip, with no expense spared le premier prix est un voyage de rêve pour lequel on n'a pas regardé à la dépense;

∎ we shall spare no effort to push the plan through nous ne ménagerons pas nos efforts pour faire accepter le projet;

∎ to spare no pains se donner beaucoup de mal;

∎ proverb spare the rod and spoil the child qui aime bien châtie bien

►► spare part pièce f de rechange, pièce f détachée;

spare rib travers m de porc;

∎ barbecue spare ribs travers mpl de porc grillés sauce barbecue;

spare room chambre f d'amis;

spare time temps m libre;

(a) Cars pneu m de secours ou de rechange

(b) familiar humorous (roll of fat) pneu m de secours, bourrelet m de graisse;

∎ to get a spare tyre prendre de l'embonpoint;

British spare wheel roue f de secours

SUBJECT AREA: Chemical technology

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Haber's father was a manufacturer of dyestuffs, so he studied organic chemistry at Berlin and Heidelberg universities to equip him to enter his father's firm. But his interest turned to physical chemistry and remained there throughout his life. He became Assistant at the Technische Hochschule in Karlsruhe in 1894; his first work there was on pyrolysis and electrochemistry, and he published his Grundrisse der technischen Electrochemie in 1898. Haber became famous for thorough and illuminating theoretical studies in areas of growing practical importance. He rose through the academic ranks and was appointed a full professor in 1906. In 1912 he was also appointed Director of the Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry at Dahlem, outside Berlin.

Early in the twentieth century Haber invented a process for the synthesis of ammonia. The English chemist and physicist Sir William Crookes (1832–1919) had warned of the danger of mass hunger because the deposits of Chilean nitrate were becoming exhausted and nitrogenous fertilizers would not suffice for the world's growing population. A solution lay in the use of the nitrogen in the air, and the efforts of chemists centred on ways of converting it to usable nitrate. Haber was aware of contemporary work on the fixation of nitrogen by the cyanamide and arc processes, but in 1904 he turned to the study of ammonia formation from its elements, nitrogen and hydrogen. During 1907–9 Haber found that the yield of ammonia reached an industrially viable level if the reaction took place under a pressure of 150–200 atmospheres and a temperature of 600°C (1,112° F) in the presence of a suitable catalyst—first osmium, later uranium. He devised an apparatus in which a mixture of the gases was pumped through a converter, in which the ammonia formed was withdrawn while the unchanged gases were recirculated. By 1913, Haber's collaborator, Carl Bosch had succeeded in raising this laboratory process to the industrial scale. It was the first successful high-pressure industrial chemical process, and solved the nitrogen problem. The outbreak of the First World War directed the work of the institute in Dahlem to military purposes, and Haber was placed in charge of chemical warfare. In this capacity, he developed poisonous gases as well as the means of defence against them, such as gas masks. The synthetic-ammonia process was diverted to produce nitric acid for explosives. The great benefits and achievement of the Haber-Bosch process were recognized by the award in 1919 of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, but on account of Haber's association with chemical warfare, British, French and American scientists denounced the award; this only added to the sense of bitterness he already felt at his country's defeat in the war. He concentrated on the theoretical studies for which he was renowned, in particular on pyrolysis and autoxidation, and both the Karlsruhe and the Dahlem laboratories became international centres for discussion and research in physical chemistry.

With the Nazi takeover in 1933, Haber found that, as a Jew, he was relegated to second-class status. He did not see why he should appoint staff on account of their grandmothers instead of their ability, so he resigned his posts and went into exile. For some months he accepted hospitality in Cambridge, but he was on his way to a new post in what is now Israel when he died suddenly in Basel, Switzerland.

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SUBJECT AREA: Electricity, Telecommunications

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Sent to stay with relatives at the age of 6 because of the illness of his father, when the latter died in 1811 Henry was apprenticed to a silversmith and then turned to the stage. Whilst he was ill himself, a book on science fired his interest and he began studying at Albany Academy, working as a tutor to finance his studies. Initially intending to pursue medicine, he then spent some time as a surveyor before becoming Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy at Albany Academy in 1826. There he became interested in the improvement of electromagnets and discovered that the use of an increased number of turns of wire round the core greatly increased their power; by 1831 he was able to supply to Yale a magnet capable of lifting almost a ton weight. During this time he also discovered the principles of magnetic induction and self-inductance. In the same year he made, but did not patent, a cable telegraph system capable of working over a distance of 1 mile (1.6 km). It was at this time, too, that he found that adiabatic expansion of gases led to their sudden cooling, thus paving the way for the development of refrigerators. For this he was recommended for, but never received, the Copley Medal of the Royal Society. Five years later he became Professor of Natural Philosophy at New Jersey College (later Princeton University), where he deduced the laws governing the operation of transformers and observed that changes in magnetic flux induced electric currents in conductors. Later he also observed that spark discharges caused electrical effects at a distance. He therefore came close to the discovery of radio waves. In 1836 he was granted a year's leave of absence and travelled to Europe, where he was able to meet Michael Faraday. It was with his help that in 1844 Samuel Morse set up the first patented electric telegraph, but, sadly, the latter seems to have reaped all the credit and financial rewards. In 1846 he became the first secretary of the Washington Smithsonian Institute and did much to develop government support for scientific research. As a result of his efforts some 500 telegraph stations across the country were equipped with meteorological equipment to supply weather information by telegraph to a central location, a facility that eventually became the US National Weather Bureau. From 1852 he was a member of the Lighthouse Board, contributing to improvements in lighting and sound warning systems and becoming its chairman in 1871. During the Civil War he was a technical advisor to President Lincoln. He was a founder of the National Academy of Science and served as its President for eleven years.

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