-
1 Pre Christ
Sports: PC -
2 antes
adv.1 before.no importa si vienes antes it doesn't matter if you come earlierya no nado como antes I can't swim as I used tomucho/poco antes long/shortly beforelo antes posible as soon as possibleantes de Cristo before Christ, BCantes de tiempo ahead of timeantes de hacer algo before doing somethingantes de que beforeantes de que llegaras before you arrived2 before.me bajo dos pisos antes I get off two floors before (you)antes de before3 first (primero).esta señora está antes this lady is firstentraron antes que yo they went in in front of mem.pl.1 elks, mooses.2 suedes.* * *► adverbio1 (tiempo) before, earlier2 (en el pasado) before, in the past3 (lugar) in front, before1 on the contrary, quite the opposite, rather■ no la aborrece, antes la ama he doesn't hate her, on the contrary he loves her► adjetivo1 before\antes bien on the contrary■ no se acobardó, antes bien se encaró con su enemigo he didn't shrink back, on the contrary, he stood up to his enemyantes de J.C. before Christantes de nada first of alllo antes posible as soon as possible* * *adv.1) before, earlier2) rather, sooner3) formerly, previously•- antes de anoche
- antes de ayer
- antes de Cristo
- antes de que
- antes que* * *1.ADJ before2. ADV1) [en el tiempo]a) [con relación a otro acontecimiento]el edificio que habían comenzado dos años antes — the building that had been started two years before o previously
no te vayas sin antes consultarle — don't go without o before consulting her first, don't go without consulting her beforehand, don't go until you've consulted her
lo vio antes que yo — he saw it first o before I did o before me
•
antes de algo — before sthla cena estará lista para antes de las nueve — dinner will be ready by o before nine
una semana antes de la firma del contrato — a week before o prior to más frm signing the contract
•
el año 27 antes de Cristo — 27 BC, 27 before Christ•
antes de hacer algo — before doing sthantes de salir del coche, asegúrese de que están las ventanillas cerradas — before you get o before getting out of the car, make sure that the windows are closed
•
mucho antes de algo — long before sthmucho antes de conocerte — a long time before I met you o meeting you, long before I met you o meeting you más frm
antes de nada dejad que me presente — first of all, allow me to introduce myself
antes que nada, hay que mantener la calma — above all, we must keep calm
somos, antes que nada, demócratas — we are first and foremost democrats
•
poco antes de algo — just o shortly before sthesperamos lograrlo antes de que termine la década — we hope to achieve this before the end of the decade
b) [en el pasado]antes fumaba un paquete de tabaco al día — before, I smoked a packet of cigarettes a day, I used to smoke a packet of cigarettes a day
antes no pasaban estas cosas — these things didn't use to happen before o in the past
•
de antes, nuestra casa de antes — our old house, our previous houseya no soy el mismo de antes — I'm not the same person I was o I used to be
ya no se hacen películas como las de antes — they don't make films like they used to o like they did in the old days
c) (=hasta ahora) before, before nowd) (=más temprano) earlier•
cuanto antes — as soon as possiblee) (=más joven) at a younger age, at an earlier agecada vez se casan los hijos antes — kids get married at a younger o an earlier age these days
2) [en el espacio] before•
antes de algo — before sth3.CONJ [indicando preferencia] sooner, ratherno cederemos: antes gastamos todo nuestro dinero — we shall never give up: we would rather o sooner spend all our money
vi lo furiosa que estaba, antes no te pegó — I saw how angry she was, just as well o luckily she didn't hit you
•
antes que hacer algo — rather than doing sthantes que irme a la India, preferiría viajar por Europa — rather than going to India, I'd prefer to travel around Europe
* * *1)a) ( con anterioridad) beforeb) (en locs)antes de las tres/del accidente — before three/before the accident
antes de Jesucristo — before Christ, BC
antes de + inf — before -ing
llámame antes de salir — call me before leaving o you leave
antes (de) que + subj: antes (de) que me olvide before I forget; no se lo des antes (de) que yo lo vea don't give it to him until I've seen it; antes (de) que tú nacieras — before you were born
2) ( en tiempos pasados) before, in the past3)a) (indicando orden, prioridad) firstb) ( indicando preferencia)antes me muero! — I'd rather o sooner die!
4) ( en el espacio) before5)a)antes bien — (liter) on the contrary
b)antes no — (Chi, Méx fam)
* * *= earlier, formerly, before now.Ex. These will be established in keeping with the principles established earlier.Ex. Mr. Berman was formerly Editor of the Social Responsibility Round Table (SRRT) Newsletter and is still a member of SRRT, but chooses not to be a member of the American Library Association.Ex. OSI offers immense potential for the creation of the global 'virtual library', a network in which libraries are extensively and transparently connected to offer their patrons a wealth and breadth of information that has been inconceivable before now.----* antes de = in anticipation of, prior to, no later than, in advance (of), in the run up to, during the run up to, not later than.* antes de acostarse = before bed.* antes de ahora = before now.* antes de conseguir empleo = preappointment.* antes de darse cuenta = before + Pronombre + know what + happen, before + Pronombre + know it.* antes de + Expresión Temporal = Expresión Temporal + be up.* antes de finalizar el horario de oficina = by the close of business.* antes de + Infinitivo = before + Gerundio.* antes de la contratación = pre-employment [preemployment].* antes del amanecer = before dawn.* antes del año = Expresión Temporal + be up.* antes del examen = pretest [pre-test].* antes de lo previsto = ahead of schedule.* antes de nada = before long, before + Pronombre + know what + happen, before + Pronombre + know it.* antes (de que) = before.* antes de todo = before anything else, first off.* antes de una emergencia = pre-emergency.* antes morir que = would rather + Verbo + than.* antes o después de = either side of.* antes que = sooner than.* antes que nada = first of all, before anything else, first off, above all things.* antes todo continúa como antes = life goes on as before.* cantar victoria antes de tiempo = speak too soon.* como antes = as before.* continuar como antes = go on + as before.* cuando antes + Pronombre + sea posible = at + Posesivo + earliest convenience.* cuando antes pueda = at + Posesivo + earliest convenience.* cuanto antes = as soon as possible (asap).* cuanto antes mejor = sooner the better, the.* deber haber ocurrido antes = be long overdue.* detenerse antes de = stop + short of.* enseñanza antes de empezar el trabajo = pre-service education.* haber pasado por aquí antes = have been down this road before.* hablar antes de tiempo = speak too soon.* justo antes de = on the eve of, in the run up to, during the run up to.* justo antes (de que) = immediately before.* lo mismo que antes = the same as before.* los días antes de = leading up to.* más que antes = more than ever, more... than ever before, more than ever before.* más que nunca antes = more... than ever before, more than ever before, more than ever.* mencionado antes = above-mentioned, above-named.* minutos antes de = minutes before.* mucho antes = early on.* mucho antes de = well before.* mucho tiempo antes de (que) = long before.* no antes de = no sooner than.* no cantes victoria antes de tiempo = don't count your chickens before they are hatched.* no visto antes = unprecedented.* pasar año(s) antes de que = be year(s) before.* poco antes de + Fecha = shortly before + Fecha.* que fue común antes = once-common.* seguir como antes = go on + as before.* un año antes de = a year ahead of.* usado antes = second-hand [secondhand].* y antes de nada = the next thing + Pronombre + know.* y antes de que + Pronombre + dar + cuenta = the next thing + Pronombre + know.* * *1)a) ( con anterioridad) beforeb) (en locs)antes de las tres/del accidente — before three/before the accident
antes de Jesucristo — before Christ, BC
antes de + inf — before -ing
llámame antes de salir — call me before leaving o you leave
antes (de) que + subj: antes (de) que me olvide before I forget; no se lo des antes (de) que yo lo vea don't give it to him until I've seen it; antes (de) que tú nacieras — before you were born
2) ( en tiempos pasados) before, in the past3)a) (indicando orden, prioridad) firstb) ( indicando preferencia)antes me muero! — I'd rather o sooner die!
4) ( en el espacio) before5)a)antes bien — (liter) on the contrary
b)antes no — (Chi, Méx fam)
* * *antes (de que)= beforeEx: It will be a long time before all documents are available in machine-readable form.
= earlier, formerly, before now.Ex: These will be established in keeping with the principles established earlier.
Ex: Mr. Berman was formerly Editor of the Social Responsibility Round Table (SRRT) Newsletter and is still a member of SRRT, but chooses not to be a member of the American Library Association.Ex: OSI offers immense potential for the creation of the global 'virtual library', a network in which libraries are extensively and transparently connected to offer their patrons a wealth and breadth of information that has been inconceivable before now.* antes de = in anticipation of, prior to, no later than, in advance (of), in the run up to, during the run up to, not later than.* antes de acostarse = before bed.* antes de ahora = before now.* antes de conseguir empleo = preappointment.* antes de darse cuenta = before + Pronombre + know what + happen, before + Pronombre + know it.* antes de + Expresión Temporal = Expresión Temporal + be up.* antes de finalizar el horario de oficina = by the close of business.* antes de + Infinitivo = before + Gerundio.* antes de la contratación = pre-employment [preemployment].* antes del amanecer = before dawn.* antes del año = Expresión Temporal + be up.* antes del examen = pretest [pre-test].* antes de lo previsto = ahead of schedule.* antes de nada = before long, before + Pronombre + know what + happen, before + Pronombre + know it.* antes (de que) = before.* antes de todo = before anything else, first off.* antes de una emergencia = pre-emergency.* antes morir que = would rather + Verbo + than.* antes o después de = either side of.* antes que = sooner than.* antes que nada = first of all, before anything else, first off, above all things.* antes todo continúa como antes = life goes on as before.* cantar victoria antes de tiempo = speak too soon.* como antes = as before.* continuar como antes = go on + as before.* cuando antes + Pronombre + sea posible = at + Posesivo + earliest convenience.* cuando antes pueda = at + Posesivo + earliest convenience.* cuanto antes = as soon as possible (asap).* cuanto antes mejor = sooner the better, the.* deber haber ocurrido antes = be long overdue.* detenerse antes de = stop + short of.* enseñanza antes de empezar el trabajo = pre-service education.* haber pasado por aquí antes = have been down this road before.* hablar antes de tiempo = speak too soon.* justo antes de = on the eve of, in the run up to, during the run up to.* justo antes (de que) = immediately before.* lo mismo que antes = the same as before.* los días antes de = leading up to.* más que antes = more than ever, more... than ever before, more than ever before.* más que nunca antes = more... than ever before, more than ever before, more than ever.* mencionado antes = above-mentioned, above-named.* minutos antes de = minutes before.* mucho antes = early on.* mucho antes de = well before.* mucho tiempo antes de (que) = long before.* no antes de = no sooner than.* no cantes victoria antes de tiempo = don't count your chickens before they are hatched.* no visto antes = unprecedented.* pasar año(s) antes de que = be year(s) before.* poco antes de + Fecha = shortly before + Fecha.* que fue común antes = once-common.* seguir como antes = go on + as before.* un año antes de = a year ahead of.* usado antes = second-hand [secondhand].* y antes de nada = the next thing + Pronombre + know.* y antes de que + Pronombre + dar + cuenta = the next thing + Pronombre + know.* * *A1 (con anterioridad) beforeme lo deberías haber dicho antes you should have told me before o earlierlo haré lo antes posible I'll do it as soon as possiblelos inquilinos de antes eran más simpáticos the people who lived there before o the previous tenants were nicerdías antes había estado con él I had been with him a few days beforela había hecho el día antes she had made it the day before o the previous day2 ( en locs):antes de beforellegó antes de las tres/del accidente she arrived before three/before the accidentdebe estar aquí antes de las ocho you must be here before o by eightunos días antes de la publicación del libro a few days before the book was published o ( frml) prior to the publication of the bookantes de Jesucristo before Christ, BCno van a llegar antes de dos horas they won't be here for two hoursle daré la respuesta antes de una semana I will give you my reply within a weekantes de anoche the night before lastantes de ayer the day before yesterdayantes DE + INF before -INGmuéstrame la carta antes de mandársela show me the letter before you send it to him o before sending it to himantes ( DE) QUE + SUBJ:a ver si podemos terminarlo antes (de) que lleguen let's try and finish before they get hereantes (de) que me olvide, llamó Marisa before I forget, Marisa calledno se lo muestres antes (de) que yo lo vea don't show it to him until I've seen itmucho/poco antes (de) que tú nacieras a long time/just before you were bornB (en tiempos pasados) before, in the pastantes no se veían mendigos por la calle como ahora you didn't use to see beggars on the streets o in the past you didn't see beggars on the streets o you didn't see beggars on the streets before, the way you do nowantes salíamos mucho más que ahora we used to go out o in the past we went out much more than we do nowya no es el mismo de antes he's not the same person any more, he's not the same person he waslas casas de antes eran más sólidas houses used to be o in the past houses were more solidly builtC1 (indicando orden, prioridad) firstyo estaba antes I was here firstantes que beforeel señor está antes que yo this man was here before me o is before meantes que nada first of allla obligación está antes que la diversión duty comes before pleasuremis hijos están antes que tú para mí my children are more important to me than you are, my children come before you2(indicando preferencia): ¿casarme con él? ¡antes me muero! marry him? I'd rather o sooner die!cualquier cosa antes que eso anything but thatla muerte antes que la deshonra death before dishonorantes QUE + INF:antes que verlos pasar hambre, soy capaz de robar I'd steal rather than see them go hungryD (en el espacio) beforeme bajo dos paradas antes I get off two stops beforeel ejemplo dado líneas antes the example given a few lines above o beforeestá antes de Rocha/del puente it's before you get to o it's this side of Rocha/the bridgeE1antes bien ( liter); on the contrary2antes no (Chi, Méx fam): antes no te apuñalaron you were lucky o you can count yourself lucky you didn't get stabbed* * *
antes adverbio
1
lo antes posible as soon as possible
c) ( en locs)
antes de Jesucristo before Christ, BC;
no van a llegar antes de dos horas they won't be here for two hours;
le daré la respuesta antes de una semana I will give you my reply within a week;
antes de lo esperado earlier than expected;
antes de hacer algo before doing sth;
antes (de) que me olvide before I forget;
no se lo des antes (de) que yo lo vea don't give it to him until I've seen it
2 ( en tiempos pasados) before, in the past;
3
yo estaba antes I was here firstb) ( indicando preferencia):◊ ¡antes me muero! I'd rather o sooner die!;
cualquier cosa antes que eso anything but that
antes
I adverbio
1 (en el tiempo) before
antes de las dos, before two o'clock
un año antes, a year before
mucho antes, long before
poco antes, a short time before
2 (tiempo remoto) in the past
antes se bordaba a mano más, people used to hand-embroider more in the past
3 (en el espacio) before
la escuela está antes de la estación, the school is before the station
II conj antes morir que disculparme, I'd rather die than apologize
♦ Locuciones: antes (bien), on the contrary
cuanto antes, as soon as possible
lo antes posible, as soon as possible
' antes' also found in these entries:
Spanish:
a. C.
- acaso
- acopiar
- adelantarse
- anoche
- anticiparse
- aquél
- aquélla
- atusar
- ayer
- bélica
- bélico
- cadáver
- como
- congelación
- consumir
- cuanta
- cuanto
- dérmica
- dérmico
- engañarse
- escaparse
- escarceo
- escribano
- folclórica
- folclórico
- gay
- grabar
- homologar
- hostelera
- hostelero
- incluida
- incluido
- interesar
- manía
- marcha
- mejor
- menos
- merodear
- mezclar
- no
- noche
- ocurrirse
- poca
- poco
- presupuesto
- recoger
- resolver
- sabatina
- sabatino
English:
action
- advance
- anything
- applaud
- apprentice
- arbitration
- as
- asap
- averse
- back
- BC
- before
- beforehand
- best
- better
- blurt out
- board
- boil over
- breathing space
- bridge
- bustling
- capture
- clean
- clean up
- clear
- clock
- clock off
- clock out
- close
- cram
- customary
- defrost
- dispose of
- early
- enact
- even
- eventual
- exercise
- family
- fellow
- first
- flying
- formerly
- from
- gather in
- go over
- ground
- hold off
- hors d'oeuvre
- jack up
* * *♦ adv1. [en el tiempo] before;[antaño] formerly, in the past;lo he dicho antes I've said it before;no importa si venís antes it doesn't matter if you come earlier;me lo podías haber contado antes you could have told me earlier o before;antes llovía más it used to rain more often;antes no había televisión y la gente se entretenía con la radio in the past, there wasn't any television, so people used to listen to the radio;ya no nado como antes I can't swim as I used to;desde el accidente, ya no es el mismo de antes he hasn't been the same since the accident;cuanto antes as soon as possible;mucho/poco antes long/shortly before;lo antes posible as soon as possible;antes de before;antes de entrar dejen salir [en letrero] please let people off first before boarding;no llegues antes de las cinco don't get there before five, make sure you arrive no earlier than five;tenlo preparado antes de medianoche have it ready by midnight;antes de hacer algo before doing sth;consúltame antes de añadir nada consult me first before you add anything o before adding anything;antes de que llegaras before you arrived;antes de anoche the night before last;antes de ayer the day before yesterday;antes de Cristo before Christ, BC;de antes [antiguo] old;[anterior] previous;el sistema de antes era muy lento the old system was very slow;esta cerveza sabe igual que la de antes this beer tastes the same as the previous one o the one before2. [en el espacio] before;me bajo dos pisos antes I get off two floors before (you);antes de before;el motel está antes del próximo cruce the motel is before the next junction3. [primero] first;esta señora está antes this lady is first;ten paciencia, este señor está antes que nosotros be patient, this man is in front of us;entraron antes que yo they went in in front of me;¿quién va a salir antes? who's going to leave (the) first?4. [expresa preferencia] rather;no quiero tener coche, antes me compraría una moto I don't want a car, I'd rather buy a motorbike;antes… que rather… than;prefiero la sierra antes que el mar I prefer the mountains to the sea;iría a la cárcel antes que mentir I'd rather go to prison than lie;antes de nada first of all, before anything else;antes que nada [expresando preferencia] above all, first and foremost;antes al contrario on the contrary♦ adj[previo] previous;la noche antes the night before♦ antes bien loc conjon the contrary;no le aburría, antes bien parecía agradarle far from boring him, it appeared to please him* * *I adv before;cuanto antes, lo antes posible as soon as possible;poco antes shortly before;antes que nada first of all;antes bien on the contrary;de antes oldII prp:antes de before;antes de hora, antes de tiempo early, ahead of time;antes de llegar el tren before the train arrivedIII conj:antes de que subj before* * *antes adv1) : before, earlier2) : formerly, previously3) : rather, soonerantes prefiero morir: I'd rather die4)antes de : before, previous toantes de hoy: before today5)antes que : beforeantes que llegue Luis: before Luis arrives6)cuanto antes : as soon as possible7)antes bien : on the contrary* * *antes adv1. (previamente) before2. (más temprano) earlier3. (lugar) just before -
3 vorchristlich
Adj. pre-Christian; ... aus vorchristlicher Zeit dating back to before the time of Christ ( oder to the pre-Christian era)* * *vor|christ|lichadjpre-Christiandas zweite vórchristliche Jahrhundert — the second century before Christ
* * *vor·christ·lichadj attr pre-Christianin \vorchristlicher Zeit in pre-Christian times* * *vorchristlich adj pre-Christian;… aus vorchristlicher Zeit dating back to before the time of Christ ( oder to the pre-Christian era) -
4 πνεῦμα
πνεῦμα, ατος, τό (πνέω; Aeschyl., Pre-Socr., Hdt.+. On the history of the word s. Rtzst., Mysterienrel.3 308ff).① air in movement, blowing, breathing (even the glowing exhalations of a volcanic crater: Diod S 5, 7, 3)ⓐ wind (Aeschyl. et al.; LXX, EpArist, Philo; Jos., Ant. 2, 343; 349; SibOr 8, 297) in wordplay τὸ πνεῦμα πνεῖ the wind blows J 3:8a (EpJer 60 πνεῦμα ἐν πάσῃ χώρᾳ πνεῖ. But s. TDonn, ET 66, ’54f, 32; JThomas, Restoration Qtrly 24, ’81, 219–24). ὀθόνη πλοίου ὑπὸ πνεύματος πληρουμένη MPol 15:2. Of God ὁ ποιῶν τοὺς ἀγγέλους αὐτοῦ πνεύματα who makes his angels winds Hb 1:7; 1 Cl 36:3 (both Ps 103:4).ⓑ the breathing out of air, blowing, breath (Aeschyl. et al.; Pla., Tim. 79b; LXX) ὁ ἄνομος, ὅν ὁ κύριος Ἰησοῦς ἀνελεῖ τῷ πνεύματι τοῦ στόματος αὐτοῦ 2 Th 2:8 (cp. Is 11:4; Ps 32:6).② that which animates or gives life to the body, breath, (life-)spirit (Aeschyl. et al.; Phoenix of Colophon 1, 16 [Coll. Alex. p. 231] πν.=a breathing entity [in contrast to becoming earth in death]; Polyb. 31, 10, 4; Ps.-Aristot., De Mundo 4 p. 394b, 8ff; PHib 5, 54 [III B.C.]; PGM 4, 538; 658; 2499; LXX; TestAbr A 17 p. 98, 19 [Stone p. 44] al.; JosAs 19:3; SibOr 4, 46; Tat. 4:2) ἀφιέναι τὸ πνεῦμα give up one’s spirit, breathe one’s last (Eur., Hec. 571; Porphyr., Vi. Plotini 2) Mt 27:50. J says for this παραδιδόναι τὸ πν. 19:3 (cp. ApcMos 31 ἀποδῶ τὸ πν.; Just., D. 105, 5). Of the return of the (life-)spirit of a deceased person into her dead body ἐπέστρεψεν τὸ πν. αὐτῆς Lk 8:55 (cp. Jdg 15:19). εἰς χεῖράς σου παρατίθεμαι τὸ πν. μου into your hands I entrust my spirit 23:46 (Ps 30:6; for alleged focus on ἐλπίζειν s. EBons, BZ 38, ’94, 93–101). κύριε Ἰησοῦ, δέξαι τὸ πνεῦμά μου Ac 7:59; composite of both passages AcPl Ha 10, 23 (cp. ApcMos 42). τὸ πν. μου ὁ δεσπότης δέξεται GJs 23:3 (on the pneuma flying upward after death cp. Epicharm. in Vorsokrat. 23 [=13, 4th ed.], B 9 and 22; Eur., Suppl. 533 πνεῦμα μὲν πρὸς αἰθέρα, τὸ σῶμα δʼ ἐς γῆν; PGM 1, 177ff τελευτήσαντός σου τὸ σῶμα περιστελεῖ, σοῦ δὲ τὸ πνεῦμα … εἰς ἀέρα ἄξει σὺν αὑτῷ ‘when you are dead [the angel] will wrap your body … and take your spirit with him into the sky’). τὸ σῶμα χωρὶς πν. νεκρόν ἐστιν Js 2:26. πν. ζωῆς ἐκ τ. θεοῦ εἰσῆλθεν ἐν αὐτοῖς (i.e. the prophet-witnesses who have been martyred) Rv 11:11 (cp. Ezk 37:10 v.l. εἰσῆλθεν εἰς αὐτοὺς πνεῦμα ζωῆς; vs. 5). Of the spirit that animated the image of a beast, and enabled it to speak and to have Christians put to death 13:15.—After a person’s death, the πν. lives on as an independent being, in heaven πνεύματα δικαὶων τετελειωμένων Hb 12:23 (cp. Da 3:86 εὐλογεῖτε, πνεύματα καὶ ψυχαὶ δικαίων, τὸν κύριον). According to non-biblical sources, the πν. are in the netherworld (cp. En 22:3–13; Sib Or 7, 127) or in the air (PGM 1, 178), where evil spirits can prevent them from ascending higher (s. ἀήρ2b). τοῖς ἐν φυλακῇ πνεύμασιν πορευθεὶς ἐκήρυξεν 1 Pt 3:19 belongs here if it refers to Jesus’ preaching to the spirits of the dead confined in Hades (so Usteri et al.; s. also JMcCulloch, The Harrowing of Hell, 1930), whether it be when he descended into Hades, or when he returned to heaven (so RBultmann, Bekenntnis u. Liedfragmente im 1 Pt: ConNeot11, ’47, 1–14).—CClemen, Niedergefahren zu den Toten 1900; JTurmel, La Descente du Christ aux enfers 1905; JMonnier, La Descente aux enfers 1906; HHoltzmann, ARW 11, 1908, 285–97; KGschwind, Die Niederfahrt Christi in die Unterwelt 1911; DPlooij, De Descensus in 1 Pt 3:19 en 4:6: TT 47, 1913, 145–62; JBernard, The Descent into Hades a Christian Baptism (on 1 Pt 3:19ff): Exp. 8th ser., 11, 1916, 241–74; CSchmidt, Gespräche Jesu mit seinen Jüngern: TU 43, 1919, 452ff; JFrings, BZ 17, 1926, 75–88; JKroll, Gott u. Hölle ’32; RGanschinietz, Katabasis: Pauly-W. X/2, 1919, 2359–449; Clemen2 89–96; WBieder, Die Vorstellung v. d. Höllenfahrt Jesu Chr. ’49; SJohnson, JBL 79, ’60, 48–51; WDalton, Christ’s Proclamation to the Spirits ’65. S. also the lit. in Windisch, Hdb.2 1930, exc. on 1 Pt 3:20; ESelwyn, The First Ep. of St. Peter ’46 and 4c below.—This is prob. also the place for θανατωθεὶς μὲν σαρκὶ ζωοποιηθεὶς δὲ πνεύματι• ἐν ᾧ καὶ … 1 Pt 3:18f (some mss. read πνεύματι instead of πνεύμασιν in vs. 19, evidently in ref. to the manner of Jesus’ movement; πνεῦμα is that part of Christ which, in contrast to σάρξ, did not pass away in death, but survived as an individual entity after death; s. ἐν 7). Likew. the contrast κατὰ σάρκα … κατὰ πνεῦμα Ro 1:3f. Cp. 1 Ti 3:16.③ a part of human personality, spiritⓐ when used with σάρξ, the flesh, it denotes the immaterial part 2 Cor 7:1; Col 2:5. Flesh and spirit=the whole personality, in its outer and inner aspects, oft. in Ign.: IMg 1:2; 13:1a; ITr ins; 12:1; IRo ins; ISm 1:1; IPol 5:1; AcPl Ant 13, 18 (=Aa I 237, 3).—In the same sense beside σῶμα, the body (Simplicius, In Epict. p. 50, 1; Ps.-Phoc. 106f; PGM 1, 178) 1 Cor 5:3–5; 7:34.—The inner life of humans is divided into ψυχὴ καὶ πνεῦμα (cp. Ps.-Pla., Axioch. 10 p. 370c τὶ θεῖον ὄντως ἐνῆν πνεῦμα τῇ ψυχῇ=a divine spirit was actually in the soul; Wsd 15:11; Jos., Ant. 1, 34; Tat. 13, 2; 15, 1 et al.; Ath. 27, 1. S. also Herm. Wr. 10, 13; 16f; PGM 4, 627; 630. ἐκ τριῶν συνεστάναι λέγουσι τὸν ἄνθρωπον ἐκ ψυχῆς καὶ σώματος καὶ πνεύματος Did., Gen. 55, 14) Hb 4:12. Cp. Phil 1:27. τὸ πνεῦμα καὶ ἡ ψυχὴ καὶ τὸ σῶμα 1 Th 5:23 (s. GMilligan, Thess. 1908, 78f; EvDobschütz in Meyer X7 1909, 230ff; EBurton, Spirit, Soul, and Flesh 1918; AFestugière, La Trichotomie des 1 Th 5:23 et la Philos. gr.: RSR 20, 1930, 385–415; CMasson, RTP 33, ’45, 97–102; FGrant, An Introd. to NT Thought ’50, 161–66). σαρκί, ψυχῇ, πνεύματι IPhld 11:2.ⓑ as the source and seat of insight, feeling, and will, gener. as the representative part of human inner life (cp. PGM 4, 627; 3 Km 20:5; Sir 9:9 al.; Just., D. 30, 1; Did., Gen. 232, 5) ἐπιγνοὺς ὁ Ἰησοῦς τῷ πν. αὐτοῦ Mk 2:8. ἀναστενάξας τῷ πν. αὐτοῦ λέγει 8:12 (s. ἀναστενάζω). ἠγαλλίασεν τὸ πν. μου Lk 1:47 (in parallelism w. ψυχή vs. 46, as Sir 9:9). ἠγαλλιάσατο τῷ πν. 10:21 v.l., Ἰησοῦς ἐνεβριμήσατο τῷ πν. J 11:33 (s. ἐμβριμάομαι 3); Ἰης. ἐταράχθη τῷ πν. 13:21. παρωξύνετο τὸ πν. αὐτοῦ ἐν αὐτῷ Ac 17:16; ζέων τῷ πν. with spirit-fervor 18:25 (s. ζέω). τὸ παιδίον ἐκραταιοῦτο πνεύματι Lk 1:80; 2:40 v.l.; ἔθετο ὁ Παῦλος ἐν τῷ πν. Paul made up his mind Ac 19:21 (some would put this pass. in 6c, but cp. Lk 1:66 and analogous formulations Hom. et al. in L-S-J-M s.v. τίθημι A6). προσκυνήσουσιν τῷ πατρὶ ἐν πνεύματι of the spiritual, i.e. the pure, inner worship of God, that has nothing to do w. holy times, places, appurtenances, or ceremonies J 4:23; cp. vs. 24b. πν. συντετριμμένον (Ps 50:19) 1 Cl 18:17; 52:4.—2 Cl 20:4; Hv 3, 12, 2; 3, 13, 2.—This usage is also found in Paul. His conviction (s. 5 below) that the Christian possesses the (divine) πνεῦμα and thus is different fr. all other people, leads him to choose this word in preference to others, in order to characterize a believer’s inner being gener. ᾧ λατρεύω ἐν τῷ πν. μου Ro 1:9. οὐκ ἔσχηκα ἄνεσιν τῷ πν. μου 2 Cor 2:13. Cp. 7:13. As a matter of fact, it can mean simply a person’s very self or ego: τὸ πνεῦμα συμμαρτυρεῖ τῷ πνεύματι ἡμῶν the Spirit (of God) bears witness to our very self Ro 8:16 (cp. PGM 12, 327 ἠκούσθη μου τὸ πνεῦμα ὑπὸ πνεύματος οὐρανοῦ). ἀνέπαυσαν τὸ ἐμὸν πν. καὶ τὸ ὑμῶν they have refreshed both me and you 1 Cor 16:18. ἡ χάρις τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰ. Χρ. μετά τοῦ πν. (ὑμῶν) Gal 6:18; Phil 4:23; Phlm 25. Cp. 2 Ti 4:22. Likew. in Ign. τὸ ἐμὸν πν. my (unworthy) self IEph 18:1; IRo 9:3; cp. 1 Cor 2:11a—On the relation of the divine Spirit to the believer’s spiritual self, s. SWollenweider, Der Geist Gottes als Selbst der Glaubenden: ZTK 93, ’96, 163–92.—Only a part of the inner life, i.e. that which concerns the will, is meant in τὸ μὲν πνεῦμα πρόθυμον, ἡ δὲ σὰρξ ἀσθενής Mt 26:41; Mk 14:38; Pol 7:2. That which is inferior, anxiety, fear of suffering, etc. is attributed to the σάρξ.—The mng. of the expr. οἱ πτωχοὶ τῷ πνεύματι Mt 5:3 is difficult to determine w. certainty (cp. Pla., Ep. 7, 335a πένης ἀνὴρ τὴν ψυχήν. The dat. as τῇ ψυχῇ M. Ant. 6, 52; 8, 51). The sense is prob. those who are poor in their inner life, because they do not have a misdirected pride in their own spiritual riches (s. AKlöpper, Über den Sinn u. die ursprgl. Form der ersten Seligpreisung der Bergpredigt bei Mt: ZWT 37, 1894, 175–91; RKabisch, Die erste Seligpreisung: StKr 69, 1896, 195–215; KKöhler, Die ursprgl. Form der Seligpreisungen: StKr 91, 1918, 157–92; JBoehmer, De Schatkamer 17, 1923, 11–16, TT [Copenhagen] 4, 1924, 195–207, JBL 45, 1926, 298–304; WMacgregor, ET 39, 1928, 293–97; VMacchioro, JR 12, ’32, 40–49; EEvans, Theology 47, ’44, 55–60; HLeisegang, Pneuma Hagion 1922, 134ff; Betz, SM 116 n. 178 for Qumran reff.).ⓒ spiritual state, state of mind, disposition ἐν ἀγάπῃ πνεύματί τε πραΰτητος with love and a gentle spirit 1 Cor 4:21; cp. Gal 6:1. τὸ πν. τοῦ νοὸς ὑμῶν Eph 4:23 (s. νοῦς 2a). ἐν τῷ ἀφθάρτῳ τοῦ ἡσυχίου πνεύματος with the imperishable (gift) of a quiet disposition 1 Pt 3:4.④ an independent noncorporeal being, in contrast to a being that can be perceived by the physical senses, spirit (ELangton, Good and Evil Spirits ’42).ⓐ God personally: πνεῦμα ὁ θεός J 4:24a (Ath. 16, 2; on God as a spirit, esp. in the Stoa, s. MPohlenz, D. Stoa ’48/49. Hdb. ad loc. Also Celsus 6, 71 [Stoic]; Herm. Wr. 18, 3 ἀκάματον μέν ἐστι πνεῦμα ὁ θεός).ⓑ good, or at least not expressly evil spirits or spirit-beings (cp. CIG III, 5858b δαίμονες καὶ πνεύματα; Proclus on Pla., Cratyl. p. 69, 6; 12 Pasqu.; En 15:4; 6; 8; 10; TestAbr A 4 p. 81, 15f [Stone p. 10, 15f] πάντα τὰ ἐπουράνια πνεύματα; TestAbr B 13 p. 117, 26 [Stone p. 82] ὑψηλὸν πν.; PGM 3, 8 ἐπικαλοῦμαί σε, ἱερὸν πνεῦμα; 4, 1448; 3080; 12, 249) πνεῦμα w. ἄγγελος (cp. Jos., Ant. 4, 108; Ps.-Clem., Hom. 3, 33; 8, 12) Ac 23:8f. God is ὁ παντὸς πνεύματος κτίστης καὶ ἐπίσκοπος 1 Cl 59:3b.—Pl., God the μόνος εὐεργέτης πνεύματων 1 Cl 59:3a. Cp. 64 (s. on this Num 16:22; 27:16. Prayers for vengeance fr. Rheneia [Dssm., LO 351–55=LAE 423ff=SIG 1181, 2] τὸν θεὸν τὸν κύριον τῶν πνευμάτων; PGM 5, 467 θεὸς θεῶν, ὁ κύριος τῶν πν.; sim. the magic pap PWarr 21, 24; 26 [III A.D.]); the πατὴρ τῶν πνευμάτων Hb 12:9. Intermediary beings (in polytheistic terminology: δαίμονες) that serve God are called λειτουργικὰ πνεύματα Hb 1:14. In Rv we read of the ἑπτὰ πνεύματα (τοῦ θεοῦ) 1:4; 3:1; 4:5; 5:6; s. ASkrinjar, Biblica 16, ’35, 1–24; 113–40.— Ghost Lk 24:37, 39.ⓒ evil spirits (PGM 13, 798; 36, 160; TestJob 27, 2; ApcSed [both Satan]; AscIs 3:28; Just., D. 39, 6 al.; Ath. 25, 3), esp. in accounts of healing in the Synoptics: (τὸ) πνεῦμα (τὸ) ἀκάθαρτον (Just., D. 82, 3) Mt 12:43; Mk 1:23, 26; 3:30; 5:2, 8; 7:25; 9:25a; Lk 8:29; 9:42; 11:24; Rv 18:2. Pl. (TestBenj 5:2) Mt 10:1; Mk 1:27; 3:11; 5:13; 6:7; Lk 4:36; 6:18; Ac 5:16; 8:7; Rv 16:13; ending of Mk in the Freer ms.—τὸ πν. τὸ πονηρόν Ac 19:15f. Pl. (En 99:7; TestSim 4:9; 6:6, TestJud 16:1; Just., D. 76, 6) Lk 7:21; 8:2; Ac 19:12f.—πν. ἄλαλον Mk 9:17; cp. vs. 25b (s. ἄλαλος). πν. πύθων Ac 16:16 (s. πύθων). πν. ἀσθενείας Lk 13:11. Cp. 1 Ti 4:1b. πνεῦμα δαιμονίου ἀκαθάρτου (s. δαιμόνιον 2) Lk 4:33. πνεύματα δαιμονίων Rv 16:14 (in effect = personified ‘exhalations’ of evil powers; for the combination of πν. and δαιμ. cp. the love spell Sb 4324, 16f τὰ πνεύματα τῶν δαιμόνων τούτων).—Abs. of a harmful spirit Mk 9:20; Lk 9:39; Ac 16:18. Pl. Mt 8:16; 12:45; Lk 10:20; 11:26.—1 Pt 3:19 (s. 2 above) belongs here if the πνεύματα refer to hostile spirit-powers, evil spirits, fallen angels (so FSpitta, Christi Predigt an die Geister 1890; HGunkel, Zum religionsgesch. Verständnis des NT 1903, 72f; WBousset, ZNW 19, 1920, 50–66; Rtzst., Herr der Grösse 1919, 25ff; Knopf, Windisch, FHauck ad loc.; BReicke, The Disobedient Spirits and Christian Baptism ’46, esp. 54–56, 69).—Hermas also has the concept of evil spirits that lead an independent existence, and live and reign within the inner life of a pers.; the Holy Spirit, who also lives or would like to live there, is forced out by them (cp. TestDan 4) Hm 5, 1, 2–4; 5, 2, 5–8; 10, 1, 2. τὸ πν. τὸ ἅγιον … ἕτερον πονηρὸν πν. 5, 1, 2. These πνεύματα are ὀξυχολία 5, 1, 3; 5, 2, 8 (τὸ πονηρότατον πν.); 10, 1, 2; διψυχία 9:11 (ἐπίγειον πν. ἐστι παρὰ τοῦ διαβόλου); 10, 1, 2; λύπη 10, 1, 2 (πάντων τῶν πνευμάτων πονηροτέρα) and other vices. On the complicated pneuma-concept of the Mandates of Hermas s. MDibelius, Hdb. exc. on Hm 5, 2, 7; cp. Leutzsch, Hermas 453f n. 133.⑤ God’s being as controlling influence, with focus on association with humans, Spirit, spirit as that which differentiates God fr. everything that is not God, as the divine power that produces all divine existence, as the divine element in which all divine life is carried on, as the bearer of every application of the divine will. All those who belong to God possess or receive this spirit and hence have a share in God’s life. This spirit also serves to distinguish Christians fr. all unbelievers (cp. PGM 4, 1121ff, where the spirit is greeted as one who enters devotees and, in accordance w. God’s will, separates them fr. themselves, i.e. fr. the purely human part of their nature); for this latter aspect s. esp. 6 below.ⓐ the Spirit of God, of the Lord (=God) etc. (LXX; TestSim 4:4; JosAs 8:11; ApcSed 14:6; 15:6; ApcMos 43; SibOr 3, 701; Ps.-Phoc. 106; Philo; Joseph. [s. c below]; apolog. Cp. Plut., Numa 4, 6 πνεῦμα θεοῦ, capable of begetting children; s. παρθένος a) τὸ πν. τοῦ θεοῦ 1 Cor 2:11b, 14; 3:16; 6:11; 1J 4:2a (Just., D. 49, 3; Tat. 13, 3; Ath. 22, 3). τὸ τοῦ θεοῦ πν. 1 Pt 4:14 (Just., A I, 60, 6). τὸ πν. τὸ ἐκ τοῦ θεοῦ 1 Cor 2:12b. τὸ πν. κυρίου Ac 5:9; B 6:14; B 9:2 (cp. Mel., P. 32, 222). τὸ πνεῦμά μου or αὐτοῦ: Mt 12:18 (Is 42:1); Ac 2:17f (Jo 3:1f.—Cp. 1QS 4:21); 1 Cor 2:10a v.l.; Eph 3:16; 1 Th 4:8 (where τὸ ἅγιον is added); 1J 4:13.—τὸ πν. τοῦ πατρὸς ὑμῶν Mt 10:20. τὸ πν. τοῦ ἐγείραντος τὸν Ἰησοῦν Ro 8:11a.—Without the art. πν. θεοῦ (JosAs 4:9; Tat. 15:3; Theoph. Ant. 1, 5 [p. 66, 18]) the Spirit of God Mt 3:16; 12:28; Ro 8:9b, 14, 19; 1 Cor 7:40; 12:3a; 2 Cor 3:3 (πν. θεοῦ ζῶντος); Phil 3:3. πν. κυρίου Lk 4:18 (Is 61:1); Ac 8:39 (like J 3:8; 20:22; Ac 2:4, this pass. belongs on the borderline betw. the mngs. ‘wind’ and ‘spirit’; cp. Diod S 3, 60, 3 Ἕσπερον ἐξαίφνης ὑπὸ πνευμάτων συναρπαγέντα μεγάλων ἄφαντον γενέσθαι ‘Hesperus [a son of Atlas] was suddenly snatched by strong winds and vanished fr. sight’. S. HLeisegang, Der Hl. Geist I 1, 1919, 19ff; OCullmann, TZ. 4, ’48, 364); 1 Cl 21:2.ⓑ the Spirit of Christ, of the Lord (=Christ) etc. τὸ πν. Ἰησοῦ Ac 16:7. τὸ πν. Χριστοῦ AcPlCor 2:32. τὸ ἐν αὐτοῖς πν. Χριστοῦ 1 Pt 1:11. πν. Χριστοῦ Ro 8:9c. πν. τοῦ Χριστοῦ AcPl Ha 8, 18. ἀπὸ τοῦ πν. τοῦ χριστοῦ AcPlCor 2:10. τὸ πν. Ἰης. Χριστοῦ Phil 1:19. τὸ πν. κυρίου 2 Cor 3:17b (JHermann, Kyrios und Pneuma, ’61). τὸ πν. τοῦ υἱοῦ αὐτοῦ (=θεοῦ) Gal 4:6. As possessor of the divine Spirit, and at the same time controlling its distribution among humans, Christ is called κύριος πνεύματος Lord of the Spirit 2 Cor 3:18 (s. Windisch ad loc.); but many prefer to transl. from the Lord who is the Spirit.—CMoule, OCullmann Festschr., ’72, 231–37.ⓒ Because of its heavenly origin and nature this Spirit is called (the) Holy Spirit (cp. PGM 4, 510 ἵνα πνεύσῃ ἐν ἐμοὶ τὸ ἱερὸν πνεῦμα.—Neither Philo nor Josephus called the Spirit πν. ἅγιον; the former used θεῖον or θεοῦ πν., the latter πν. θεῖον: Ant. 4, 118; 8, 408; 10, 239; but ἅγιον πνεῦμα Orig. C. Cels 1, 40, 16).α. w. the art. τὸ πνεῦμα τὸ ἅγιον (Is 63:10f; Ps 50:13; 142:10 v.l.; cp. Sus 45 Theod.; TestAbr A 4 p. 81, 10 [Stone p. 10]; JosAs 8:11 [codd. ADE]; AscIs 3, 15, 26; Just., D. 36, 6 al.) Mt 12:32 = Mk 3:29 = Lk 12:10 (τὸ ἅγιον πνεῦμα; on the ‘sin against the Holy Spirit’ s. HLeisegang, Pneuma Hagion 1922, 96–112; AFridrichsen, Le péché contre le Saint-Esprit: RHPR 3, 1923, 367–72). Mk 12:36; 13:11; Lk 2:26; 3:22; 10:21; J 14:26; Ac 1:16; 2:33; 5:3, 32; 7:51; 8:18 v.l.; 10:44, 47; 11:15; 13:2; 15:8, 28; 19:6; 20:23, 28; 21:11; 28:25; Eph 1:13 (τὸ πν. τῆς ἐπαγγελίας τὸ ἅγιον); 4:30 (τὸ πν. τὸ ἅγιον τοῦ θεοῦ); Hb 3:7; 9:8; 10:15; 1 Cl 13:1; 16:2; 18:11 (Ps 50:13); 22:1; IEph 9:1; Hs 5, 5, 2; 5, 6, 5–7 (on the relationship of the Holy Spirit to the Son in Hermas s. ALink, Christi Person u. Werk im Hirten des Hermas 1886; JvWalter, ZNW 14, 1913, 133–44; MDibelius, Hdb. exc. following Hs 5, 6, 8 p. 572–76).—τὸ ἅγιον πνεῦμα (Wsd 9:17; OdeSol 11:2; TestJob 51:2; ApcEsdr 7:16; Just. D. 25, 1 al.) Mt 28:19; Lk 12:10 (s. above), 12; Ac 1:8; 2:38 (epexegetic gen.); 4:31; 9:31; 10:45; 13:4; 16:6; 1 Cor 6:19; 2 Cor 13:13; 1J 5:7 v.l. (on the Comma Johanneum s. λόγο 3); GJs 24:4 (s. χρηματίζω 1bα). As the mother of Jesus GHb 20, 61 (HLeisegang, Pneuma Hagion 1922, 64ff; SHirsch, D. Vorstellg. v. e. weibl. πνεῦμα ἅγ. im NT u. in d. ältesten christl. Lit. 1927. Also WBousset, Hauptprobleme der Gnosis 1907, 9ff).β. without the art. (s. B-D-F §257, 2; Rob. 761; 795) πνεῦμα ἅγιον (PGM 3, 289; Da 5:12 LXX; PsSol 17:37; AssMos Fgm. b; Just., D. 4, 1 al.; Ath. 24, 1. S. also Da Theod. 4:8, 9, 18 θεοῦ πνεῦμα ἅγιον or πνεῦμα θεοῦ ἅγιον) Mk 1:8; Lk 1:15, 35, 41, 67; 2:25; 4:1; 11:13; J 20:22 (Cassien, La pentecôte johannique [J 20:19–23] ’39.—See also 1QS 4:20f); Ac 2:4a; 4:8; 7:55; 8:15, 17, 19; 9:17; 10:38; 11:24; 13:9; 19:2ab; Hb 2:4; 6:4; 1 Pt 1:12 v.l.; 1 Cl 2:2; AcPl 6:18; 9:4 (restored after Aa I 110, 11); AcPlCor 2:5.—So oft. in combination w. a prep.: διὰ πνεύματος ἁγίου Ac 1:2; 4:25; Ro 5:5; 2 Ti 1:14; 1 Cl 8:1 (cp. διὰ πν. αἰωνίου Hb 9:14). διὰ φωνῆς πν. ἁγίου AcPl Ha 11, 6. ἐκ πνεύματος ἁγίου (Eus., PE 3, 12, 3 of the Egyptians: ἐκ τ. πνεύματος οἴονται συλλαμβάνειν τὸν γῦπα. Here πνεῦμα= ‘wind’; s. Horapollo 1, 11 p. 14f. The same of other birds since Aristot.—On the neut. πνεῦμα as a masc. principle cp. Aristoxenus, Fgm. 13 of the two original principles: πατέρα μὲν φῶς, μητέρα δὲ σκότος) Mt 1:18, 20; IEph 18:2; GJs 14:2; 19:1 (pap). ἐν πνεύματι ἁγίῳ (PsSol 17:37; ApcZeph; Ar. 15, 1) Mt 3:11; Mk 1:8 v.l.; Lk 3:16; J 1:33b; Ac 1:5 (cp. 1QS 3:7f); 11:16; Ro 9:1; 14:17; 15:16; 1 Cor 12:3b; 2 Cor 6:6; 1 Th 1:5; 1 Pt 1:12 (without ἐν v.l.); Jd 20. ὑπὸ πνεύματος ἁγίου 2 Pt 1:21. Cp. ἐν δυνάμει πνεύματος ἁγίου Ro 15:13, 19 v.l. (for πνεύματος θεοῦ). μετὰ χαρᾶς πνεύματος ἁγίου 1 Th 1:6. διὰ ἀνακαινώσεως πνεύματος ἁγίου Tit 3:5.ⓓ abs.α. w. the art. τὸ πνεῦμα. In this connection the art. is perh. used anaphorically at times, w. the second mention of a word (s. B-D-F §252; Rob. 762); perh. Mt 12:31 (looking back to vs. 28 πν. θεοῦ); Mk 1:10, 12 (cp. vs. 8 πν. ἅγιον); Lk 4:1b, 14 (cp. vs. 1a); Ac 2:4b (cp. vs. 4a).—As a rule it is not possible to assume that anaphora is present: Mt 4:1; J 1:32, 33a; 3:6a, 8b (in wordplay), 34; 7:39a; Ac 8:29; 10:19; 11:12, 28; 19:1 D; 20:3 D, 22; 21:4; Ro 8:23 (ἀπαρχή 1bβ; 2), 26a, 27; 12:11; 15:30; 2 Cor 1:22 and 5:5 (KErlemann, ZNW 83, ’92, 202–23, and s. ἀρραβών); 12:18 (τῷ αὐτῷ πν.); Gal 3:2, 5, 14 (ἐπαγγελία 1bβ); Eph 4:3 (gen. of the author); 6:17 (perh. epexegetic gen.); 1 Ti 4:1a; Js 4:5; 1J 3:24; 5:6ab (some mss. add καὶ πνεύματος to the words διʼ ὕδατος κ. αἵματος at the beg. of the verse; this is approved by HvSoden, Moffatt, Vogels, Merk, and w. reservations by CDodd, The Joh. Epistles ’46, TManson, JTS 48, ’47, 25–33), vs. 8; Rv 2:7, 11, 17, 29; 3:6, 13, 22; 14:13; 22:17; B 19:2, B 7= D 4:10 (s. ἐτοιμάζω b). ἐν τῷ πνεύματι (led) by the Spirit Lk 2:27.—Paul links this Spirit of God, known to every Christian, with Christ as liberating agent in contrast to legal constraint ὁ κύριος τὸ πνεῦμα ἐστιν the Lord means Spirit 2 Cor 3:17a (UHolzmeister, 2 Cor 3:17 Dominus autem Spiritus est 1908; JNisius, Zur Erklärung v. 2 Cor 3:16ff: ZKT 40, 1916, 617–75; JKögel, Ὁ κύριος τὸ πνεῦμά ἐστιν: ASchlatter Festschr. 1922, 35–46; C Guignebert, Congr. d’Hist. du Christ. II 1928, 7–22; EFuchs, Christus u. d. Geist b. Pls ’32; HHughes, ET 45, ’34, 235f; CLattey, Verb. Dom. 20, ’40, 187–89; DGriffiths ET 55, ’43, 81–83; HIngo, Kyrios und Pneuma, ’61 [Paul]; JDunn, JTS 21, ’70, 309–20).β. without the art. πνεῦμα B 1:3. κοινωνία πνεύματος Phil 2:1 (κοινωνία 1 and 2). πνεύματι in the Spirit or through the Spirit Gal 3:3; 5:5, 16, 18; 1 Pt 4:6. εἰ ζῶμεν πνεύματι, πνεύματι καὶ στοιχῶμεν if we live by the Spirit, let us also walk by the Spirit Gal 5:25. Freq. used w. a prep.: διὰ πνεύματος 1 Pt 1:22 v.l. ἐξ (ὕδατος καὶ) πνεύματος J 3:5. ἐν πνεύματι in, by, through the Spirit Mt 22:43; Eph 2:22; 3:5; 5:18; 6:18; Col 1:8 (ἀγάπη ἐν πνεύματι love called forth by the Spirit); B 9:7. κατὰ πνεῦμα Ro 8:4f; Gal 4:29. ἐν ἁγιασμῷ πνεύματος 2 Th 2:13; 1 Pt 1:2 (s. ἁγιασμός).—In neg. expressions: οὔπω ἧν πνεῦμα the Spirit had not yet come J 7:39b. ψυχικοὶ πνεῦμα μὴ ἔχοντες worldly people, who do not have the Spirit Jd 19.—ἓν πνεῦμα one and the same Spirit 1 Cor 12:13; Eph 2:18; 4:4; one (in) Spirit 1 Cor 6:17.ⓔ The Spirit is more closely defined by a gen. of thing: τὸ πν. τῆς ἀληθείας (TestJud 20:5) J 14:17; 15:26; 16:13 (in these three places the Spirit of Truth is the Paraclete promised by Jesus upon his departure); 1J 4:6 (opp. τὸ πνεῦμα τῆς πλάνης, as TestJud 20:1; PsSol 8:14 πλ. πλανήσεως; Just., D. 7, 3 πλάνου καὶ ἀκαθάρτου πνεύματος; cp. 1QS 4:23); τὸ τῆς δόξης πν. 1 Pt 4:14. τὸ πν. τῆς ζωῆς the Spirit of life Ro 8:2. το πν. τῆς πίστεως 2 Cor 4:13. πν. σοφίας καὶ ἀποκαλύψεως Eph 1:17 (cp. Just., D. 87, 4). πν. υἱοθεσίας Ro 8:15b (opp. πν. δουλείας vs. 15a). πν. δυνάμεως AcPl Ha 8, 25. πν. δυνάμεως καὶ ἀγάπης καὶ σωφρονισμοῦ 2 Ti 1:7 (opp. πν. δειλίας). τὸ πν. τῆς χάριτος (s. TestJud 24:2) Hb 10:29 (Zech 12:10); cp. 1 Cl 46:6.ⓕ Of Christ ‘it is written’ in Scripture: (ἐγένετο) ὁ ἔσχατος Ἀδὰμ εἰς πνεῦμα ζῳοποιοῦν 1 Cor 15:45. The scripture pass. upon which the first part of this verse is based is Gen 2:7, where Wsd 15:11 also substitutes the words πνεῦμα ζωτικόν for πνοὴν ζωῆς (cp. Just., D. 6, 2). On the other hand, s. Philo, Leg. All. 1, 42 and s. the lit. s.v. Ἀδάμ ad loc.ⓖ The (divine) Pneuma stands in contrast to everything that characterizes this age or the finite world gener.: οὐ τὸ πν. τοῦ κόσμου ἀλλὰ τὸ πν. τὸ ἐκ τοῦ θεοῦ 1 Cor 2:12; cp. Eph 2:2 and 1 Ti 4:1ab.α. in contrast to σάρξ, which is more closely connected w. sin than any other earthly material (Just., D. 135, 6): J 3:6; Ro 8:4–6, 9a, 13; Gal 3:3; 5:17ab; 6:8. Cp. B 10:9. πᾶσα ἐπιθυμία κατὰ τοῦ πνεύματος στρατεύεται Pol 5:3.β. in contrast to σῶμα (=σάρξ) Ro 8:10 and to σάρξ (=σῶμα, as many hold) J 6:63a (for τὸ πν. ἐστιν τὸ ζῳοποιοῦν cp. Philo, Op. Mund. 30; Herm. Wr. in Cyrill., C. Jul. I 556c=542, 24 Sc. the pneuma τὰ πάντα ζῳοποιεῖ καὶ τρέφει. S. also f above). Cp. Ro 8:11b.γ. in contrast to γράμμα, which is the characteristic quality of God’s older declaration of the divine will in the law: Ro 2:29; 7:6; 2 Cor 3:6ab, 8 (cp. vs. 7).δ. in contrast to the wisdom of humans 1 Cor 2:13.⑥ the Spirit of God as exhibited in the character or activity of God’s people or selected agents, Spirit, spirit (s. HPreisker, Geist u. Leben ’33).ⓐ πνεῦμα is accompanied by another noun, which characterizes the working of the Spirit more definitely: πνεῦμα καὶ δύναμις spirit and power Lk 1:17; 1 Cor 2:4. Cp. Ac 10:38; 1 Th 1:5. πνεῦμα καὶ ζωή J 6:63b. πνεῦμα κ. σοφία Ac 6:3; cp. vs. 10 (cp. TestReub 2:6 πνεῦμα λαλίας). πίστις κ. πνεῦμα ἅγιον 6:5 (cp. Just., D. 135, 6). χαρὰ καὶ πνεῦμα ἅγ. 13:52.ⓑ Unless frustrated by humans in their natural condition, the Spirit of God produces a spiritual type of conduct Gal 5:16, 25 and produces the καρπὸς τοῦ πνεύματος vs. 22 (s. Vögtle under πλεονεξία).ⓒ The Spirit inspires certain people of God B 12:2; B 13:5, above all, in their capacity as proclaimers of a divine revelation (Strabo 9, 3, 5 the πνεῦμα ἐνθουσιαστικόν, that inspired the Pythia; Περὶ ὕψους 13, 2; 33, 5 of the divine πν. that impels prophets and poets to express themselves; schol. on Pla. 856e of a μάντις: ἄνωθεν λαμβάνειν τὸ πνεῦμα καὶ πληροῦσθαι τοῦ θεοῦ; Aristobulus in Eus., PE 8, 10, 4 [=Fgm. 2, 4 p. 136 Holladay] τὸ θεῖον πν., καθʼ ὸ̔ καὶ προφήτης ἀνακεκήρυκται ‘[Moses possessed] the Divine Spirit with the result that he was proclaimed a prophet’; AscIs 1:7 τὸ πν. τὸ λαλοῦν ἐν ἐμοί; AssMos Fgm. f εἶδεν πνεύματι ἐπαρθείς; Just., A I, 38, 1 al.; Ath. 10, 3 τὸ προφητικὸν πν. Cp. Marinus, Vi. Procli 23 of Proclus: οὐ γὰρ ἄνευ θείας ἐπινοίας … διαλέγεσθαι; Orig., C. Cels. 3, 28, 23). προφητεία came into being only as ὑπὸ πνεύματος ἁγίου φερόμενοι ἐλάλησαν ἀπὸ θεοῦ ἄνθρωποι 2 Pt 1:21; cp. Ac 15:29 v.l.; cp. 1 Cl 8:1. David Mt 22:43; Mk 12:36; cp. Ac 1:16; 4:25. Isaiah Ac 28:25. Moses B 10:2, B 9; the Spirit was also active in giving the tables of the law to Moses 14:2. Christ himself spoke in the OT διὰ τοῦ πνεύματος τοῦ ἁγίου 1 Cl 22:1. The ἱεραὶ γραφαί are called αἱ διὰ τοῦ πν. τοῦ ἁγίου 45:2.—The Christian prophet Agabus also ἐσήμαινεν διὰ τοῦ πν. Ac 11:28; cp. Ac 21:11. Likew. Ign. IPhld 7:2. In general the Spirit reveals the most profound secrets to those who believe 1 Cor 2:10ab.—1 Cl claims to be written διὰ τοῦ ἁγ. πν. 63:2. On Ac 19:21 s. 3b.ⓓ The Spirit of God, being one, shows the variety and richness of its life in the different kinds of spiritual gifts which are granted to certain Christians 1 Cor 12:4, 7, 11; cp. vs. 13ab.—Vss. 8–10 enumerate the individual gifts of the Spirit, using various prepositions: διὰ τοὺ πν. vs. 8a; κατὰ τὸ πν. vs. 8b; ἐν τῷ πν. vs. 9ab. τὸ πν. μὴ σβέννυτε do not quench the Spirit 1 Th 5:19 refers to the gift of prophecy, acc. to vs. 20.—The use of the pl. πνεύματα is explained in 1 Cor 14:12 by the varied nature of the Spirit’s working; in vs. 32 by the number of persons who possess the prophetic spirit; on the latter s. Rv 22:6 and 19:10.ⓔ One special type of spiritual gift is represented by ecstatic speaking. Of those who ‘speak in tongues’ that no earthly person can understand: πνεύματι λαλεῖ μυστήρια expresses secret things in a spiritual way 1 Cor 14:2. Cp. vss. 14–16 and s. νοῦς 1b. τὸ πνεῦμα ὑπερεντυγχάνει στεναγμοῖς ἀλαλήτοις the Spirit pleads in our behalf with groans beyond words Ro 8:26b. Of speech that is ecstatic, but expressed in words that can be understood λαλεῖν ἐν πνεύματι D 11:7, 8; cp. vs. 9 (on the subject-matter 1 Cor 12:3; Jos., Ant. 4, 118f; TestJob 43:2 ἀναλαβὼν Ἐλιφᾶς πν. εἶπεν ὕμνον). Of the state of mind of the seer of the Apocalypse: ἐν πνεύματι Rv 17:3; 21:10; γενέσθαι ἐν πν. 1:10; 4:2 (s. γίνομαι 5c, ἐν 4c and EMoering, StKr 92, 1920, 148–54; RJeske, NTS 31, ’85, 452–66); AcPl Ha 6, 27. On the Spirit at Pentecost Ac 2:4 s. KLake: Beginn. I 5, ’33, 111–21. κατασταλέντος τοῦ πν. τοῦ ἐν Μύρτῃ when the Spirit (of prophecy) that was in Myrta ceased speaking AcPl Ha 7, 9.ⓕ The Spirit leads and directs Christian missionaries in their journeys (Aelian, NA 11, 16 the young women are led blindfolded to the cave of the holy serpent; they are guided by a πνεῦμα θεῖον) Ac 16:6, 7 (by dreams, among other methods; cp. vs. 9f and s. Marinus, Vi. Procli 27: Proclus ἔφασκεν προθυμηθῆναι μὲν πολλάκις γράψαι, κωλυθῆναι δὲ ἐναργῶς ἔκ τινων ἐνυπνίων). In Ac 16:6–7 τὸ ἅγιον πν. and τὸ πν. Ἰησοῦ are distinguished.⑦ an activating spirit that is not fr. God, spirit: πν. ἔτερον a different (kind of) spirit 2 Cor 11:4. Cp. 2 Th 2:2; 1J 4:1–3. Because there are persons activated by such spirits, it is necessary to test the var. kinds of spirits (the same problem Artem. 3, 20 περὶ διαφορᾶς μάντεων, οἷς δεῖ προσέχειν καὶ οἷς μή) 1 Cor 12:10; 1J 4:1b. ὁ διάβολος πληροῖ αὐτὸν αὐτοῦ πν. Hm 11:3. Also οὐκ οἴδατε ποίου πνεύματός ἐστε Lk 9:55 v.l. distinguishes betw. the spirit shown by Jesus’ disciples, and another kind of spirit.—Even more rarely a spirit divinely given that is not God’s own; so (in a quot. fr. Is 29:10) a πνεῦμα κατανύξεως Ro 11:8.⑧ an independent transcendent personality, the Spirit, which appears in formulas that became more and more fixed and distinct (cp. Ath. 12, 2; Hippol., Ref. 7, 26, 2.—Ps.-Lucian, Philopatr. 12 θεόν, υἱόν πατρός, πνεῦμα ἐκ πατρὸς ἐκπορευόμενον ἓν ἐκ τριῶν καὶ ἐξ ἑνὸς τρία, ταῦτα νόμιζε Ζῆνα, τόνδʼ ἡγοῦ θεόν=‘God, son of the father, spirit proceeding from the father, one from three and three from one, consider these as Zeus, think of this one as God’. The entire context bears a Christian impress.—As Aion in gnostic speculation Iren. 1, 2, 5 [Harv. I 21, 2]): βαπτίζοντες αὐτοὺς εἰς τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ πατρὸς καὶ τοῦ υἱοῦ καὶ τοῦ ἁγίου πνεύματος Mt 28:19 (on the text s. βαπτίζω 2c; on the subject-matter GWalther, Die Entstehung des Taufsymbols aus dem Taufritus: StKr 95, 1924, 256ff); D 7:1, 3. Cp. 2 Cor 13:13; 1 Cl 58:2; IEph 9:1; IMg 13:1b, 2; MPol 14:3; 22:1, 3; Epil Mosq 5. On this s. HUsener, Dreiheit: RhM 58, 1903, 1ff; 161ff; 321ff; esp. 36ff; EvDobschütz, Zwei-u. dreigliedrige Formeln: JBL 50, ’31, 116–47 (also Heinrici Festschr. 1914, 92–100); Norden, Agn. Th. 228ff; JMainz, Die Bed. der Dreizahl im Judentum 1922; Clemen2 125–28; NSöderblom, Vater, Sohn u. Geist 1909; DNielsen, Der dreieinige Gott I 1922; GKrüger, Das Dogma v. der Dreieinigkeit 1905, 46ff; AHarnack, Entstehung u. Entwicklung der Kirchenverfassung 1910, 187ff; JHaussleiter, Trinitarischer Glaube u. Christusbekenntnis in der alten Kirche: BFCT XXV 4, 1920; JLebreton, Histoire du dogme de la Trinité I: Les origines6 1927; RBlümel, Pls u. d. dreieinige Gott 1929.—On the whole word FRüsche, D. Seelenpneuma ’33; HLeisegang, Der Hl. Geist I 1, 1919; EBurton, ICC Gal 1921, 486–95; PVolz, Der Geist Gottes u. d. verwandten Erscheinungen im AT 1910; JHehn, Zum Problem des Geistes im alten Orient u. im AT: ZAW n.s. 2, 1925, 210–25; SLinder, Studier till Gamla Testamentets föreställningar om anden 1926; AMarmorstein, Der Hl. Geist in der rabb. Legende: ARW 28, 1930, 286–303; NSnaith, The Distinctive Ideas of the OT ’46, 229–37; FDillistone, Bibl. Doctrine of the Holy Spirit: Theology Today 3, ’46/47, 486–97; TNicklin, Gospel Gleanings ’50, 341–46; ESchweizer, CDodd Festschr., ’56, 482–508; DLys, Rûach, Le Souffle dans l’AT, ’62; DHill, Gk. Words and Hebr. Mngs. ’67, 202–93.—HGunkel, Die Wirkungen des Hl. Geistes2 1899; HWeinel, Die Wirkungen des Geistes u. der Geister im nachap. Zeitalter 1899; EWinstanley, The Spirit in the NT 1908; HSwete, The Holy Spirit in the NT 1909, The Holy Spirit in the Ancient Church 1912; EScott, The Spirit in the NT 1923; FBüchsel, Der Geist Gottes im NT 1926; EvDobschütz, Der Geistbesitz des Christen im Urchristentum: Monatsschr. für Pastoral-theol. 20, 1924, 228ff; FBadcock, ‘The Spirit’ and Spirit in the NT: ET 45, ’34, 218–21; RBultmann, Theologie des NT ’48, 151–62 (Eng. tr. KGrobel, ’51, I 153–64); ESchweizer, Geist u. Gemeinde im NT ’52, Int 6, ’52, 259–78.—WTosetti, Der Hl. Geist als göttliche Pers. in den Evangelien 1918; HLeisegang, Pneuma Hagion. Der Ursprung des Geistbegriffs der Syn. Ev. aus der griech. Mystik 1922; AFrövig, Das Sendungsbewusstsein Jesu u. der Geist 1924; HWindisch, Jes. u. d. Geist nach Syn. Überl.: Studies in Early Christianity, presented to FCPorter and BWBacon 1928, 209–36; FSynge, The Holy Spirit in the Gospels and Acts: CQR 120, ’35, 205–17; CBarrett, The Holy Spirit and the Gospel Trad. ’47.—ESokolowski, Die Begriffe Geist u. Leben bei Pls 1903; KDeissner, Auferstehungshoffnung u. Pneumagedanke bei Pls 1912; GVos, The Eschatological Aspect of the Pauline Conception of the Spirit: Bibl. and Theol. Studies by the Faculty of Princeton Theol. Sem. 1912, 209–59; HBertrams, Das Wesen des Geistes nach d. Anschauung des Ap. Pls 1913; WReinhard, Das Wirken des Hl. Geistes im Menschen nach den Briefen des Ap. Pls 1918; HHoyle, The Holy Spirit in St. Paul 1928; PGächter, Z. Pneumabegriff des hl. Pls: ZKT 53, 1929, 345–408; ASchweitzer, D. Mystik des Ap. Pls 1930, 159–74 al. [Mysticism of Paul the Apostle, tr. WMontgomery ’31, 160–76 al.]; E-BAllo, RB 43, ’34, 321–46 [1 Cor]; Ltzm., Hdb. exc. after Ro 8:11; Synge [s. above], CQR 119, ’35, 79–93 [Pauline epp.]; NWaaning, Onderzoek naar het gebruik van πνεῦμα bij Pls, diss. Amsterd. ’39; RJewett, Paul’s Anthropological Terms, ’71, 167–200.—HvBaer, Der Hl. Geist in den Lukasschriften 1926; MGoguel, La Notion joh. de l’Esprit 1902; JSimpson, The Holy Spirit in the Fourth Gospel: Exp., 9th ser., 4, 1925, 292–99; HWindisch, Jes. u. d. Geist im J.: Amicitiae Corolla (RHarris Festschr.) ’33, 303–18; WLofthouse, The Holy Spirit in Ac and J: ET 52, ’40/41, 334–36; CBarrett, The Holy Spirit in the Fourth Gospel: JTS 1 n.s., ’50, 1–15; FCrump, Pneuma in the Gospels, diss. Catholic Univ. of America, ’54; GLampe, Studies in the Gospels (RHLightfoot memorial vol.) ’55, 159–200; NHamilton, The Holy Spirit and Eschatology in Paul, ’57; WDavies, Paul and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Flesh and Spirit: The Scrolls and the NT, ed. KStendahl, ’57, 157–82.—GJohnston, ‘Spirit’ and ‘Holy Spirit’ in the Qumran Lit.: NT Sidelights (ACPurdy Festschr.) ’60, 27–42; JPryke, ‘Spirit’ and ‘Flesh’ in Qumran and NT, RevQ 5, ’65, 346–60; HBraun, Qumran und d. NT II, ’66, 150–64; DHill, Greek Words and Hebrew Meanings, ’67, 202–93; WBieder, Pneumatolog. Aspekte im Hb, OCullmann Festschr. ’72, 251–59; KEasley, The Pauline Usage of πνεύματι as a Reference to the Spirit of God: JETS 27, ’84, 299–313 (statistics).—B. 260; 1087. Pauly-W. XIV 387–412. BHHW I 534–37. Schmidt, Syn. II 218–50. New Docs 4, 38f. DELG s.v. πνέω. M-M. Dict. de la Bible XI 126–398. EDNT. TW. Sv. -
5 σοφία
σοφία, ας, ἡ (s. σοφίζω, σοφός; Hom., Pre–Socr. et al.; LXX, TestSol; TestJob 37:6; Test12patr, JosAs; AscIs 3:23; AssMos Fgm. e; EpArist, Philo, Joseph., Just.,Tat., Ath.)① the capacity to understand and function accordingly, wisdom.ⓐ natural wisdom that belongs to this world σοφία Αἰγυπτίων (Synes., Provid. 1, 1 p. 89a; Jos., Ant. 2, 286; cp. Tat. 31, 1 πάσης βαρβάρου σοφίας ἀρχηγόν [of Moses]) Ac 7:22 (on the subj. s. Philo, Vita Mos. 1, 20ff; Schürer II 350). In contrast to God’s wisdom and the wisdom that comes fr. God ἡ σοφία τῶν σοφῶν 1 Cor 1:19 (Is 29:14). ἡ σοφία τοῦ κόσμου (τούτου) vs. 20; 3:19. σοφία τοῦ αἰῶνος τούτου 2:6b. ἀνθρωπίνη σοφία 2:13. ς. ἀνθρώπων vs. 5. Cp. 1:21b, 22; 2:1. σοφία λόγου cleverness in speaking 1:17. On ἐν πειθοῖς σοφίας λόγοις 2:4 see πειθός. σοφία σαρκική 2 Cor 1:12. ς. ἐπίγειος, ψυχική, δαιμονιώδης Js 3:15 (cp. ς. as ironical referent for dissident teaching: ἡ παμποίκιλος ς. [τῆς] Περατικῆς αἱρέσεως Hippol., Ref. 5, 17, 1).—An advantage that is given to certain persons (like strength and riches, Just., D. 102, 6) 1 Cl 13:1 (Jer 9:22); 32:4; 38:2. So perh. also 39:6 (Job 4:21); but s. bα.ⓑ transcendent wisdomα. wisdom that God imparts to those who are close to God. Solomon (3 Km 5:9; Pr 1:2; Jos., Ant. 8, 168 ς. τοῦ Σ; AssMos Fgm. e [Denis p. 65]; Orig., C. Cels. 3, 45, 9) Mt 12:42; Lk 11:31; Stephen Ac 6:10; Paul 2 Pt 3:15; Pol 3:2; to those believers who are called to account for their faith Lk 21:15. The gift of unveiling secrets (2 Km 14:20; Da 1:17; 2:30. Oenomaus in Eus., PE 5, 27, 1 ἡ σοφία is necessary for the proper use of the oracles) Ac 7:10; Rv 13:18; 17:9. τὸν δεσπότην τὸν δόντα μοι τὴν σοφίαν τοῦ γράψαι τὴν ἱστορίαν ταύτην the Lord, who gave me the wisdom to write this account GJs 25:1. Good judgment in the face of human and specif. Christian demands (practical) wisdom Ac 6:3; Col 4:5; Js 1:5; 3:13, 17 (for the view that ς. in Js 1:5; 3:17=πνεῦμα s. WBieder, TZ 5, ’49, 111). The apostle teaches people ἐν πάσῃ σοφίᾳ Col 1:28, and Christians are to do the same among themselves 3:16 (ἐν πάσῃ ς. also Eph 1:8; Col 1:9).—W. φρόνησις (q.v. 2) Eph 1:8. W. ἀποκάλυψις vs. 17. W. σύνεσις (Jos., Ant. 8, 49): σοφία καὶ σύνεσις πνευματική Col 1:9. σοφία, σύνεσις, ἐπιστήμη, γνῶσις (cp. Philo, Gig. 27) B 2:3; 21:5. σοφία καὶ νοῦς τῶν κρυφίων αὐτοῦ wisdom and understanding of his (i.e. the Lord’s) secrets 6:10.—As a spiritual gift the λόγος σοφίας (cp. Just., D. 121, 2) stands beside the λόγος γνώσεως 1 Cor 12:8 (s. γνῶσις 1 and cp. Aesopica 213, 1 P.: Τύχη ἐχαρίσατο αὐτῷ λόγον σοφίας). Paul differentiates betw. his preaching to unbelievers and immature Christians and σοφίαν λαλεῖν ἐν τοῖς τελείοις 2:6a; the latter he also calls λαλεῖν θεοῦ σοφίαν ἐν μυστηρίῳ set forth the wisdom that comes fr. God as a mystery vs. 7 (WBaird, Interpretation 13, ’59, 425–32).—The false teachers of Colossae consider that their convictions are σοφία Col 2:23.—JdeFinance, La σοφία chez St. Paul: RSR 25, ’35, 385–417.β. wisdom of Christ and of Godא. Christ: of Jesus as a boy (s. ἡλικία 1b) Lk 2:40, 52. Of him as an adult Mt 13:54; Mk 6:2. Of the exalted Christ ἐν ᾧ εἰσιν πάντες οἱ θησαυροὶ τῆς σοφίας καὶ γνώσεως Col 2:3.—Rv 5:12. By metonymy Χρ. Ἰ., ὸ̔ς ἐγενήθη σοφία ἡμῖν ἀπὸ θεοῦ Christ Jesus, who has become a source of wisdom from God for us 1 Cor 1:30. This last makes a transition toב. wisdom of God (Diog. L. 1, 28 σοφίᾳ πρῶτον εἶναι τὸν θεόν; Theoph. Ant. I, 6 [p. 70, 18] ς. τοῦ θεοῦ): revealed in his creation and rule of the world 1 Cor 1:21a, or in the measures intended to bring salvation to the believers Ro 11:33 (here w. γνῶσις; cp. TestJob 37:6 of God’s depth of wisdom); Eph 3:10; Hv 1, 3, 4 (w. πρόνοια).—Rv 7:12; 1 Cl 18:6 (Ps 50:8); B 16:9 (cp. δικαίωμα 1). Christ is called θεοῦ σοφία the embodiment of the wisdom of God 1 Cor 1:24 (cp. א above; Just., D. 61, 3 ὁ λόγος τῆς σοφίας; Diog. L. 9, 50 Protagoras is called Σοφία.—Lucian in Peregr. 11 speaks ironically of the θαυμαστὴ σοφία τῶν Χριστιανῶν. Orig., C. Cels. 6, 44, 27 τῷ υἱῷ τοῦ θεοῦ ὄντι δικαιοσύνῃ καὶ ἀληθείᾳ καὶ ς.)—UWilckens, Weisheit u. Torheit ( 1 Cor 1 and 2), ’59; FChrist, Jesus Sophia (synopt.) ’70.② personified wisdom, Wisdom (Ael. Aristid. 45, 17 K. as a mediator betw. Sarapis and humans; perh.=Isis; AHöfler, D. Sarapishymnus des Ael. Aristid. ’35, 50 and 53f; the name of an aeon Iren. 1, 2, 3 [Harv. I 16, 5]; s. also Did., Gen, 213, 12). In connection w. Pr 1:23–33: 1 Cl 57:3 (λέγει ἡ πανάρετος σοφία), 5 (=Pr 1:29); 58:1. On ἐδικαιώθη ἡ σοφία κτλ. Mt 11:19; Lk 7:35 cp. δικαιόω 2bα and Ps.-Pla., Eryx. 6, 394d ἡ σοφία καὶ τὰ ἔργα τὸ ἀπὸ ταύτης=wisdom and her fruits. ἡ σοφία τοῦ θεοῦ εἶπεν Lk 11:49 introduces a statement made by ‘wisdom’ (‘wisdom’ is variously explained in this connection; on the one hand, it is said to refer to the OT, or to an apocryphal book by this title [s. 3 below]; on the other hand, Jesus is thought of as proclaiming a decree of divine wisdom, or Lk is thinking of wisdom that Jesus has communicated to them at an earlier time).③ a book titled ‘The Wisdom of God’, s. 2.—EBréhier, Les idées philosophiques et religieuses de Philon d’Alexandrie 1907, 115ff; JMeinhold, Die Weisheit Israels 1908; GHoennicke, RE XXI 1908, 64ff; HWindisch, Die göttl. Weisheit der Juden u. die paulin. Christologie: Heinrici Festschr. 1914, 220 ff; PHeinisch, Die persönl. Weisheit des ATs in religionsgesch. Beleuchtung2 1923; Bousset, Rel.3 343ff; FFerrari, Il Progresso religioso 8, 1928, 241–53; MTechert, La notion de la Sagesse dans les trois prem. siècles: Archiv. f. Gesch. d. Philos. n.s. 32, 1930, 1–27; WKnox, St. Paul and the Church of the Gentiles ’39, 55–89; BRigaux, NTS 4, ’57/58, esp. 252–57 (Qumran); HConzelmann, Pls. u. die Weisheit, NTS 12, ’66, 231–44; MSuggs, Wisdom, Christology, and Law in Mt, ’70. Other lit. in Schürer III/1, 198–212.—BGladigow, Sophia und Kosmos, Untersuchungen zur frühgeschichte von σοφό und σοφίη ’65.—DELG s.v. σοφό. M-M. EDNT. TW. Sv. -
6 παράκλητος
παράκλητος, ου, ὁ (παρακαλέω) originally meant in the passive sense (BGU 601, 12 [II A.D.] παράκλητος δέδωκα αὐτῷ=‘when I was asked I gave to him’, but π. is restored from παρακλος, and the restoration is uncertain), ‘one who is called to someone’s aid’. Accordingly Latin writers commonly rendered it, in its NT occurrences, with ‘advocatus’ (Tertullian, Prax. 9; Cyprian, De Domin. Orat. 3, Epist. 55, 18; Novatian, De Trin. 28; 29; Hilary, De Trin. 8, 19; Lucifer, De S. Athanas. 2, 26; Augustine, C. Faust. 13, 17, Tract. in Joh. 94; Tractatus Orig. 20 p. 212, 13 Batiffol. Likew. many [Old Latin] Bible mss.: a c e m q J 14:16; a m q 14:26; e q r 15:26; e m q 16:7. Eus., HE 5, 1, 10 παράκλητος=advocatus, Rufinus. Field, Notes 102f; cp. the role of the ‘patronus’ in legal proceedings: J-MDavid, Le patronat judicaire au dernier siècle de la république romaine ’92). But the technical mng. ‘lawyer’, ‘attorney’ is rare (e.g. Bion of Borysthenes [III B.C.] in Diog. L. 4, 50; SEG XXXVIII, 1237, 18 [235/36 A.D.]). Against the legal association: KGrayston, JSNT 13, ’81, 67–82. In the few places where the word is found in pre-Christian and extra-Christian lit. as well it has for the most part a more general sense: one who appears in another’s behalf, mediator, intercessor, helper (Demosth. 19, 1; Dionys. Hal. 11, 37, 1; Heraclit. Sto. 59 p. 80, 19; Cass. Dio 46, 20, 1; POxy 2725, 10 [71 A.D.]; cp. π. as the name of a gnostic aeon Iren. 1, 4, 5 [Harv. I 38, 8]; Hippol.; s. also the comments on 2 Cor 5:20 s.v. παρακαλέω 2). The pass. idea of παρακεκλῆσθαι retreated into the backgound, and the active idea of παρακαλεῖν took its place (on the justification for equating παράκλητος with παρακαλῶν s. Kühner-Bl. II 289). Jews adopted it in this sense as a loanw. (פְּרַקְלֵיט. Pirqe Aboth 4, 11.—SKrauss, Griech. u. latein. Lehnwörter in Talmud, Midrasch u. Targum 1898/99 I 210; II 496; Dalman, Gramm.2 185; Billerb. II 560–62). In Job 16:2 Aq. and Theod. translate מְנַחֲמִים (=comforters) as παράκλητοι; LXX has παρακλήτορες. In Philo our word somet. means ‘intercessor’ (De Jos. 239, Vi. Mos. 2, 134, Spec. Leg. 1, 237, Exsecr. 166, Adv. Flacc. 13; 22), somet. ‘adviser’, ‘helper’ (Op. M. 23; 165). The Gk. interpreters of John’s gosp. understood it in the active sense=παρακαλῶν or παρακλήτωρ (s. Lampe s.v. παράκλητο, esp. Eusebius of Caesarea, Theodore of Mopsuestia, and Ammonius; s. also Ephraem the Syrian in RHarris, Fragments of the Comm. of Ephrem Syr. 1895, 86). In our lit. the act. sense helper, intercessor is suitable in all occurrences of the word (so Goodsp, Probs. 110f). τίς ἡμῶν παράκλητος ἔσται; 2 Cl 6:9. πλουσίων παράκλητοι advocates of the rich B 20:2; D 5:2.—In 1J 2:1 (as AcJ in a damaged fragment: POxy 850, 10) Christ is designated as παράκλητος: παράκλητον ἔχομεν πρὸς τὸν πατέρα Ἰησοῦν Χριστὸν δίκαιον we have Jesus Christ the righteous one, who intercedes for us. The same title is implied for Christ by the ἄλλος παράκλητος of J 14:16. It is only the Holy Spirit that is expressly called παρ.=Helper in the Fourth Gosp.: 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7.—HUsener, Archiv für lat. Lexikographie 2, 1885, 230ff; HSasse, Der Paraklet im J: ZNW 24, 1925, 260–77; HWindisch, Johannes u. die Synoptiker 1926, 147f, Die fünf joh. Parakletsprüche: Jülicher Festschr. 1927, 110–37; RAsting, ‘Parakleten’ i Johannes-evangeliet: Teologi og Kirkeliv. Avh. etc. ’31, 85–98; SMowinckel, D. Vorstellungen d. Spätjudentums v. Hl. Geist als Fürsprecher u. d. joh. Paraklet: ZNW 32, ’33, 97–130 (supported now by 1QS 3:24f; 1QM 17:6–8); JMusger, Dicta Christi de Paracleto ’38; EPercy, Untersuchungen üb. den Ursprung d. joh. Theol. ’39; Bultmann, J ’40, 437–40; NJohansson, Parakletoi: Vorstellgen. v. Fürsprechern f. d. Menschen vor Gott in d. atl. Rel., im Spätjudent. u. Urchristent. ’40.; NSnaith, ET 57, ’45, 47–50 (‘Convincer’); WHoward, Christianity acc. to St. John ’47, 71–80; WMichaelis, Con. Neot. 11, ’47, 147–62; GBornkamm, RBultmann Festschr. ’49, 12–35; CBarrett, JTS, n.s. 1, ’50, 8–15; JDavies, ibid. 4, ’53, 35–8; TPreiss, Life in Christ, ’54, 19–25; OBetz, Der Paraklet, ’63; MMiguens, El Paráclito (Juan 14–16) ’63; GJohnston, The Spirit-Paraclete in J, ’70; RBrown, The Paraclete in Modern Research, TU 102, ’68, 158–65; JVeenhof, De Parakleet ’77.—DELG s.v. καλέω. M-M. EDNT. TW. Sv. -
7 avant
avant [avɑ̃]━━━━━━━━━1. preposition2. adverb━━━━━━━━━1. <► avant de (+ infinitif) before► avant tout, avant toute chose ( = ce qui est le plus important) above all ; ( = tout d'abord) first• avant tout, il faut éviter la guerre above all war must be avoided2. <a. ( = auparavant) first• le voyage sera long, mangez avant it's going to be a long journey so have something to eat firstb. ( = autrefois)━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━► Lorsque l'adverbe avant signifie autrefois, cette notion est généralement exprimée en anglais par used to, qui est suivi de l'infinitif.━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━• avant, c'était très beau ici it used to be very beautiful here• avant, je n'aimais pas la physique I didn't use to like physicsd. (lieu) tu vois la boulangerie ? le fleuriste est juste avant you see the baker's? the florist's is just this side of it• en avant, marche ! forward march!• partez en avant, on vous rejoindra you go on ahead, we'll catch up with you3. <a. ( = partie antérieure) [d'avion, voiture, train] front ; [de navire] bowsb. ( = joueur) forward4. <( = antérieur) front* * *
I
1. avɑ̃1) ( dans le temps) gén before, beforehand; ( d'abord) first2) ( dans l'espace) beforetu vois l'église, j'habite (juste) avant — can you see the church? I live (just) before it
refuser de s'engager plus avant — lit to refuse to go any further; fig to refuse to get any more involved
3) ( dans une hiérarchie) before
2.
1) ( dans le temps) beforeavant mon départ/retour — before I leave/come back
avant le 1er juillet — by 1 July
2) ( dans l'espace) before3) ( dans une hiérarchie) beforefaire passer quelqu'un/quelque chose avant quelqu'un/quelque chose — to put somebody/something before somebody/something
3.
avant de locution prépositive
4.
avant que locution conjonctive
5.
en avant locution adverbiale forward(s)se pencher/faire un pas en avant — to lean/to take a step forward(s)
en avant, marche! — Armée forward march!
en avant toute! — Nautisme, fig full steam ahead!
en avant la musique! — (colloq) off we go!
mettre quelqu'un/quelque chose en avant — to put somebody/something forward
6.
en avant de locution prépositive ahead of [groupe]
II
1. avɑ̃adjectif invariable [roue, siège, patte] front
2.
nom masculin1) ( partie antérieure)
••
Lorsque avant est adverbe il se traduit par before sauf lorsqu'il signifie ‘en premier lieu, d'abord’; il se traduit alors par first: si tu prends la route, mange quelque chose avant = if you're going to drive, have something to eat firstLorsque avant est préposition il se traduit par before sauf dans le cas où une limite de temps est précisée; il se traduit alors par by: à retourner avant le 30 mars = to be returned by 30 Marchavant entre dans la composition de nombreux mots qui s'écrivent avec un trait d'union ( avant-hier, avant-guerre, avant-coureur etc). Ces mots sont des entrées à part et on les trouvera dans la nomenclature du dictionnaire. Utilisé avant un nom pour désigner une période précédant un événement ou l'avènement d'une personne il se traduit par pre- et forme alors un groupe adjectival que l'on fait suivre du nom approprié: l'avant-1945/l'avant-Thatcher/l'avant-sommet = the pre-1945 period/the pre-Thatcher era/the pre-summit discussions* * *avɑ̃1. prép2. adv3. adj inv4. nm1) [véhicule] frontà l'avant — in the front, in front
2) SPORT (= joueur) forwardaller de l'avant — to steam ahead, to make good progress
en avant — forward, forwards Grande-Bretagne
Il a fait un pas en avant. — He took a step forward.
avant que (avec subjonctif) ; avant qu'il ne parte; avant qu'il parte — before he leaves
avant qu'il ne pleuve; avant qu'il pleuve — before it rains
avant tout (= surtout) — above all
* * *I.avant ⇒ Note d'usageA adv1 ( dans le temps) gén before, beforehand; ( d'abord) first; que faisait-il avant what was he doing before?; tu n'aurais pas pu le dire avant? couldn't you have said so before(hand)?; si j'avais su cela avant j'aurais… if I'd known that before(hand) I would have…; quelques heures/jours avant a few hours/days before; la nuit/la semaine/le mois avant the night/the week/the month before; peu avant not long before (that); bien avant long before; le bus/train d'avant the previous bus/train; les locataires d'avant the previous tenants; le cours/la séance d'avant the previous lesson/performance; repose-toi avant tu partiras ensuite rest first and then go; laquelle de ces lettres veux-tu que je tape avant? which of these letters would you like me to type first?; avant nous n'avions pas l'électricité we didn't have electricity before; aussitôt avant just before; j'avais compris longtemps avant I had understood a long time before; ce n'était pas ce lundi mais celui d'avant it was not this Monday but the previous one; la fois d'avant nous nous étions déjà perdus we got lost the last time as well; j'ai vu le film mais pas l'émission d'avant I saw the film GB ou movie US but not the programmeGB before it;2 ( dans l'espace) before; tu vois l'église, j'habite (juste) avant can you see the church? I live (just) before it; ‘c'est avant l'église?’-‘oui juste avant’ ‘is it before the church?’-‘yes just before it’; il l'a mentionné avant dans l'introduction he mentioned it earlier in the introduction; je crois que la dame était avant I think this lady was first; il est inutile de creuser plus avant lit, fig there's no point in digging any further; refuser de s'engager plus avant lit to refuse to go any further; fig to refuse to get any more involved;3 ( dans une hiérarchie) before; le T vient avant T comes before; son travail passe avant his work comes first.B prép1 ( dans le temps) before; partir/arriver avant qn to leave/to arrive before sb, to leave/to arrive before sb does; avant mon départ/retour before I leave/come back; les enfants avant les adultes children before adults; je suis partie avant la fin I left before the end; avant l'ouverture/la fermeture des magasins before the shops GB ou stores US open/close; peu avant minuit shortly before midnight; ne viens pas avant 5 heures don't come before 5 o'clock; rentrer avant la nuit/le dîner to come back before nightfall/dinner; la situation d'avant la crise/révolution the situation before the crisis/revolution; avant le 1er juillet by 1 July; le travail doit être fini avant l'été/la fin de l'année/19 heures the work must be completed by the summer/the end of the year/7 pm; j'aurai fini avant une semaine/un mois I'll have finished within a week/a month; nous partons à 11 heures, avant cela je vais travailler un peu we're leaving at 11, I'm going to do a bit of work before then; avant peu shortly; vous serez informé avant peu des nouvelles consignes you will be informed of the new orders shortly; bien/peu avant 16 heures well/a little before 4 pm; bien avant ta naissance long ou well before you were born ; avant toute explication/considération before explaining/considering anything; avant déduction/impôt before deductions/tax;2 ( dans l'espace) before; avant le croisement/la poste before the crossing/the post office; bien/juste avant le pont well/just before the bridge; j'étais avant vous I was in front of ou before you; ⇒ charrue;3 ( dans une hiérarchie) before; le grade de capitaine vient avant celui de colonel the rank of captain comes before that of colonel; faire passer qn/qch avant qn/qch to put sb/sth before sb/sth; avant tout, avant toute chose ( surtout) above all; ( d'abord) first and foremost; il recherche avant tout la tranquillité above all he wants peace and quiet; il s'agit avant tout de comprendre le principe above all, it is a matter of understanding the principle; je suis avant tout un peintre I am first and foremost a painter.C en avant loc adv1 ( dans l'espace) forward(s); se pencher/faire un pas en avant to lean/to take a step forward(s); faire deux pas en avant to take two steps forward(s); partir en avant to go ahead; en avant!, en avant la musique○! off we go!; en avant, marche! Mil, fig forward march!; en avant toute! Naut, fig full steam ahead!; mettre qch en avant to put sth forward; mettre en avant le fait que to point out the fact that; mettre qn en avant to put sb forward; se mettre en avant to push oneself forward;2 ( dans le temps) ahead.D avant de loc prép avant de faire before doing; réfléchis avant de prendre ta décision think about it before making a decision ou before you make a decision; c'est juste avant d'arriver dans le village it's just before you get to the village; agiter avant de servir shake before serving.E avant que loc conj avant qu'il ne soit trop tard/qu'elle ne dise non before it's too late/she says no; essaie de rentrer avant qu'il ne fasse nuit try to come back before dark; il est parti un jour avant que je n'arrive he left one day before I arrived; le gouvernement a démissionné avant que la révolte n'éclate the government resigned before the rebellion broke out.II.B nm1 ( partie antérieure) l'avant the front; tout l'avant du véhicule est à refaire the whole of the front of the vehicle will have to be repaired; à l'avant in (the) front; à l'avant du train [passager, locomotive] at the front of the train; à l'avant du bateau at the front of the boat; d'avant en arrière backward(s) and forward(s); aller de l'avant to forge ahead; aller de l'avant dans ses projets to forge ahead with one's plans; c'est une femme qui va de l'avant she's very go-ahead;[avɑ̃] préposition1. [dans le temps] beforeil est arrivé avant la nuit/le dîner he arrived before nightfall/dinneravant son élection prior to her election, before being electedpeu avant les élections a short while ou time before the elections2. [dans l'espace] before3. [dans un rang, un ordre, une hiérarchie] beforevous êtes avant moi [dans une file d'attente] you're before meleur équipe est maintenant avant la nôtre dans le classement général their team is now ahead of us in the leagueje place le travail avant tout le reste I put work above ou before everything elseta santé passe avant ta carrière your health is more important than ou comes before your career————————[avɑ̃] adverbe1. [dans le temps] beforeavant, j'avais plus de patience avec les enfants I used to be more patient with childrenla maison est comme avant the house has remained the same ou is the same as it was (before)quand j'ai un rendez-vous, j'aime arriver un peu avant when I'm due to meet someone, I like to get there a little ahead of timediscuter/lire bien avant dans la nuit to talk/to read late into the night2. [dans l'espace]vous voyez le parc? il y a un restaurant juste avant see the park? there's a restaurant just before it ou this side of itsans entrer ou aller plus avant dans les détails without going into any further ou more detail3. [dans un rang, un ordre, une hiérarchie]————————[avɑ̃] adjectif invariable[saut périlleux, roulade] forward[roue, siège, partie] front————————[avɑ̃] nom masculin1. [d'un véhicule] front[au volley] frontline playerjouer avant droit/gauche to play right/left forwardla ligne des avants, les avants the forward line, the forwards3. MILITAIRE————————avant de locution prépositionnelleavant de partir, il faudra... before leaving, it'll be necessary to...je ne signerai rien avant d'avoir vu les locaux I won't sign anything until ou before I see the premises————————avant que locution conjonctiveavant qu'il comprenne, celui-là! by the time he's understood!————————avant que de locution prépositionnelle————————avant tout locution adverbiale1. [surtout]2. [tout d'abord] firstavant tout, je voudrais vous dire ceci first (and foremost), I'd like to tell you thisavant toute chose locution adverbialeavant toute chose, je vais prendre une douche I'll have a shower before I do anything else————————d'avant locution adjectivalele jour/le mois d'avant the previous day/month, the day/month beforeen avant locution adverbiale[marcher] in front[partir] ahead[se pencher, tomber, bondir] forwarda. [pour se protéger] to use somebody as a shieldb. [pour le faire valoir] to push somebody forward ou to the fronten avant de locution prépositionnelle -
8 CULTURE, LITERATURE, AND LANGUAGE
■ Bell, Aubrey F. G. The Oxford Book of Portuguese Verse: XIIth Century-XXth Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1925, 1952 (2nd edition, B. Vi-digal, ed.).■. Portuguese Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1922, 1970 (2nd edition, B. Vidigal, ed.).■ Bleiberg, German, Maureen Ihrie, and Janet Pérez, eds. Dictionary of the Literature of the Iberian Peninsula, 2 vols. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1993.■ Castro, Francisco Lyon de, ed. História da literatura portuguesa, 7 vols. Lisbon: Alfa, 2001-02.■ Cidade, Hernani. Lições de Cultura e Literatura Portuguesa, 3 vols. Lisbon, 1960-62.■ Cook, Manuela. Portuguese: A Complete Course for Beginners. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1996. Figueiredo, Fidelino. História literária de Portugal. Coimbra, 1944. Gentile, Georges Le. La Littérature Portugaise. Rev. ed. Paris, 1951. Kunoff, Hugo. Portuguese Literature from Its Origins to 1990: A Bibliography Based on the Collections at Indiana University. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1994.■ Longland, Jean. Contemporary Portuguese Poetry. A Bilingual Selection. Irvington-on-Hudson: Harvey House, 1966. Prado Coelho, Jacinto do. Dicionário das Literaturas Portuguesas, Galega e Brasileira, 3rd ed. Oporto, 1978. Rossi, Giuseppe C. Storia della letteratura portoghesa. Florence, 1953.■ Santos, João Camilo dos. "Portuguese Contemporary Literature." In Antônio Costa Pinto, ed., Modern Portugal, 218-42. Palo Alto, Calif.: SPOSS, 1998.■ Saraiva, Antônio José. História da cultura em Portugal, 3 vols. Lisbon, 1950-60.■. História da Literatura Portuguesa. Lisbon, 1990 ed.■, and Oscar Lopes. História da Literatura Portuguesa. Oporto and Coimbra, 1992 ed.■ Seguier, Jaime de, ed. Dicionário Prático Ilustrado. Oporto: Lello, 1961 and later eds.■ Simões, João Gaspar. História da poesia portuguesa, 2 vols. Lisbon, 1955-56 and later eds.■. História da poesia portuguesa do século XX. Lisbon, 1959 and later eds.■ Stern, Irwin, ed.-in-chief. Dictionary of Brazilian Literature. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1988.■ TRAVEL AND TOURIST GUIDES ON PORTUGAL■ Ballard, Sam, and Jane Ballard. Pousadas of Portugal: Unique Lodgings in State-owned Castles, Palaces, Mansions and Hotels. Boston: Harvard Common, 1986.■ Bridge, Ann, and Susan Lowndes Marques. The Selective Traveller in Portugal. London: Chatto & Windus, 1968.■ Ellingham, Mark, et al. Portugal: The Rough Guide. London: Rough Guides, 2008 ed.■ Hogg, Anthony. Travellers' Portugal. London: Solo Mio, 1983.■ Kite, Cynthia, and Ralph Kite. Portuguese Country Inns & Pousadas. New York: Warner Books; Karen Brown's Country Inn Series, 1988.■ Lowndes, Susan, ed. Fodor's Portugal 1991. New York: Fodor's, 1990.■ Proença Raúl, and Sant'anna Dionísio, eds. Guía De Portugal. I. Generalidades. Lisboa E, Arredores. Lisbon: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 1924; 1983.■ Robertson, Ian. Portugal: Blue Guide. London: Benn; New York: Norton, 2000 and later eds.■ Stoop, Anne de. Living in Portugal. 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Ramos Silva, eds., Portugal: An Atlantic Paradox, 9-11. Lisbon, 1990. Gaspar, Jorge, and Nuno Vitorino. As Eleições De 25 De Abril: Geografia E Imagem Dos Partidos. Lisbon, 1976.■. "10 Anos de Democracia: Reflexos na geografia política." In E. de Sousa Ferreira and W. C. Opelio, Jr., eds., Conflict and Change in Portugal 1974-1984/ Conflitos e Mudanças em Portugal, 1974-1984, 135-55. Lisbon, 1985.■, et al. As Eleições para assembleia da república, 1979-1983: Estudos de geografia eleitoral. Lisbon, 1984. Gaspar, Jorge, and Nuno Vitorino, eds. Portugal em mapas e em números. Lisbon, 1981.■ Giaccone, Fausto. Una Storia Portoghese/ Uma História Portuguesa. Palermo: Randazzo Focus, 1987.■ Gladdish, Ken. "Portugal: An Open Verdict." In Geoffrey Pridham, ed. Securing Democracy: Political Parties and Democratic Consolidation in Southern Europe, 104-25. London and New York: Routledge, 1990.■ Graham, Lawrence S. The Decline and Collapse of an Authoritarian Order. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1975.■, and Harry M. Makler, eds. Contemporary Portugal: The Revolution and Its Antecedents. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979.■, and Douglas L. Wheeler, eds. In Search of Modern Portugal: The Revolution and Its Consequences. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983.■ Grayson, George W. "Portugal and the Armed Forces Movement." Orbis XIX, 2 (Summer 1975): 335-78.■ Green, Gil. Portugal's Revolution. New York: International, 1976.■ Hammond, John L. Building Popular Power: Workers' and Neighborhood Movements in the Portuguese Revolution. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1988.■ Harsgor, Michael. Naissance d'un Nouveau Portugal. Paris: Ed. du Seuil, 1975.■. Portugal in Revolution. Washington, D.C.: CSIS and Sage, 1976.■ Harvey, Robert. Portugal, Birth of a Democracy. London: Macmillan, 1978.■ Herr, Richard, ed. Portugal: The Long Road to Democracy and Europe. Berkeley, Calif.: International and Area Studies, 1992.■ Insight Team of the Sunday [London] Times. Insight on Portugal: The Year of the Captains. London: Deutsch, 1975.■ Janitschek, Hans. Mario Soares: Portrait of a Hero. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1985.■ Keefe, Eugene K., et al. Area Handbook for Portugal, 1st ed. Washington, D.C.: Foreign Area Studies of American University, 1977. Kramer, Jane. "A Reporter at Large: The Portuguese Revolution." The New Yorker (Dec. 15, 1975): 92-131.■ Lauré, Jason, and Ettagal Lauré. Jovem Portugal: After the Revolution. New York: Straus, Farrar and Giroux, 1977.■ Livermore, H. V. A New History of Portugal. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976.■ Lourenço, Eduardo. Os Militares e O Poder. Lisbon, 1975.■. O Fascismo Nunca Existiu. Lisbon, 1976.■. "Identidade e Memôria: o caso português." In E. de Sousa Ferreira and W. C. Opello, Jr., eds., Conflict and Change in Portugal, 1974-l 984, 17-22. Lisbon, 1985.■ Lucena, Manuel. Evolução e Instituições: A Extinção dos Grémios da Lavoura Alentejanos. Mem Martins, 1984.■. "A herança de duas revoluções." In M. Baptista Coelho, ed., Portugal: O Sistema Político e Constitucional, 1974-87, 505-55. Lisbon, 1989.■ Macedo, Jorge Braga de, and S. Serfaty. Portugal since the Revolution: Economic and Political Perspectives. New York: Praeger, 1981.■ Magone, José M. European Portugal: The Difficult Road to Sustainable Democracy. New York: St. Martin's, 1997. Mailer, Phil. Portugal: The Impossible Revolution. London: Solidarity, 1977. Manta, João Abel. Cartoons/ 1969-1975. Lisbon, 1975.■ Manuel, Paul C. Uncertain Outcome: The Politics of Portugal's Transition to Democracy. Lanham, Md. and London: University Press of America, 1994.■ Mateus, Rui. Contos Proibidos. Memorias de Um PS Desconhecido, 3rd ed. Lisbon: Dom Quixote, 1996.■ Maxwell, Kenneth. "Portugal under Pressure." The New York Review of Books (May 2, 1974).■. "The Hidden Revolution in Portugal." The New York Review of Books (April 17, 1975).■. "The Thorns of the Portuguese Revolution." Foreign Affairs 54, 2 (Jan. 1976): 250-70.■. "The Communists and the Portuguese Revolution." Dissent 27, 2 (Spring 1980): 194-206.■. Portugal in the 1980s: Dilemmas of Democratic Consolidation. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1986.■. The Making of Portuguese Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.■, ed. "Portugal: Toward the Twenty-First Century." Camoes Center Quarterly 5, 3-4 (Fall 1995): 6-55.■, ed. The Press and the Rebirth of Iberian Democracy. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1983.■. Portugal Ten Years after the Revolution: Reports of Three Columbia University-Gulbenkian Workshops. New York: Research Institute on International Change, Columbia University, 1984.■ Maxwell, Kenneth, and Michael H. Haltzel, eds. Portugal: Ancient Country, Young Democracy. Washington, D.C.: Wilson Center Press, 1990.■ Medeiros Ferreira, José. Ensaio Histórico sobre a revolução do 25 de Abril. Lisbon, 1983.■ Medina, João, ed. Portugal De Abril: Do 25 Aos Nossos Dias. In Medina, ed., História Contemporãnea De Portugal. Lisbon, 1985. Merten, Peter. Anarchismus ünd Arbeiterkãmpf in Portugal. Hamburg: Libertare, 1981.■ Miranda, Jorge. Constituição e Democracia. Lisbon, 1976.■. A Constituição de 1976. Lisbon, 1978.■ Morrison, Rodney J. Portugal: Revolutionary Change in an Open Economy. Boston: Auburn House, 1981.■ Mujal-Leôn, Eusebio. "The PCP [Portuguese Communist Party] and the Portuguese Revolution." Problems of Communism 26 (Jan.- Feb. 1977): 21-41.■ Neves, Mário. Missão em Moscovo. Lisbon, 1986.■ Oliveira, César. M. F. A. e Revolução Socialista. Lisbon, 1975.■. Os Anos Decisivos: Portugal 1962-1985. Um testemunho. Lisbon: Presença, 1993.■ Opello, Waiter C., Jr. Portugal's Political Development: A Comparative Approach. Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1985.■. Portugal: From Monarchy to Pluralist Democracy. Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1991.■ Pell, Senator Claiborne H. Portugal ( Including the Azores and Spain) in Search of New Directions: Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, U.S. Senate. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1976.■ Pereira, J. Pacheco. "A Case of Orthodoxy: The Communist Party of Portugal." In Waller and Fenema, eds., Communist Parties in Western Europe: Adaptation or Decline? Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988.■ Pilmott, Ben. "Socialism in Portugal: Was It a Revolution?" Government and Opposition 7 (Summer 1977).■. "Were the Soldiers Revolutionary? The Armed Forces Movement in Portugal, 1973-1976." Iberian Studies 7, 1 (1978): 13-21.■, and Jean Seaton. "Political Power and the Portuguese Media." In L. S. Graham and D. L. Wheeler, eds., In Search of Modern Portugal, 43-57. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983.■ Porch, Douglas. The Portuguese Armed Forces and the Revolution. London: Croom Helm and Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1977.■ Pouchin, Dominique. Portugal, quelle révolution? Paris, 1976.■ Pulido Valente, Vasco. "E Viva Otelo." In Pulido Valente, V., ed., O País das Maravilhas, 451-54. Lisbon, 1979 [anthology of articles from weekly Lisbon paper, Expresso].■. Estudos Sobre a Crise Nacional. Lisbon, 1980.■ Rebelo de Sousa, Marcelo. O Sistema de Governo Português antes e depois da Revisão Constitucional, 3rd ed. Lisbon, 1981. Rêgo, Raúl. Militares, Clérigos e Paisanos. Lisbon, 1981. Robinson, Richard A. H. Contemporary Portugal: A History. London: Allen & Unwin, 1979.■ Rodrigues, Avelino, Cesário Borga, and Mário Cardoso. O Movemento dos Capitães e o 25 de Abril. Lisbon, 1974.■. Portugal Depois De Abril. Lisbon, 1976.■ Ruas, H. B., ed. A Revolução das Flores. Lisbon, 1975.■ Rudel, Christian. La Liberte couleur d'oeillet. Paris: Fayard, 1980.■ Sa, Tiago Moreira de. Os Americanos na Revolucao Portuguesa ( 1974-1976). Lisbon: Edit. Noticias, 2004.■ Sá Carneiro, Francisco. Por Uma Social-Democracia Portuguesa. Lisbon, 1975.■ Sanches Osôrio, Helena. Um Só Rosto. Uma Só Fé. Conversas Com Adelino Da Palma Carlos. Lisbon, 1988. Sanches Osôrio, J. The Betrayal of the 25th of April in Portugal. Madrid: Sedmay, 1975.■ Schmitter, Philippe C. "Liberation by Golpe: Retrospective Thoughts on the Demise of Authoritarian Rule in Portugal." Armed Forces and Society 2 (1974): 5-33.■. "An Introduction to Southern European Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Italy, Greece, Portugal, Spain and Turkey." In G. O'Donnell,■ P. C. Schmitter, and L. Whitehead, eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule, 3-10. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986.■ Silva, Fernando Dioga da. "Uma Administração Envelhecido." Revista da Ad-ministraçao Pública 2 (Oct.-Dec. 1979).■ Simões, Martinho, ed. Relatório Do 25 De Novembro: Texto Integral, 2 vols. Lisbon, 1976.■ Soares, Isabel, ed. Mário Soares: O homem e o político. Lisbon, 1976. Soares, Mário. Democratização e Descolonização: Dez meses no Governo Provisório. Lisbon, 1975. Sobel, Lester A., ed. Portuguese Revolution, 1974-1976. New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1976.■ Spínola, Antônio de. Portugal e o Futuro. Lisbon, 1974.■. País Sem Rumo: Contributo para a História de uma Revolução. Lisbon, 1978.■ Story, Jonathan. "Portugal's Revolution of Carnations: Patterns of Change and Continuity." International Affairs 52 (July 1976): 417-34. Sweezey, Paul. "Class Struggles in Portugal." Monthly Review 27, 4 (Sept. 1975): 1-26.■ Szulc, Tad. "Lisbon and Washington: Behind Portugal's Revolution." Foreign Policy 21 (Winter 1975-76): 3-62. Tavares de Almeida, Antônio. Balsemão: O retrato. Lisbon, 1981. "Vasco." Desenhos Políticos. Lisbon, 1974.■ Vasconcelos, Alvaro. "Portugal in Atlantic-Mediterranean Security." In Douglas T. Stuart, ed., Politics and Security in the Southern Region of the Atlantic Alliance, 117-36. London: Macmillan, 1988.■ Wheeler, Douglas L. "Golpes militares e golpes literários. A literatura do golpe de 25 de Abril de 1974 em contexto histôrico." Penélope. Fazer E Desfazer A História, 19-20 (1998): 191-212.■. "Tributo ao Historiador dos Historiadores. Memorias de A.H.de Oliveira Marques (1933-2007)," Historia XXIX, 95, III series (March 2007), 18-22.■ Wiarda, Howard J. Transcending Corporatism? The Portuguese Corporative System and the Revolution of 1974. Columbia: Institute of International Studies, University of South Carolina, 1976.■. The Transition to Democracy in Spain and Portugal. Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1989. Wise, Audrey. Eyewitness in Revolutionary Portugal. With a Preface by Judith Hart, MP. London: Spokesman, 1975.■ PHYSICAL FEATURES: GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, FAUNA, AND FLORA■ Birot, Pierre. Le Portugal: Étude de géographie régionale. Paris, 1950.■ Embleton, Clifford. Geomorphology of Europe. London: Macmillan, 1984.■ Girão, Aristides de Amorim. Divisão regional, divisão agrícola e divisão administrativa. Coimbra, 1932.■. Condições geográficos e históricas de autonomia política de Portugal. Coimbra, 1935.■. Atlas de Portugal, 2nd ed. Coimbra, 1958.■ Ribeiro, Orlando. Portugal, O Mediterrâneo e o Altântico. Coimbra, 1945 and later eds.■. Portugal. Volume V of Geografia de Espana y Portugal. Barcelona, 1955.■. Ensaios de Geografia Humana e regio nal. Lisbon, 1970.■. A geografia e a divisão regional do país. Lisbon, 1970.■ Stanislawski, Dan. The Individuality of Portugal. Austin: The University of Texas Press, 1959.■. Portugal's Other Kingdom: The Algarve. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1963.■ Taylor, Albert William. Wild Flowers of Spain and Portugal. London: Chatto & Windus, 1972.■ Way, Ruth, and Margaret Simmons. A Geography of Spain and Portugal. London: Methuen, 1962.■ ARCHAEOLOGY AND PREHISTORY■ "Actas do Colóquio Inter-Universitário do Noroeste Peninsular (Porto-Baião, 1988), vol. II, Proto-História, romanização e Idade Média." In Trabalhos de antropologia e etnologia. 28, 3-4 (1988).■ Alarcão, Jorge de, ed. "Do Paleolítico va arte visigótica." Vol. 1, História da■ Arte em Portugal. Lisbon: Alfa, 1986.■. Roman Portugal, 3 vols. Warminister, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1988.■. Portugal Das Orígens A Romanização. Vol. I. In J. Serrão and A. H. de Oliveira Marques, eds. Nova História de Portugal. Lisbon: Presença, 1990. Anderson, James M., and M. S. Lea. Portugal 1001 Sights: An Archaeological and Historical Guide. Calgary, Alberta: University of Calgary and Robert Hale, 1994.■ Balmuth, Miriam S., Antonio Gilman, and Lourdes Prados-Torreira, eds. Encounters and Transformations: The Archaeology of Iberia in Transition. Monographs in Mediterranean Archaeology, no. 7. Sheffield, U.K.: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997.■ Beirão, C. M. M. Une civilization protohistorique du Sud au Portugal ( 1er Age du Fer). Paris: D. Boccard, 1986.■ Cardoso, João Luís, Santinho A. Cunha, and Delberto Aguiar. O Homem Pre-Histórico no Concelho de Oeiras. Oeiras, Portugal: Estudos Arquelógicos de Oeiras, 1991.■ Harrison, Richard J. The Bell Beaker Cultures of Spain and Portugal. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977.■ Mangas, Júlio, ed. Hispania epigraphica. Madrid, 1989.■ Maloney, Stephanie J. "The Villa of Toerre de Palma, Portugal: Archaeology and Preservation." Portuguese Studies Review VIII, 1 (Fall-Winter, 1999-2000): 14-28.■ Savory, H. N. Spain and Portugal: The Prehistory of the Iberian Peninsula. London, 1968.■ Silva, A. C. F. A cultura castreja no Noroeste de Portugal. Paços de Ferreira:■ Museu da Citânia de Sanfins, 1986. Straus, L. G. Iberia before the Iberians. Albuquerque, N.M., 1992.■ FOREIGN TRAVELERS AND RESIDENTS' ACCOUNTS■ Andersen, Hans Christian. A Visit to Portugal 1866. London: Peter Owen, 1972.■ Beckford, William. Italy, with Sketches of Spain and Portugal. Paris: Baudry's European Library, 1834.■ Boyd Alexander, ed. London: Hart-Davies, 1954.■. Recollections of an Excursion to the Monasteries of Alcoboca and Batalha. Fontwell, U.K.: Centaur Press, 1972.■ Bell, Aubrey F. G. In Portugal. London: Bodley Head, 1912.■ Borrow, George. The Bible in Spain, 2 vols. London: Constable, 1923 ed.■ Chaves, Castelo Branco. Os livros de viagens em Portugal no século XVIII e a sua projecção europeia. Lisbon, 1977.■ Costigan, Arthur William. Sketches of Society and Manners in Portugal. London: T. Vernon, 1787.■ Crawfurd, Oswald. Portugal Old and New. London: Kegan, Paul, 1880.■. Round the Calendar in Portugal. London: Chapman & Hall, 1890.■ Darymple, William. Travels through Spain and Portugal in 1774. London: J. Almon, 1777.■ Dumouriez, Charles Francois Duperrier. An Account of Portugal as It Appeared in 1766. London: C. Law, 1797.■ Fielding, Henry. Jonathan Wild and the Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon. London: J. M. Dent, 1932.■ Fullerton, Alice. To Portugal for Pleasure. London: Grafton, 1945.■ Gibbons, John. I Gathered No Moss. London: Robert Hale, 1939.■ Gordon, Jan, and Cora Gordon. Portuguese Somersault. London: Harrap, 1934.■ Hewitt, Richard. A Cottage in Portugal. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.■ Huggett, Frank. South of Lisbon: Winter Travels in Southern Portugal. London: Gollancz, 1960.■ Hume, Martin. Through Portugal. London: Richards, 1907.■ Hyland, Paul. Backwards Out of the Big World: A Voyage into Portugal. Hammersmith, U.K.: HarperCollins, 1996.■ Jackson, Catherine Charlotte, Lady. Fair Lusitania. London: Bentley, 1874.■ Kelly, Marie Node. This Delicious Land Portugal. London: Hutchinson, 1956.■ Kempner, Mary Jean. Invitation to Portugal. New York: Athenaeum, 1969.■ Kingston, William H. G. Lusitanian Sketches of the Pen and Pencil. 2 vol. London: Parker, 1845.■ Landmann, George. Historical, Military and Picturesque Observations on Portugal. 2 vol. London: Cadell and Davies, 1818.■ Latouche, John [Pseudonym of Oswald Crawfurd]. Travels in Portugal. London: Ward, Lock & Taylor, ca. 1874.■ Link, Henry Frederick. Travels in Portugal and France and Spain. London: Longman & Rees, 1801.■ Macauley, Rose. They Went to Portugal. London: Jonathan Cape, 1946.■. They Went to Portugal, Too. Manchester: Carcanet Books, 1990.■ Merle, Iris. Portuguese Panorama. London: Ouzel, 1958.■ Murphy, J. C. Travels in Portugal. London: 1795.■ Proper, Datus C. The Last Old Place: A Search through Portugal. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992.■ Quillinan, Dorothy [Wordsworth]. Journal of a Few Months in Portugal with Glimpses of the South of Spain. 2 vol. London: Moxon, 1847. Sitwell, Sacheverell. Portugal and Madeira. London: Batsford, 1954. Smith, Karine R. Until Tomorrow: Azores and Portugal. Snohomish, Wash.: Snohomish Publishing, 1978. Southey, Robert. Journals of a Residence in Portugal, 1800-1801 and a Visit to France, 1838. London and New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1912. Thomas, Gordon Kent. Lord Byron's Iberian Pilgrimage. Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University Press, 1983. Twiss, Richard. Travels through Portugal and Spain in 1772-1773. London, 1775.■ Watson, Gilbert. Sunshine and Sentiment in Portugal. London: Arnold, 1904. Wheeler, Douglas L. "A[n American] Fulbrighter in Lisbon, Portugal, 196162." Portuguese Studies Review 1 (1991): 9-16.■ PORTUGUESE CARTOGRAPHY, DISCOVERIES, AND NAVIGATION■ Albuquerque, Luís de. Curso de História de Naútica. Coimbra, 1972.■. Introdução a história dos descobrimentos, 3rd ed. Mem Martins, 1983.■. Os Descobrimentos Portugueses. Lisbon: Alfa, 1983.■. Portuguese Books on Nautical Science from Pedro Nunes to 1650. Lisbon, 1984.■. Os Descobrimentos Portugueses. Lisbon, 1985.■ Boorstin, Daniel. The Discoverers. New York: Random House, 1983. Boxer, C. R. The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415-1825. London: Hutchinson, 1969.■ Brazão, Eduardo. La découverte de Terre-Neuve. Montreal: Les Presses de l'Université, 1964.■. "Les Corte-Real et le Nouveau Monde." Revue d'histoire d'Amérique Française 19, 1 (1965): 335-49. Cortesão, Armando, and Avelino Teixeira de Mota. Cartografia Portuguesa Antiga. Lisbon, 1960.■. Portugalia Monumenta Cartográfica, 6 vols. Lisbon, 1960-62.■. História da Cartografia Portuguesa, 2 vols. Coimbra, 1969-70.■ Cortesão, Jaime. L'expansion des portugais dans l'historie de la civilisation. Brussels, 1930.■. Os descobrimentos portugueses, 2 vols. V. Magalhães Godinho and Joel Serrão, eds. Lisbon, 1960.■. A expansão dos Portugueses no período henriquinho. Lisbon, 1965.■. Descobrimentos precolombanos dos portugueses. Lisbon, 1966.■ Costa, Abel Fontoura da. A Marinharia dos Descobrimentos, 3rd ed. Lisbon, 1960.■ Costa Brochado, Idalino F. Descobrimento do Atlântico. Lisbon, 1958. English ed., 1959-60.■ Coutinho, Admiral Gago. A naútica dos descobrimentos, 2 vols. Lisbon, 1951-52.■ Crone, G. R. Maps and Their Makers. New York: Capricorn Books, 1966.■ Dias, José S. da Silva. Os descobrimentos e a problemática cultural do Século XVI, 2nd ed. Lisbon, 1982.■ Disney, Anthony, and Emily Booth, eds. Vasco Da Gama and the Linking of Europe and Asia. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2000.■ Godinho, Vitorino Magalhães, ed. Documentos sobre a expansão portuguesa [ to 1460], 3 vols. Lisbon, 1945-54.■ Guedes, Max, and Gerald Lombardi, eds. Portugal. Brazil: The Age of Atlantic Discoveries. Lisbon: Bertrand; Milan: Ricci; Brazilian Culture Foundation, 1990. [Catalogue of New York Public Library Exhibit, Summer 1990]■ Harley, J. B., and David Woodward. The History of Cartography. Volume 1: Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient and Medieval Europe and Mediterranean. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987.■ Leite, Duarte. História dos Descobrimentos: Colectânea de esparsos, 2 vols. Lisbon, 1958-61.■ Ley, Charles. Portuguese Voyages, 1498-1663. London: Dent, 1953.■ Marques, J. Martins da Silva. Descobrimentos portugueses, 2 vols. Lisbon, 1944-71.■ Martyn, John R. C., ed. Pedro Nunes ( 1502-1578): His Lost Algebra and Other Discoveries. John R. C. Martyn, trans. New York: Peter Lang, 1996.■ Morison, Samuel Eliot. The European Discovery of America: The Northern Voyages, A. D. 500-1600. New York: Oxford University Press, 1971.■. Portuguese Voyages to America in the Fifteenth Century. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974.■ Mota, Avelino Teixeira da. Mar, Além-Mar-Estudos e Ensaios de História e Geografia. Lisbon, 1972.■ Nemésio, Vitorino. Vida e Obra do Infante D. Henrique. Lisbon, 1959.■ Parry, J. H. The Discovery of the Sea. New York: Dial, 1974.■ Penrose, Boies. Travel and Discovery in the Renaissance, 1420-1620. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1952.■ Peres, Damião. História dos Descobrimentos Portugueses. Oporto, 1943.■ Prestage, Edgar. The Portuguese Pioneers. London, 1933; New York: Barnes & Noble, 1967.■ Rogers, Francis M. Precision Astrolabe: Portuguese Navigators and Transoceanic Aviation. Lisbon, 1971.■ Seary, E. R. "The Portuguese Element in the Place Names of Newfoundland." In Luís Albuquerque, ed., Vice-Almirante A. Teixeira da Mota: In Memo-riam. Vol. II, 359-64. Lisbon: Academia da Marinha, 1989.■ Subrahmanyam, Sanjay. The Career and Legend of Vasco Da Gama. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.■ Velho, Alvaro. Roteiro ( Navigator's Route) da Primeira Viagem de Vasco da Gama ( 1497-1499). Lisbon, 1960.■ Winius, George, ed. Portugal, the Pathfinder: Journeys from the Medieval toward the Modern World 1300-ca. 1600. Madison, Wisc.: Hispanic Seminary of Medieval Studies, 1995.■ PORTUGAL AND HER OVERSEAS EMPIRES (1415-1975)■ Abshire, David M., and Michael A. Samuels, eds. Portuguese Africa: A Handbook. New York: Praeger, 1969.■ Afonso, Aniceto, and Carlos de Matos Gomes. Guerra Colonial. Lisbon: Noticias, 2001.■ Albuquerque, J. Moushino de. Moçambique. Lisbon, 1898.■ Alden, Dauril. The Making of an Enterprise: The Society of Jesus in Portugal, Its Empire & Beyond. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1995.■ Alexandre, Valentim. Orígens do Colonialismo Português Moderno ( 18221891). Lisbon: Sá da Costa, 1979.■, and Jill Dias, eds. "O Império Africano 1825-1890. Volume X." In J.■ Serrão and A. H. de Oliveira Marques, eds., Nova História Da Expansão Portuguesa. Lisbon: Estampa, 1998.■ Ames, Glen J. "The Carreira da India, 1668-1682: Maritime Enterprise and the Quest for Stability in Portugal's Asian Empire." Journal of European Economic History 20, 1 (1991): 7-28.■. Renascent Empire? The House of Braganza and the Quest for Stability in Portuguese Monsoon Asia, ca. 1640-1683. Amsterdam: Amsterdam Univ.Press, 2000.■. Vasco da Gama. Renaissance Crusader. New York: Pearson/Longman, 2005.■ Antunes, José Freire. O Império com Pés de Barro: Colonizaçao e Descolonização: As Ideologias em Portugal. Lisbon: D. Quixote, 1980.■. O Factor Africano 1890-1990. Lisbon: Bertrand, 1990.■. A Guerra De Africa 1961-1974, 2 vols. 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Brother Luiz de Sousa [play]. Edgar Prestage, trans. London: Elkin Mathess, 1909.■. Travels in My Homeland. John M. Parker, trans. London: Peter Owen and UNESCO, 1987. Griffin, Jonathan. Camões: Some Poems Translated from the Portuguese by Jonathan Griffin. London: Menard Press, 1976. Jorge, Lídia. The Murmuring Coast. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995.■ Lisboa, Eugénio, ed. Portuguese Short Fiction. Manchester, U.K.: Carcanet, 1997.■ Lopes, Fernão. The English in Portugal 1367-87: Extracts from the Chronicles of Dom Fernando and Dom João. Derek W. Lomax and R. J. Oakley, eds. and trans. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1988.■ Macedo, Helder, ed. Contemporary Portuguese Poetry: An Anthology in English. Helder Macedo, et al., trans. Manchester, U.K.: Carcanet New Press, 1978.■ Martins, J. P. De Oliveira. A History of Iberian Civilization. Aubrey F. G. Bell, trans.; preface by Salvador de Madariaga. New York: Cooper Square, 1969.■ Mendes Pinto, Fernão. 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London: Adam and Charles Black, 1972.■ Freitas, Eduardo, João Ferreira de Almeida, and Manuel Villaverde Cabral. Modalidades de penetração do capitalismo na agricultura: estruturas agrárias em Portugal Continental, 1950-1970. Lisbon, 1976.■ Gonçalves, Francisco Esteves. Portugal: A Wine Country. Lisbon, 1984.■ Gulbenkian Foundation. Agrarian Reform. Lisbon, 1981.■ Kurlansky, Mark. Cod: A Biography of the Fish That Changed the World. New York: Walker, 1997.■ Malefakis, Edward. "Two Iberian Land Reforms Compared: Spain, 1931-1936 and Portugal, 1974—1978." In Gulbenkian Foundation, Agrarian Reform. Lisbon, 1981.■ Moutinho, M. História da pesca do bacalhau. Lisbon: Imprensa Universitária, 1985.■ Oliveira Marques, A. H. de. lntrodução a história da agricultura em Portugal.■ Lisbon, 1968. Pato, Octávio. O Vinho. Lisbon, 1971.■ Pearson, Scott R. Portuguese Agriculture in Transition. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987.■ Postgate, Raymond. Portuguese Wine. London: Dent, 1969.■ Read, Jan. The Wines of Portugal. London: Faber & Faber, 1982.■ Robertson, George. Port. London: Faber & Faber, 1982 ed.■ Rutledge, Ian. "Land Reform and the Portuguese Revolution." Journal of Peasant Studies 5, 1 (Oct. 1977): 79-97.■ Sanceau, Elaine. The British Factory at Oporto. Oporto, 1970.■ Simon, Andre L. Port. London: Constable, 1934.■ Simões, J. Os grandes trabalhadores do Mar: Reportagens na Terra Nova e na Groenlândia. Lisbon: Gazeta dos Caminho de Ferro, 1942.■ Smith, Diana. Portugal and the Challenge of 1992: Special Report. New York: Camões Center/RIIC, Columbia University, 1990.■ Stanislawski, Dan. Landscapes of Bacchus: The Vine in Portugal. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1970.■ Teixeira, Carlos, and Victor M. Pereira da Rosa, eds. The Portuguese in Canada: From the Seat to the City. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000.■ Unwin, Tim. "Farmers' Perceptions of Agrarian Change in Northwest Portugal." Journal of Rural Studies 1, 4 (1985): 339-57.■ Valadão do Valle, E. Bacalhau: tradições históricas e económicos. Lisbon, 1991.■ Venables, Bernard. Baleia! The Whalers of Azores. London: Bodley Head, 1968.■ Villiers, Alan. The Quest of the Schooner Argus: A Voyage to the Banks and Greenland. New York: Scribners, 1951. World Bank. Portugal: Agricultural Survey. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1978.■ ECONOMY, INDUSTRY, AND DEVELOPMENT■ Aiyer, Srivain, and Shahid A. Chandry. Portugal and the E.E.C.: Employment and Implications. Lisbon, 1979.■ Baklanoff, Eric N. The Economic Transformation of Spain and Portugal. New York: Praeger, 1978.■. "Changing Systems: The Portuguese Revolution and the Public Enterprise Sector." ACES ( Association of Comparative Economic Studies) Bulletin 26 (Summer-Fall 1984): 63-76.■. "Portugal's Political Economy: Old and New." In K. Maxwell and M. Haltzel, eds., Portugal: Ancient Country, Young Democracy, 37-59. Washington, D.C.: Wilson Center Press, 1990.■ Barbosa, Manuel P. Growth, Migration and the Balance of Payments in a Small, Open Economy. New York: Garland, 1984.■ Braga de Macedo, Jorge, and Simon Serfaty, eds. Portugal since the Revolution: Economic and Political Perspectives. Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1981.■ Carvalho, Camilo, et al. Sabotagem Econômica: " Dossier" Banco Espírito Santo e Comercial de Lisboa. Lisbon, 1975.■ Corkill, David. The Development of the Portuguese Economy: A Case of Euro-peanization. London: Routledge, 1999.■ Cravinho, João. "The Portuguese Economy: Constraints and Opportunities." In K. Maxwell, ed., Portugal in the 1980s, 111-65. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1986.■ Dornsbusch, Rudiger, Richard S. Eckhaus, and Lane Taylor. "Analysis and Projection of Macroeconomic Conditions in Portugal." In L. S. Graham and H. M. Makler, eds., Contemporary Portugal, 299-330. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979.■ The Economist (London). "On the Edge of Europe: A Survey of Portugal." (June 30, 1981): 3-27.■. "Coming Home: A Survey of Portugal." (May 28, 1988).■. 'The New Iberia: Not Quite Kissing Cousins" [Spain and Portugal]. (May 5, 1990): 21-24.■ Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian and German Marshall Fund of the U.S., eds. II Conferência Internacional sobre e Economia Portuguesa, 2 vols. Lisbon, 1979.■ Hudson, Mark. Portugal to 1993: Investing in a European Future. London: The Economist Intelligence Unit/Special Report No. 11 57/EIU Economic Prospects Series, 1989.■ International Labour Office (ILO). Employment and Basic Needs in Portugal. Geneva: ILO, 1979.■ Kavalsky, Basil, and Surendra Agarwal. Portugal: Current and Prospective Economic Trends. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1978.■ Krugman, Paul, and Jorge Braga de Macedo. "The Economic Consequences of the April 25th Revolution." Economia III (1979): 455-83.■ Lewis, John R., and Alan M. Williams. "The Sines Project: Portugal's Growth Centre or White Elephant?" Town Planning Review 56, 3 (1985): 339-66.■ Makler, Harry M. "The Consequences of the Survival and Revival of the Industrial Bourgeoisie." In L. S. Graham and D. L. Wheeler, eds., In Search of Modern Portugal, 251-83. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983.■ Marques, A. La Politique Economique Portugaise dans la Période de la Dictature ( 1926-1974). Doctoral thesis, 3rd cycle, University of Grenoble, France, 1980.■ Martins, B. Sociedades e grupos em Portugal. Lisbon, 1973.■ Mata, Eugenia, and Nuno Valério. História Econômica De Portugal: Uma Perspectiva Global. Lisbon: Edit. Presença, 1994. Murteira, Mário. "The Present Economic Situation: Its Origins and Prospects." In L. S. Graham and H. M. Makler, eds., Contemporary Portugal, 331-42. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979. OCED. Economic Survey: Portugal: 1988. Paris: OCED, 1988 [see also this series since 1978].■ Pasquier, Albert. L'Economie du Portugal: Données et Problémes de Son Expansion. Paris: Librarie Generale de Droit, 1961. Pereira da Moura, Francisco. Para onde vai e economia portuguesa? Lisbon, 1973.■ Pintado, V. Xavier. Structure and Growth of the Portuguese Economy. Geneva: EFTA, 1964.■ Pitta e Cunha, Paulo. "Portugal and the European Economic Community." In L. S. Graham and D. L. Wheeler, eds., In Search of Modern Portugal, 321-38. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983.■. "The Portuguese Economic System and Accession to the European Community." In E. Sousa Ferreira and W. C. Opello, Jr., eds., Conflict and Change in Portugal, 1974-1984, 281-300. Lisbon, 1985. Porto, Manuel. "Portugal: Twenty Years of Change." In Alan Williams, ed., Southern Europe Transformed, 84-112. London: Harper & Row, 1984. Quarterly Economic Review. London: The Economist Intelligence Unit, 1974-present.■ Salgado de Matos, Luís. Investimentos Estrangeiros em Portugal. Lisbon, 1973 and later eds.■ Schmitt, Hans O. Economic Stabilisation and Growth in Portugal. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 1981.■ Smith, Diana. Portugal and the Challenge of 1992. New York: Camões Center, RIIC, Columbia University, 1989.■ Tillotson, John. The Portuguese Bank Note Case [ 1920s]: Legal, Economic and Financial Approaches to the Measure of Damages in Contract. Manchester, U.K.: Faculty of Law, University of Manchester, 1992.■ Tovias, Alfred. Foreign Economic Relations of the Economic Community: The Impact of Spain and Portugal. Boulder, Colo.: Rienner, 1990.■ Valério, Nuno. A moeda em Portugal, 1913-1947. Lisbon: Sá da Costa, 1984.■. As Finanças Públicas Portuguesas Entre As Duas Guerras Mundiais. Lisbon: Cosmos, 1994.■ World Bank. Portugal: Current and Prospective Economic Trends. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1978 and to the present.■ PHOTOGRAPHY ON PORTUGAL■ Alves, Afonso Manuel, Antônio Sacchetti, and Moura Machado. Lisboa. Lisbon, 1991.■ Antunes, José. Lisboa do nosso olhar; A look on Lisbon. Lisbon: Câmara Municipal de Lisboa, 1991. Beaton, Cecil. Near East. London: Batsford, 1943.■. Lisboa 1942: Cecil Beaton, Lisbon 1942. Lisbon: British Historical Society of Portugal/Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 1995.■ Bottineau, Yves. Portugal. London: Thames & Hudson, 1957.■ Câmara Municipal de Lisboa. 7 Olhares ( Seven Viewpoints). Lisbon: Câmara Municipal de Lisboa, 1998.■ Capital, A. Lisboa: Imagens d'A Capital. Lisbon: Edit. Notícias, 1984.■ Dias, Marina Tavares. Photographias de Lisboa, 1900 ( Photographs of Lisbon, 1900). Lisbon: Quimera, 1991.■. Os melhores postais antigos de Lisboa ( The best old postcards of Lisbon). Lisbon: Químera, 1995.■ Finlayson, Graham, and Frank Tuohy. Portugal. London: Thames & Hudson, 1970.■ Glassner, Helga. Portugal. Berlin-Zurich: Atlantis-Verlag, 1942. Hopkinson, Amanda, ed. Reflections by Ten Portuguese photographers. Bark-way, U.K.: Frontline/Portugal 600, 1996.■ Lima, Luís Leiria, and Isabel Salema. Lisboa de Pedra e Bronze. Lisbon, 1990.■ Martins, Miguel Gomes. Lisboa ribeirinha ( Riverside Lisbon). Lisbon: Arquivo Municipal, Câmara Municipal de Lisboa, Livros Horizonte, 1994. Vieira, Alice. Esta Lisboa ( This Lisbon). Lisbon: Caminho, 1994. Wohl, Hellmut, and Alice Wohl. Portugal. London: Frederick Muller, 1983.■ EQUESTRIANISM■ Andrade, Manoel Carlos de, Luz da Liberal e Nobre Arte da Cavallaria. Lisbon, 1790.■ Graciosa, Filipe. Escola Portuguesa de Arte Equestre. Lisbon, 2004.■ Horsetalk Magazine. Published in New Zealand.■ Oliveira, Nuno. Reflections on the Equestrian Art. London, 2000.■ Russell, Eleanor, ed. The Truth in the Teaching of Nuno Oliveira. Stanhope,■ Queensland, Australia, 2003. Vilaca, Luis V., and Pedro Yglesias d'Oliveira, eds. LUSITANO. Coudelarias De Portugal. O Cavalo ancestral do Sudoeste da Europa. Lisbon: ICONOM, 2005.■ Websites of interest: www.equestrian.pt portugalweb.comHistorical dictionary of Portugal > CULTURE, LITERATURE, AND LANGUAGE
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9 καρδία
καρδία, ας, ἡ (since Hom. [καρδίη, κραδίη]. Rather rare in other wr. in the period of the Gk. Bible [s. Diod S 32, 20; Plut., Mor. p. 30a; 63a; Epict. 1, 27, 21; M. Ant. 2, 3, 3; 7, 13, 3; Ps.-Apollod. 1, 4, 1, 5; Lucian; pap, incl. PGM 5, 157; 13, 263; 833; 1066; s. below 1bη], but common LXX, pseudepigr.; Ar. 15, 3; Just., D. 39, 5; 46, 5 al.; Ath. 31, 3. On Philo and Joseph. s. ASchlatter, D. Theol. d. Judentums nach d. Bericht d. Jos. ’32, 21).① heart as seat of physical, spiritual and mental life (as freq. in Gk. lit.), fig. extension of ‘heart’ as an organ of the body (Il. 13, 282 al.), a mng. not found in our lit.ⓐ as the center and source of physical life (Ps 101:5; 103:15) ἐμπιπλῶν τροφῆς … τὰς κ. satisfying the hearts w. food Ac 14:17. τρέφειν τὰς κ. fatten the hearts Js 5:5.ⓑ as center and source of the whole inner life, w. its thinking, feeling, and volition (νοῦν κ. φρένας κ. διάνοιαν κ. λογισμὸν εἶπέ τις ποιητὴς [Hes., Fgm. 247 Rz.] ἐν καρδίᾳ περιέχεσθαι=some poet said that the heart embraces perception, wit, intellect, and reflection), of humans whether in their pre-Christian or Christian experienceα. in an all-inclusive sense: said of God’s or Christ’s awareness about the inner life of humans γινώσκειν τὰς καρδίας (cp. 1 Km 16:7; 1 Ch 28:9; s. also Did., Gen. 170, 24) Lk 16:15; δοκιμάζειν 1 Th 2:4; ἐρευνᾶν Ro 8:27; Rv 2:23 (νεφροὺς κ. καρδίας as Ps 7:10; Jer 17:10; 20:12); κριτικὸς ἐνθυμήσεων καὶ ἐννοιῶν καρδίας Hb 4:12; τὰ κρυπτὰ τῆς κ. 1 Cor 14:25 (cp. TestReub 1:4). Generally, of human attitudes ὁ κρυπτὸς τῆς κ. ἄνθρωπος 1 Pt 3:4. ἐκ καρδίας from (the bottom of) the heart=sincerely (Aristoph., Nub. 86) Ro 6:17. Also ἀπὸ τῶν καρδιῶν (M. Ant. 2, 3, 3 ἀπὸ καρδίας εὐχάριστος τ. θεοῖς; Lucian, Jupp. Tr. 19; Is 59:13; La 3:33) Mt 18:35. ἐκ καθαρᾶς καρδίας 1 Ti 1:5; 2 Ti 2:22; 1 Pt 1:22. ἐξ ὅλης τ. καρδίας (TestLevi 13:1) Ac 8:37 v.l. Χριστὸν ἁγιάσατε ἐν ταῖς κ. ὑμῶν 1 Pt 3:15. Opp. κοιλία Mk 7:19. Opp. πρόσωπον and καρδία externals and inner attitude of heart (cp. 1 Km 16:7 ἄνθρωπος ὄψεται εἰς πρόσωπον, ὁ δὲ θεὸς ὄψεται εἰς καρδίαν) 2 Cor 5:12. The same contrast προσώπῳ οὐ καρδίᾳ outwardly, not inwardly 1 Th 2:17. As seat of inner life in contrast to mouth or lips, which either give expression to the inner life or deny it Mt 15:8; Mk 7:6 (both Is 29:13); Mt 15:18; Ro 10:8 (Dt 30:14); vs. 9f; 2 Cor 6:11. ψάλλοντες (+ ἐν v.l.) τῇ καρδίᾳ Eph 5:19. ᾂδειν ἐν ταῖς κ. Col 3:16.β. of inner awareness (see the ‘poet’ under 1b above; Aesop, Fab. 254P.=232H/134b H-H./184 Ch.; 3 Km 10:2; Job 12:3; 17:4): 2 Cor 4:6; Eph 1:18; 2 Pt 1:19. τῇ κ. συνιέναι understand Mt 13:15b; Ac 28:27b (both Is 6:10). νοεῖν τῇ κ. think J 12:40b. ἐν τῇ κ. λέγειν (Dt 8:17; 9:4; Ps 13:1. Also Aesop Fab. 62 H.=283b 5 H-H./179c Ch. βοῶν ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ alternating w. ταῦτα καθʼ ἑαυτὸν λέγοντος) say to oneself, i.e. think, reflect, without saying anything aloud Mt 24:48; Lk 12:45; Ro 10:6; Rv 18:7; διαλογίζεσθαι Mk 2:6, 8; Lk 3:15; 5:22; Hv 1, 1, 2; 3, 4, 3. The κ. as the source of διαλογισμοί Mt 15:19; Mk 7:21; Lk 2:35; 9:47. διαλογισμοὶ ἀναβαίνουσιν ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ Lk 24:38. ἀναβαίνει τι ἐπὶ τὴν καρδίαν τινός someth. enters someone’s mind=someone thinks of someth. (s. ἀναβαίνω 2) Ac 7:23; 1 Cor 2:9; Hv 3, 7, 2; m 12, 3, 5; Hs 5, 7, 2. Also of memory Hv 3, 7, 6; m 4, 2, 2; 6, 2, 8. θέσθαι ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ Lk 1:66. διατηρεῖν ἐν τ. καρδίᾳ Lk 2:51 (cp. TestLevi 6:2). συμβάλλειν vs. 19. ἐνθυμεῖσθαι Mt 9:4. διακρίνειν Hv 1, 2, 2. πάντα τὰ ῥήματά μου ἐν καρδίᾳ λαμβάνων taking all my words to heart AcPl Ha 1, 6.—Likew. of a lack of understanding: ἡ ἀσύνετος κ. the senseless mind Ro 1:21; βραδὺς τῇ κ. slow of comprehension Lk 24:25 (cp. Tetr. Iamb. 2, 31a, 6 the mocking words of the fox ὦ ἀνόητε κ. βραδὺ τῇ καρδίᾳ). ἐπαχύνθη ἡ κ. τοῦ λαοῦ Mt 13:15a; Ac 28:27a (both Is 6:10). πωροῦν τὴν κ. J 12:40a; κ. πεπωρωμένη Mk 6:52; 8:17; ἡ πώρωσις τῆς κ. 3:5; Eph 4:18. ἀπατᾶν καρδίαν αὐτοῦ Js 1:26; cp. Ro 16:18. κάλυμμα ἐπὶ τὴν κ. κεῖται 2 Cor 3:15 (cp. ἐστί τι ‘κάλλυμα’ ἀγνοίας ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ Orig., C. Cels. 4, 50, 5).—As the seat of thought, κ. is also the seat of doubt διακρίνεσθαι ἐν τῇ κ. Mk 11:23. διστάζειν Hm 9:5.—The gospel is sown in the heart Mt 13:19 v.l.; Mk 4:15 v.l.; Lk 8:12, 15. God opens the heart Ac 16:14 or the eyes of the heart Eph 1:18; 1 Cl 59:3 to Christian knowledge.γ. of the will and its decisions (Diod S 32, 20) ἕκαστος καθὼς προῄρηται τῇ κ. each of you must give as you have made up your mind 2 Cor 9:7 (NRSV) (cp. TestJos 17:3 ἐπὶ προαιρέσει καρδίας). θέτε ἐν ταῖς καρδίαις ὑμῶν (s. 1 Km 21:13) make up your minds Lk 21:14; cp. Ac 5:4. πρόθεσις τ. καρδίας 11:23. βάλλειν εἰς τὴν κ. ἵνα put it into someone’s heart to J 13:2. Also διδόναι εἰς τ. κ. (2 Esdr 17:5) w. inf. foll. Rv 17:17, or πληροῦν τὴν κ. w. inf. foll. Ac 5:3. Cp. 1 Cor 4:5; 7:37; 2 Cor 8:16; in citation Hb 3:8, 15; 4:7 (each Ps 94:8) al. πλανᾶσθαι τῇ κ. 3:10. God’s law written in human hearts Ro 2:15; 2 Cor 3:2f. In citation Hb 8:10; 10:16 (both Jer 38:33). Stability in the face of dissident teaching Hb 13:9.δ. of moral decisions, the moral life, of vices and virtues: ἁγνίζειν τὰς κ. Js 4:8; καθαρίζειν τὰς κ. Ac 15:9; Hv 3, 9, 8; w. ἀπό τινος Hm 12, 6, 5; καθαρὸς τῇ κ. pure in heart (Ps 23:4) Mt 5:8; καθαρὰ κ. (Sextus 46b) Hv 4, 2, 5; 5:7; m 2:7 cj.; Hs 7:6. ῥεραντισμένοι τὰς κ. ἀπὸ συνειδήσεως πονηρᾶς with hearts sprinkled clean from a consciousness of guilt Hb 10:22. κ. ἄμεμπτος 1 Th 3:13. ἀμετανόητος Ro 2:5. κ. πονηρὰ ἀπιστίας Hb 3:12; λίθιναι κ. B 6:14 (Ezk 36:26). γεγυμνασμένη πλεονεξίας trained in greediness 2 Pt 2:14 (cp. κ. … ἐπὶ τὸ κακὸν ἔγκειται Did., Gen. 104, 14). Cp. Lk 21:34; Ac 8:21f. περιτομὴ καρδίας (cp. Jer 9:25; Ezk 44:7, 9) Ro 2:29.—B 9:1; 10:12. Cp. Ac 7:51.ε. of the emotions, wishes, desires (Theognis 1, 366; Bacchylides 17, 18): ἐπιθυμίαι τῶν κ. desires of the heart Ro 1:24. ἐπὶ τὴν κ. σου ἀνέβη ἡ ἐπιθυμία τ. πονηρίας Hv 1, 1, 8; cp. Hs 5, 1, 5. ἐνθύμησις m 4, 1, 2; 6, 2, 7. μὴ ἀναβαινέτω σου ἐπὶ τὴν κ. περὶ γυναικός m 4, 1, 1; cp. Hv 1, 2, 4; Mt 5:28.—6:21; 12:34f; Lk 6:45; 12:34; 24:32 (s. καίω 1b); Js 3:14; 5:8. Of joy: ηὐφράνθη ἡ κ. Ac 2:26 (Ps 15:9). χαρήσεται ἡ κ. J 16:22. Of sorrow: ἡ λύπη πεπλήρωκεν τὴν κ. 16:6; λύπη ἐγκάθηται εἰς τὴν κ. grief sits in the heart Hm 10, 3, 3. ἡ κ. ταράσσεται (Job 37:1; Ps 142:4) J 14:1, 27; ὀδύνη τῇ κ. Ro 9:2. συνοχὴ καρδίας anguish of heart 2 Cor 2:4; διαπρίεσθαι ταῖς κ. Ac 7:54; κατανυγῆναι τὴν κ. 2:37; συνθρύπτειν τὴν κ. 21:13. κ. συντετριμμένη a broken heart B 2:10; 1 Cl 18:17b (Ps 50:19). συντετριμμένοι τὴν κ. Lk 4:18 v.l. παρακαλεῖν τὰς κ. Eph 6:22; Col 2:2; 4:8; 2 Th 2:17. Of hope (Ps 111:7) Hm 12, 5, 2. Of repentance ἐξ ὅλης κ. Hv 3, 13, 4; m 5, 1, 7; 12, 6, 1. Of sensitivity about doing what is right (1 Km 24:6; 2 Km 24:10) 1J 3:19, 20, 21 (s. ASkrinjar, Verb. Dom. 20, ’40, 340–50). Of a wish εὐδοκία τῆς κ. (s. εὐδοκία 3) Ro 10:1. Of a longing for God τὴν κ. ἔχειν πρὸς κύριον Hm 10, 1, 6. ἐπιστρέφεσθαι πρὸς τὸν κύριον ἐξ ὅλης τῆς κ. 12, 6, 2 (cp. 3 Km 8:48). προσέρχεσθαι μετὰ ἀληθινῆς κ. with sincere desire (cp. Is 38:3; TestDan 5:3 ἀλ. κ.) Hb 10:22. Cp. the opposite Ac 7:39.—Also of the wish or desire of God ἀνὴρ κατὰ τὴν κ. (τοῦ θεοῦ) after God’s heart i.e. as God wishes him to be Ac 13:22 (cp. 1 Km 13:14).ζ. esp. also of love (Aristoph., Nub. 86 ἐκ τῆς κ. φιλεῖν; M. Ant. 7, 13, 3 ἀπὸ κ. φιλεῖν τ. ἀνθρώπους) ἀγαπᾶν τινα ἐξ ὅλης τ. καρδίας Mk 12:30, 33; Lk 10:27 (cp. Dt 6:5 and APF 5, 1913, 393 no. 312, 9 ἐκ ψυχῆς κ. καρδίας). ἐν ὅλῃ τ. καρδίᾳ Mt 22:37; ἐπιστρέψαι καρδίας πατέρων ἐπὶ τέκνα Lk 1:17 (Mal 3:23); εἶναι ἐν τῇ κ. have a place in the heart 2 Cor 7:3; ἔχειν τινὰ ἐν τῇ κ. Phil 1:7; Hm 12, 4, 3; Hs 5, 4, 3; cp. m 12, 4, 5; κατευθύνειν τὰς κ. εἰς τὴν ἀγάπην τοῦ θεοῦ 2 Th 3:5.—The opp. κατά τινος ἐν τῇ κ. ἔχειν have someth. against someone Hv 3, 6, 3.η. of disposition (TestJob 48:1 ἀνέλαβεν ἄλλην κ.) διάνοια καρδίας Lk 1:51; ἁπλότης (τ.) καρδίας (TestReub 4:1, Sim 4:5 al.) Eph 6:5; Col 3:22; ἀφελότης καρδίας Ac 2:46. κ. καὶ ψυχὴ μία Ac 4:32 (cp. Iren. 1, 10, 2 [Harv. I 92, 5]; combination of ψυχή and καρδία as PGM 7, 472; IDefixWünsch 3, 15; Dt 11:18; 1 Km 2:35; 4 Km 23:3 and oft. LXX—on such combinations s. Reader, Polemo p. 260 and cp. Demosth. 18, 220 ῥώμη καὶ τόλμη). πραῢς καὶ ταπεινὸς τῇ κ. Mt 11:29 (cp. TestReub 6:10). ἡ εἰρήνη τοῦ Χριστοῦ βραβευέτω ἐν ταῖς κ. ὑμῶν let the peace of Christ control you Col 3:15; cp. Phil 4:7.θ. The human καρδία as the dwelling-place of heavenly powers and beings (PGM 1, 21 ἔσται τι ἔνθεον ἐν τῇ σῇ κ.): of the Spirit Ro 5:5; 2 Cor 1:22; Gal 4:6; of the Lord Eph 3:17; of the angel of righteousness Hm 6, 2, 3; 5.② interior, center, heart, fig. ext. of 1 (Ezk 27:4, 25; Jon 2:4; Ps 45:3; EpJer 19) τῆς γῆς Mt 12:40.—S., in addition to works on Bibl. anthropology and psychology (πνεῦμα end): HKornfeld, Herz u. Gehirn in altjüd. Auffassung: Jahrb. für jüd. Gesch. u. Lit. 12, 1909, 81–89; ASchlatter, Herz. u. Gehirn im 1. Jahrh.: THaering Festschr. 1918, 86–94; RBultmann, Theologie des NT ’48, 216–22 (Paul), tr., Theol. of the NT, KGrobel, ’51, I, 220–27; RJewett, Paul’s Anthropological Terms, ’71, 305–33. For OT viewpoints s. RNorth, BRev 11/3, ’95, 33 (lit.)—B. 251. EDNT. DELG. M-M. TW. Sv. -
10 υἱός
υἱός, οῦ, ὁ (Hom.+; loanw. in rabb.) prim. ‘son’① a male who is in a kinship relationship either biologically or by legal action, son, offspring, descendantⓐ the direct male issue of a person, son τέξεται υἱόν Mt 1:21; GJs 14:2 (cp. Mel., P. 8, 53 ὡς γὰρ υἱὸς τεχθείς). Cp. Mt 1:23 (Is 7:14) and 25; 10:37 (w. θυγάτηρ); Mk 12:6a; Lk 1:13, 31, 57; 11:11; 15:11 (on this JEngel, Die Parabel v. Verlorenen Sohn: ThGl 18, 1926, 54–64; MFrost, The Prodigal Son: Exp. 9th ser., 2, 1924, 56–60; EBuonaiuti, Religio 11, ’35, 398–402); Ac 7:29; Ro 9:9 (cp. Gen 18:10); Gal 4:22 al. W. gen. Mt 7:9; 20:20f; 21:37ab; Mk 6:3; 9:17; Lk 3:2; 4:22; 15:19; J 9:19f; Ac 13:21; 16:1; 23:16; Gal 4:30abc (Gen 21:10abc); Js 2:21; AcPlCor 2:29. Also ἐγὼ Φαρισαῖός εἰμι υἱὸς Φαρισαίων Ac 23:6 is prob. a ref. to direct descent. μονογενὴς υἱός (s. μονογενής 1) Lk 7:12. ὁ υἱὸς ὁ πρωτότοκος (πρωτότοκος 1) 2:7.ⓑ the immediate male offspring of an animal (Ps 28:1 υἱοὺς κριῶν; Sir 38:25. So Lat. filius: Columella 6, 37, 4) in our lit. only as foal ἐπὶ πῶλον υἱὸν ὑποζυγίου Mt 21:5 (cp. Zech 9:9 πῶλον νέον).ⓒ human offspring in an extended line of descent, descendant, son Ἰωσὴφ υἱὸς Δαυίδ Mt 1:20 (cp. Jos., Ant. 11, 73); s. 2dα below. υἱοὶ Ἰσραήλ (Ἰσραήλ 1) Mt 27:9; Lk 1:16; Ac 5:21; 7:23, 37; 9:15; 10:36; Ro 9:27; 2 Cor 3:7, 13; Hb 11:22 al.; AcPlCor 2:32. οἱ υἱοὶ Λευί (Num 26:57) Hb 7:5. υἱὸς Ἀβραάμ Lk 19:9. υἱοὶ Ἀδάμ 1 Cl 29:2 (Dt 32:8). υἱοι Ῥουβήλ GJs 6:3.ⓓ one who is accepted or legally adopted as a son (Herodian 5, 7, 1; 4; 5; Jos, Ant. 2, 263; 20, 150) Ac 7:21 (cp. Ex 2:10).—J 19:26.② a pers. related or closely associated as if by ties of sonship, son, transf. sense of 1ⓐ of a pupil, follower, or one who is otherw. a spiritual son (SIG 1169, 12 οἱ υἱοὶ τοῦ θεοῦ=the pupils and helpers [40] of Asclepius; sim. Maximus Tyr. 4, 2c; Just., D. 86, 6 οἱ υἱοὶ τῶν προφητῶν.—Some combination w. παῖδες is the favorite designation for those who are heirs of guild-secrets or who are to perpetuate a skill of some kind: Pla., Rep. 3, 407e, Leg. 6, 769b; Dionys. Hal., Comp. Verbi 22 p. 102, 4 Us./Rdm. ῥητόρων παῖδες; Lucian, Anach. 19, Dial. Mort. 11, 1 Χαλδαίων π.=dream-interpreters, Dips. 5 ἱατρῶν π., Amor. 49; Himerius, Or. 48 [=Or. 14], 13 σοφῶν π.): the ‘sons’ of the Pharisees Mt 12:27; Lk 11:19. Peter says Μᾶρκος ὁ υἱός μου 1 Pt 5:13 (perh. w. a component of endearment; s. Μᾶρκος). As a familiar form of address by a cherished mentor Hb 12:5 (Pr 3:11; ParJer 5:28; 7:24). υἱοὶ καὶ θυγατέρες B 1:1.ⓑ of the individual members of a large and coherent group (cp. the υἷες Ἀχαιῶν in Homer; also PsSol 2:3 οἱ υἱοὶ Ἰερουσαλήμ; Dio Chrys. 71 [21], 15; LXX) οἱ υἱοὶ τοῦ λαοῦ μου 1 Cl 8:3 (scripture quot. of unknown origin). υἱοὶ γένους Ἀβραάμ Ac 13:26. οἱ υἱοὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων (Gen 11:5; Ps 11:2, 9; 44:3; TestLevi 3:10; TestZeb 9:7; GrBar 2:4) the sons of men=humans (cp. dγ below) Mk 3:28; Eph 3:5; 1 Cl 61:2 (of the earthly rulers in contrast to the heavenly king).ⓒ of one whose identity is defined in terms of a relationship with a person or thingα. of those who are bound to a personality by close, non-material ties; it is this personality that has promoted the relationship and given it its character: son(s) of: those who believe are υἱοὶ Ἀβραάμ, because Abr. was the first whose relationship to God was based on faith Gal 3:7. In a special sense the devout, believers, are sons of God, i.e., in the light of the social context, people of special status and privilege (cp. PsSol 17:27; Just., D, 124, 1; Dio Chrys. 58 [75], 8 ὁ τοῦ Διὸς ὄντως υἱός; Epict. 1, 9, 6; 1, 3, 2; 1, 19, 9; Sextus 58; 60; 135; 376a; Dt 14:1; Ps 28:1; 72:15; Is 43:6 [w. θυγατέρες μου]; 45:11; Wsd 2:18; 5:5; 12:21 al.; Jdth 9:4, 13; Esth 8:12q; 3 Macc 6:28; SibOr 3, 702) Mt 5:45; Lk 6:35; Ro 8:14, 19 (‘Redeemer figures’ EFuchs, Die Freiheit des Glaubens, ’49, 108; against him EHommel in ThViat 4, ’52, 118, n. 26); 9:26 (Hos 2:1); 2 Cor 6:18 (w. θυγατέρες, s. Is 43:6 cited above); Gal 3:26 (cp. PsSol 17:27); 4:6a, 7ab (here the υἱός is the κληρονόμος and his opposite is the δοῦλος); Hb 2:10 (JKögel, Der Sohn u. die Söhne: Eine exeget. Studie zu Hb 2:5–18, 1904); 12:5–8 (in vs. 8 opp. νόθος, q.v.); Rv 21:7; 2 Cl 1:4; B 4:9. Corresp. there are sons of the devil (on this subj. cp. Hdb. on J 8:44) υἱὲ διαβόλου Ac 13:10. οἱ υἱοὶ τοῦ πονηροῦ (masc.) Mt 13:38b. τοῦ υἱοῦ τοῦ ἐν Ἅιδου ApcPt Rainer. In υἱοί ἐστε τῶν φονευσάντων τοὺς προφήτας Mt 23:31 this mng. is prob. to be combined w. sense 1c. The expr. υἱοὶ θεοῦ Mt 5:9 looks to the future (s. Betz, SM ad loc.; cp. KKöhler, StKr 91, 1918, 189f). Lk 20:36a signifies a status akin to that of angels (Ps 88:7; θεῶν παῖδες as heavenly beings: Maximus Tyr. 11, 5a; 12a; 13, 6a.—Hierocles 3, 424 the ἄγγελοι are called θεῶν παῖδες; HWindisch, Friedensbringer-Gottessöhne: ZNW 24, 1925, 240–60, discounts connection w. angels and contends for the elevation of the ordinary followers of Jesus to the status of Alexander the Great in his role as an εἰρηνηποιός [cp. Plut., Mor. 329c]; for measured critique of this view s. Betz, SM 137–42.).β. υἱός w. gen. of thing, to denote one who shares in it or who is worthy of it, or who stands in some other close relation to it, oft. made clear by the context; this constr. is prob. a Hebraism in the main, but would not appear barbaric (B-D-F §162, 6; Mlt-H. 441; Dssm., B p. 162–66 [BS 161–66]; PASA II 1884, no. 2 υἱὸς πόλεως [time of Nero; on this type of formulation SEG XXXIX, 1864]; IMagnMai 167, 5; 156, 12) οἱ υἱοὶ τοῦ αἰῶνος τούτου (αἰών 2a) Lk 16:8a (opp. οἱ υἱοί τοῦ φωτός vs. 8b); 20:34. τῆς ἀναστάσεως υἱοί (to Mediterranean publics the functional equivalent of ἀθάνατοι ‘immortals’; cp. ἀνάστασις 2b) 20:36b. υἱοὶ τῆς ἀνομίας (ἀνομία 1; cp. CD 6:15) Hv 3, 6, 1; ApcPt 1:3; τῆς ἀπειθείας (s. ἀπείθεια) Eph 2:2; 5:6; Col 3:6; τῆς ἀπωλείας ApcPt 1:2. ὁ υἱὸς τῆς ἀπωλείας of Judas the informer J 17:12 (cp. similar expressions in Eur., Hec. 425; Menand., Dyscolus 88f: s. FDanker, NTS 7, ’60/61, 94), of the end-time adversary 2 Th 2:3. υἱοὶ τῆς βασιλείας (βασιλεία 1bη; s. SEG XXXIX, 1864 for related expressions) Mt 8:12; 13:38a. υἱοὶ βροντῆς Mk 3:17 (s. Βοανηργές). υἱὸς γεέννης (s. γέεννα) Mt 23:15; τ. διαθήκης (PsSol 17:15) Ac 3:25; εἰρήνης Lk 10:6. υἱοὶ τοῦ νυμφῶνος (s. νυμφών) Mt 9:15; Mk 2:19; Lk 5:34. υἱὸς παρακλήσεως Ac 4:36 (s. Βαρναβᾶς). υἱοὶ (τοῦ) φωτός (Hippol., Ref. 6, 47, 4 in gnostic speculation) Lk 16:8b (opp. υἱοὶ τοῦ αἰῶνος τούτου); J 12:36. υἱοὶ φωτός ἐστε καὶ υἱοὶ ἡμέρας 1 Th 5:5 (EBuonaiuti, ‘Figli del giorno e della luce’ [1 Th 5:5]: Rivista storico-critica delle Scienze teol. 6, 1910, 89–93).ⓓ in various combinations as a designation of the Messiah and a self-designation of Jesusα. υἱὸς Δαυίδ son of David of the Messiah (PsSol 17:21) Mt 22:42–45; Mk 12:35–37; Lk 20:41–44; B 12:10c. Specif. of Jesus as Messiah Mt 1:1a; 9:27; 12:23; 15:22; 20:30f; 21:9, 15; Mk 10:47f; Lk 18:38f.—WWrede, Jesus als Davidssohn: Vorträge u. Studien 1907, 147–77; WBousset, Kyrios Christos2 1921, 4, Rel.3 226f; ELohmeyer, Gottesknecht u. Davidssohn ’45, esp. 68; 72; 77; 84; TNicklin, Gospel Gleanings ’50, 251–56; WMichaelis, Die Davidsohnschaft Jesu usw., in D. histor. Jesus u. d. kerygm. Christus, ed. Ristow and Matthiae, ’61, 317–30; LFisher, ECColwell Festschr. ’68, 82–97.β. ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ, υἱὸς θεοῦ (the) Son of God (for the phrase s. JosAs 6:2 al. Ἰωσὴφ ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ; there is no undisputed evidence of usage as messianic title in pre-Christian Judaism [s. Dalman, Worte 219–24, Eng. tr. 268–89; Bousset, Kyrios Christos2 53f; EHuntress, ‘Son of God’ in Jewish Writings Prior to the Christian Era: JBL 54, ’35, 117–23]; cp. 4Q 246 col. 2, 1 [JFitzmyer, A Wandering Aramean ’79, 90–93; JCollins, BRev IX/3, ’93, 34–38, 57]. Among polytheists on the other hand, sons of the gods in a special sense [s. Just., A I, 21, 1f] are not only known to myth and legend, but definite historical personalities are also designated as such. Among them are famous wise men such as Pythagoras and Plato [HUsener, Das Weihnachtsfest2 1911, 71ff], and deified rulers, above all the Roman emperors since the time of Augustus [oft. in ins and pap: Dssm., B 166f=BS 166f, LO 294f=LAE 346f; Thieme 33]. According to Memnon [I B.C./ I A.D.]: 434 Fgm. 1, 1, 1 Jac., Clearchus [IV B.C.] carried his boasting so far as Διὸς υἱὸν ἑαυτὸν ἀνειπεῖν. Also, persons who were active at that time as prophets and wonder-workers laid claim to the title υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ, e.g. the Samaritan Dositheus in Origen, C. Cels. 6, 11; sim. an Indian wise man who calls himself Διὸς υἱός Arrian, Anab. 7, 2, 3; cp. Did., Gen. 213, 18 ὁ Ἀβρὰμ υἱὸς θεοῦ διὰ δικαιοσύνην. S. GWetter, ‘Der Sohn Gottes’ 1916; Hdb. exc. on J 1:34; s. also Clemen2 76ff; ENorden, Die Geburt des Kindes 1924, 75; 91f; 132; 156f; EKlostermann, Hdb. exc. on Mk 1:11 [4th ed. ’50]; M-JLagrange, Les origines du dogme paulinien de la divinité de Christ: RB 45, ’36, 5–33; HPreisker, Ntl. Zeitgesch. ’37, 187–208; HBraun, ZTK 54, ’57, 353–64; ANock, ‘Son of God’ in Paul. and Hellen. Thought: Gnomon 33, ’61, 581–90 [=Essays on Religion and the Anc. World II, ’72, 928–39]—originality in Paul’s thought): Ps 2:7 is applied to Jesus υἱός μου εἶ σύ, ἐγὼ σήμερον γεγέννηκά σε Lk 3:22 D; GEb 18, 37.—Ac 13:33; Hb 1:5a; 5:5; 1 Cl 36:4. Likew. Hos 11:1 (w. significant changes): Mt 2:15, and 2 Km 7:14: Hb 1:5b. The voice of God calls him ὁ υἱός μου ὁ ἀγαπητός (s. ἀγαπητός 1) at his baptism Mt 3:17; Mk 1:11; Lk 3:22; GEb 18, 37 and 39 and at the Transfiguration Mt 17:5; Mk 9:7; Lk 9:35 (here ἐκλελεγμένος instead of ἀγαπ.); 2 Pt 1:17. Cp. J 1:34. The angel at the Annunciation uses these expressions in referring to him: υἱὸς ὑψίστου Lk 1:32; GJs 11:3 and υἱὸς θεοῦ Lk 1:35 (Ar. 15, 1 ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ τοῦ ὑψίστου. Cp. Just., A I, 23, 2 μόνος ἰδίως υἱὸς τῷ θεῷ γεγέννηται). The centurion refers to him at the crucifixion as υἱὸς θεοῦ Mt 27:54; Mk 15:39; GPt 11:45; cp. vs. 46 (CMann, ET 20, 1909, 563f; JPobee, The Cry of the Centurion, A Cry of Defeat: CFDMoule Festschr. ’70, 91–102; EJohnson, JSNT 31, ’87, 3–22 [an indefinite affirmation of Jesus]). The high priest asks εἰ σὺ εἶ ὁ Χριστὸς ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ Mt 26:63 (DCatchpole, NTS 17, ’71, 213–26). Passers-by ask him to show that he is God’s Son 27:40; sim. the devil 4:3, 6; Lk 4:3, 9. On the other hand, evil spirits address him as the Son of God Mt 8:29; Mk 3:11; 5:7; Lk 4:41; 8:28; and disciples testify that he is Mt 14:33; 16:16. S. also Mk 1:1 (s. SLegg, Ev. Sec. Marc. ’35).—Jesus also refers to himself as Son of God, though rarely apart fr. the Fourth Gosp.: Mt 28:19 (the Risen Lord in the trinitarian baptismal formula); Mt 21:37f=Mk 12:6 (an allusion in the parable of the vinedressers).—Mt 27:43; Mk 13:32; Rv 2:18. The main pass. is the so-called Johannine verse in the synoptics Mt 11:27=Lk 10:22 (s. PSchmiedel, PM 4, 1900,1–22; FBurkitt, JTS 12, 1911, 296f; HSchumacher, Die Selbstoffenbarung Jesu bei Mt 11:27 [Lk 10:22] 1912 [lit.]; Norden, Agn. Th. 277–308; JWeiss, Heinrici Festschr. 1914, 120–29, Urchristentum 1917, 87ff; Bousset, Kyrios Christos2 1921, 45ff; EMeyer I 280ff; RBultmann, Gesch. d. synopt. Trad.2 ’31, 171f; MDibelius, Die Formgeschichte des Evangeliums2 ’33, 259; MRist, Is Mt 11:25–30 a Primitive Baptismal Hymn? JR 15, ’35, 63–77; TArvedson, D. Mysterium Christi: E. Studie zu Mt 11:25–30, ’37; WDavies, ‘Knowledge’ in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Mt 11:25–30, HTR 45, ’53, 113–39; WGrundmann, Sohn Gottes, ZNW 47, ’56, 113–33; JBieneck, Sohn Gottes als Christusbez. der Synopt. ’51; PWinter, Mt 11:27 and Lk 10:22: NovT 1, ’56, 112–48; JJocz, Judaica 13, ’57, 129–42; OMichel/OBetz, Von Gott Gezeugt, Beih. ZNW [Jeremias Festschr.] 26, ’60, 3–23 [Qumran]).—Apart fr. the synoptics, testimony to Jesus as the Son of God is found in many parts of our lit. Oft. in Paul: Ro 1:3, 4, 9; 5:10; 8:3, 29, 32; 1 Cor 1:9; 15:28; 2 Cor 1:19; Gal 1:16; 2:20; 4:4; Eph 4:13; Col 1:13; 1 Th 1:10. Cp. Ac 9:20. In Hb: 1:2, 8; 4:14; 5:8; 6:6; 7:3, 28; 10:29. In greatest frequency in John (cp. Herm. Wr. 1, 6 the Λόγος as υἱὸς θεοῦ. Likew. Philo, Agr. 51 πρωτόγονος υἱός, Conf. Lingu. 146 υἱὸς θεοῦ.—Theoph. Ant. 2, 1 [p. 154, 12] ὁ λόγος ὁ τοῦ θεοῦ, ὅς ἐστιν καὶ υἱὸς αὐτοῦ; Iren. 3, 12, 2 [Harv. II 55, 2]): J 1:49; 3:16–18 (s. μονογενής 2), 35f; 5:19–26; 6:40; 8:35f; 10:36; 11:4, 27; 14:13; 17:1; 19:7; 20:31; 1J 1:3, 7; 2:22–24; 3:8, 23; 4:9f, 14f; 5:5, 9–13, 20; 2J 3, 9.—B 5:9, 11; 7:2, 9; 12:8; 15:5; Dg 7:4; 9:2, 4; 10:2 (τὸν υἱὸν αὐτοῦ τὸν μονογενῆ; also ApcEsdr 6:16 p. 31, 22 Tdf.; ApcSed 9:1f); IMg 8:2; ISm 1:1; MPol 17:3; Hv 2, 2, 8; Hs 5, 2, 6 (ὁ υἱὸς αὐτοῦ ὁ ἀγαπητός); 8; 11; 5, 4, 1; 5, 5, 2; 3; 5; 5, 6, 1; 2; 4; 7 (on the Christology of the Shepherd s. Dibelius, Hdb. on Hs 5, also ALink and JvWalter [πνεῦμα 5cα]); Hs 8, 3, 2; 8, 11, 1. Cp. 9, 1, 1; 9, 12, 1ff.—In trinitarian formulas, in addition to Mt 28:19, also IMg 13:1; EpilMosq 5; D 7:1, 3.—The deceiver of the world appears w. signs and wonders ὡς υἱὸς θεοῦ D 16:4 (ApcEsdr 4:27 p. 28, 32 Tdf. ὁ λέγων• Ἐγώ εἰμι ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ [of Antichrist]).—EKühl, Das Selbstbewusstsein Jesu 1907, 16–44; GVos, The Self-disclosure of Jesus 1926.—EBurton, ICC Gal 1921, 404–17; TNicklin, Gospel Gleanings ’50, 211–36; MHengel, The Son of God (tr. JBowden) ’76; DJones, The Title υἱὸς θεοῦ in Acts: SBLSP 24, ’85, 451–63.γ. ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου lit. ‘the son of the man’ (the pl. form οἱ υἱοὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων appears freq. in the LXX to render בְּנֵי אָדָם = mortals, e.g. Gen 11:5; Ps 10:4; 11:2; cp. ὁ υἱὸς τῆς ἀπολείας J 17:12 [s. 2cβ]) ‘the human being, the human one, the man’ in our lit. only as a byname in ref. to Jesus and in an exclusive sense the Human One, the Human Being, one intimately linked with humanity in its primary aspect of fragility yet transcending it, traditionally rendered ‘the Son of Man.’ The term is found predom. in the gospels, where it occurs in the synoptics about 70 times (about half as oft. if parallels are excluded), and in J 12 times (s. EKlostermann, Hdb. exc. on Mk 8:31). In every case the title is applied by Jesus to himself. Nowhere within a saying or narrative about him is it found in an address to him: Mt 8:20; 9:6; 10:23; 11:19; 12:8, 32, 40; 13:37, 41; 16:13, 27f; 17:9, 12, 22; 18:10 [11] v.l.; 19:28; 20:18, 28; 24:27, 30, 37, 39, 44; 25:13 v.l., 31; 26:2, 24ab, 45, 64; Mk 2:10, 28; 8:31, 38; 9:9, 12, 31; 10:33, 45; 13:26; 14:21ab, 41, 62; Lk 5:24; 6:5, 22; 7:34; 9:22, 26, 44, 56 v.l., 58; 11:30; 12:8, 10, 40; 17:22, 24, 26, 30; 18:8, 31; 19:10; 21:27, 36; 22:22, 48, 69; 24:7.—John (FGrosheide, Υἱὸς τ. ἀνθρ. in het Evang. naar Joh.: TSt 35, 1917, 242–48; HDieckmann, D. Sohn des Menschen im J: Scholastik 2, 1927, 229–47; HWindisch, ZNW 30, ’31, 215–33; 31, ’32, 199–204; WMichaelis, TLZ 85, ’60, 561–78 [Jesus’ earthly presence]) 1:51; 3:13, 14; 5:27 (BVawter, Ezekiel and John, CBQ 26, ’64, 450–58); 6:27, 53, 62; 8:28; 9:35; 12:23, 34; 13:31. Whether the component of fragility (suggested by OT usage in ref. to the brief span of human life and the ills to which it falls heir) or high status (suggested by traditions that appear dependent on Da 7:13, which refers to one ‘like a human being’), or a blend of the two dominates a specific occurrence can be determined only by careful exegesis that in addition to extra-biblical traditions takes account of the total literary structure of the document in which it occurs. Much neglected in the discussion is the probability of prophetic association suggested by the form of address Ezk 2:1 al. (like the OT prophet [Ezk 3:4–11] Jesus encounters resistance).—On Israelite thought contemporary w. Jesus and alleged knowledge of a heavenly being looked upon as a ‘Son of Man’ or ‘Man’, who exercises Messianic functions such as judging the world (metaph., pictorial passages in En 46–48; 4 Esdr 13:3, 51f) s. Bousset, Rel.3 352–55; NMessel, D. Menschensohn in d. Bilderreden d. Hen. 1922; ESjöberg, Kenna 1 Henok och 4 Esra tanken på den lidande Människosonen? Sv. Ex. Årsb. 5, ’40, 163–83, D. Menschensohn im äth. Hen. ’46. This view is in some way connected w. Da 7:13; acc. to some it derives its real content fr. an eschatological tradition that ultimately goes back to Iran (WBousset, Hauptprobleme der Gnosis 1907, 160–223; Reitzenstein, Erlösungsmyst. 119ff, ZNW 20, 1921, 18–22, Mysterienrel.3 418ff; Clemen2 72ff; CKraeling, Anthropos and Son of Man: A Study in the Religious Syncretism of the Hellenistic Orient 1927); acc. to this tradition the First Man was deified; he will return in the last times and usher in the Kingdom of God.—Outside the gospels: Ac 7:56 (v.l. τοῦ θεοῦ; GKilpatrick, TZ 21, ’65, 209); Rv 1:13; 14:14 (both after Da 7:13; sim. allusion to Da in Just., D. 31, 1). The quot. fr. Ps 8:5 in Hb 2:6 prob. does not belong here, since there is no emphasis laid on υἱὸς ἀνθρώπου. In IEph 20:2 Jesus is described as υἱὸς ἀνθρώπου καὶ υἱὸς θεοῦ. Differently B 12:10 Ἰησοῦς, οὐχὶ υἱὸς ἀνθρώπου ἀλλὰ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ Jesus, not a man’s son, but Son of God.—HLietzmann, Der Menschensohn 1896; Dalman, Worte 191–219 (Eng. tr., 234–67); Wlh., Einl.2 123–30; PFiebig, Der Menschensohn 1901; NSchmidt, The Prophet of Nazareth 1905, 94–134, Recent Study of the Term ‘Son of Man’: JBL 45, 1926, 326–49; FTillmann, Der Menschensohn 1907; EKühl, Das Selbstbewusstsein Jesu 1907, 65ff; HHoltzmann, Das messianische Bewusstsein Jesu, 1907, 49–75 (lit.), Ntl. Theologie2 I 1911, 313–35; FBard, D. Sohn d. Menschen 1908; HGottsched, D. Menschensohn 1908; EAbbott, ‘The Son of Man’, etc., 1910; EHertlein, Die Menschensohnfrage im letzten Stadium 1911, ZNW 19, 1920, 46–48; JMoffatt, The Theology of the Gospels 1912, 150–63; WBousset, Kyrios Christos2 1921, 5–22 (the titles of the works by Wernle and Althaus opposing his first edition [1913], as well as Bousset’s answer, are found s.v. κύριος, end); DVölter, Jesus der Menschensohn 1914, Die Menschensohnfrage neu untersucht 1916; FSchulthess, ZNW 21, 1922, 247–50; Rtzst., Herr der Grösse 1919 (see also the works by the same author referred to above in this entry); EMeyer II 335ff; HGressmann, ZKG n.s. 4, 1922, 170ff, D. Messias 1929, 341ff; GDupont, Le Fils d’Homme 1924; APeake, The Messiah and the Son of Man 1924; MWagner, Der Menschensohn: NKZ 36, 1925, 245–78; Guillaume Baldensperger, Le Fils d’Homme: RHPR 5, 1925, 262–73; WBleibtreu, Jesu Selbstbez. als der Menschensohn: StKr 98/99, 1926, 164–211; AvGall, Βασιλεία τοῦ θεοῦ 1926; OProcksch, D. Menschensohn als Gottessohn: Christentum u. Wissensch. 3, 1927, 425–43; 473–81; CMontefiore, The Synoptic Gospels2 1927 I 64–80; ROtto, Reich Gottes u. Menschensohn ’34, Eng. tr. The Kgdm. of God and the Son of Man, tr. Filson and Woolf2 ’43; EWechssler, Hellas im Ev. ’36, 332ff; PParker, The Mng. of ‘Son of Man’: JBL 60, ’41, 151–57; HSharman, Son of Man and Kingdom of God ’43; JCampbell, The Origin and Mng. of the Term Son of Man: JTS 48, ’47, 145–55; HRiesenfeld, Jésus Transfiguré ’47, 307–13 (survey and lit.); TManson, ConNeot 11, ’47, 138–46 (Son of Man=Jesus and his disciples in Mk 2:27f); GDuncan, Jesus, Son of Man ’47, 135–53 (survey); JBowman, ET 59, ’47/48, 283–88 (background); MBlack, ET 60, ’48f, 11–15; 32–36; GKnight, Fr. Moses to Paul ’49, 163–72 (survey); TNicklin, Gospel Gleanings ’50, 237–50; TManson (Da, En and gospels), BJRL 32, ’50, 171–93; TPreiss, Le Fils d’Homme: ÉThR 26/3, ’51, Life in Christ, ’54, 43–60; SMowinckel, He That Cometh, tr. Anderson, ’54, 346–450; GIber, Überlieferungsgesch. Unters. z. Begriff des Menschensohnes im NT, diss. Heidelb. ’53; ESjöberg, D. verborgene Menschensohn in den Ev. ’55; WGrundmann, ZNW 47, ’56, 113–33; HRiesenfeld, The Mythological Backgrd. of NT Christology, CHDodd Festschr. ’56, 81–95; PhVielhauer, Gottesreich u. Menschensohn in d. Verk. Jesu, GDehn Festschr. ’57, 51–79; ESidebottom, The Son of Man in J, ET 68, ’57, 231–35; 280–83; AHiggins, Son of Man- Forschung since (Manson’s) ‘The Teaching of Jesus’: NT Essays (TW Manson memorial vol.) ’59, 119–35; HTödt, D. Menschensohn in d. synopt. Überl. ’59 (tr. Barton ’65); JMuilenburg, JBL 79, ’60, 197–209 (Da, En); ESchweizer, JBL 79, ’60, 119–29 and NTS 9, ’63, 256–61; BvIersel, ‘Der Sohn’ in den synopt. Jesusworten, ’61 (community?); MBlack, BJRL 45, ’63, 305–18; FBorsch, ATR 45, ’63, 174–90; AHiggins, Jesus and the Son of Man, ’64; RFormesyn, NovT 8, ’66, 1–35 (barnasha=‘I’); SSandmel, HSilver Festschr. ’63, 355–67; JJeremias, Die älteste Schicht der Menschensohn-Logien, ZNW 58, ’67, 159–72; GVermes, MBlack, Aram. Approach3, ’67, 310–30; BLindars, The New Look on the Son of Man: BJRL 63, ’81, 437–62; WWalker, The Son of Man, Some Recent Developments CBQ 45, ’83, 584–607; JDonahue, Recent Studies on the Origin of ‘Son of Man’ in the Gospels, CBQ 48, ’86, 584–607; DBurkitt, The Nontitular Son of Man, A History and Critique: NTS 40, ’94 504–21 (lit.); JEllington, BT 40, ’89, 201–8; RGordon, Anthropos: 108–13.—B. 105; DELG. M-M. EDNT. TW. Sv. -
11 ἐπίσκοπος
ἐπίσκοπος, ου, ὁ (s. prec. entry; Hom. et al.; Diod S 37, 28, 1 [of a king w. synonym θεατής], ins, pap, LXX; JosAs 15:7 cod. A [p. 61, 16 Bat.] μετάνοια … ἐπίσκοπος πάντων τῶν παρθένων; Philo, Joseph.—LPorter, The Word ἐπίσκοπος in Pre-Christian Usage: ATR 21, ’39, 103–12) gener. ‘one who watches over, guardian’. BThiering, ‘Mebaqqer’ and ‘Episkopos’ in the Light of the Temple Scroll: JBL 100, ’81, 59–74 (office of ‘bishop’ adopted fr. Essene lay communities; cp. CD 14, 8–12; בקר Ezk 34:11 [LXX ἐπισκέπτειν]).① one who has the responsibility of safeguarding or seeing to it that someth. is done in the correct way, guardian (so Il. 22, 255, deities are guardians of agreements, i.e. they ‘see to it’ that they are kept; Aeschyl., Sept. 272; Soph., Ant. 1148; Pla., Leg. 4, 717d; Plut., Cam. 5, 6 θεοὶ χρηστῶν ἐπίσκοποι καὶ πονηρῶν ἔργων; Maximus Tyr. 5, 8e ὦ Ζεῦ κ. Ἀθηνᾶ κ. Ἄπολλον, ἐθῶν ἀνθρωπίνων ἐπίσκοποι; Babrius 11, 4 P. ’84=L-P.; Herodian 7, 10, 3. Oft. Cornutus, ed. Lang, index; SIG 1240, 21; UPZ 144, 49 [164 B.C.]; PGM 4, 2721; Job 20:29; Wsd 1:6; Philo, Migr. Abr. 115 al.; SibOr, Fgm. 1, 3) παντὸς πνεύματος κτίστης κ. ἐπίσκοπος creator and guardian of every spirit 1 Cl 59:3.—Of Christ (w. ποιμήν) ἐ. τῶν ψυχῶν guardian of the souls 1 Pt 2:25. The passages IMg 3:1 θεῷ τῷ πάντων ἐ.; cp. 6:1 show the transition to the next mng.② In the Gr-Rom. world ἐ. freq. refers to one who has a definite function or fixed office of guardianship and related activity within a group (Aristoph., Av. 1023; IG XII/1, 49, 43ff [II/I B.C.], 50, 34ff [I B.C.]; LBW 1989; 1990; 2298; Num 31:14 al.; PPetr III, 36a verso, 16 [III B.C.]; Jos., Ant. 10, 53; 12, 254), including a religious group (IG XII/1, 731, 8: an ἐ. in the temple of Apollo at Rhodes. S. Dssm., NB 57f [BS 230f]. Cp. also Num 4:16. On the Cynic-Stoic preacher as ἐπισκοπῶν and ἐπίσκοπος s. ENorden, Jahrb. klass. Phil Suppl. 19, 1893, 377ff.—Philo, Rer. Div. Her. 30 Moses as ἐ.). The term was taken over in Christian communities in ref. to one who served as overseer or supervisor, with special interest in guarding the apostolic tradition (Iren., Orig., Hippol.). Ac 20:28 (RSchnackenburg, Schriften zum NT, ’71, 247–67; ELöwestam, Paul’s Address at Miletus: StTh 41, ’87, 1–10); (w. διάκονοι) Phil 1:1 (JReumann, NTS 39, ’93, 446–50); D 15:1; 1 Ti 3:2; Tit 1:7 (s. BEaston, Pastoral Epistles ’47, 173; 177; 227). ἀπόστολοι, ἐ., διδάσκαλοι, διάκονοι Hv 3, 5, 1; (w. φιλόξενοι) Hs 9, 27, 2. Esp. freq. in Ignatius IEph 1:3; 2:1f; 3:2; 4:1; 5:1f and oft.; 2 Ti subscr.: Tim., overseer of the Ephesians; Tit subscr.: Titus overseer of the Cretan Christians. The ecclesiastical loanword ‘bishop’ is too technical and loaded with late historical baggage for precise signification of usage of ἐπίσκοπος and cognates in our lit., esp. the NT.—EHatch-AHarnack, D. Gesellschaftsverf. d. christ. Kirchen im Altert. 1883; Harnack, D. Lehre d. 12 Apostel 1884, 88ff, Entstehung u. Entwicklung der Kirchenverfassung u. des Kirchenrechts in d. zwei ersten Jahrh. 1910; ELoening, D. Gemeindeverf. d. Urchristent. 1888; CWeizsäcker, D. apost. Zeitalter2 1892, 613ff; RSohm, Kirchenrecht I 1892; JRéville, Les origines de l’épiscopat 1894; HBruders, D. Verf. d. Kirche bis z. J. 175, 1904; RKnopf, D. nachapostl. Zeitalter 1905, 147ff; PBatiffol-FSeppelt, Urkirche u. Katholicismus 1910, 101ff; OScheel, Z. urchristl. Kirchen-u. Verfassungsproblem: StKr 85, 1912, 403–57; HLietzmann, Z. altchr. Verfassungsgesch.: ZWT 55, 1913, 101–6 (=Kleine Schriften I, ’58, 144–48); EMetzner, D. Verf. d. Kirche in d. zwei ersten Jahrh. 1920; KMüller, Beiträge z. Gesch. d. Verf. in d. alten Kirche: ABA 1922, no. 3; HDieckmann, D. Verf. d. Urkirche 1923; GvHultum, ThGl 19, 1927, 461–88; GHolstein, D. Grundlagen d. evangel. Kirchenrechts 1928; JJeremias, Jerusalem II B 1, 1929, 132ff (against him KGoetz, ZNW 30, ’31, 89–93); BStreeter, The Primitive Church 1929; OLinton, D. Problem d. Urkirche usw. ’32 (lit. from 1880); JLebreton-JZeiller, L’Eglise primitive ’34; HBeyer, D. Bischofamt im NT: Deutsche Theologie 1, ’34, 201–25; HGreeven, Propheten, Lehrer, Vorsteher bei Pls: ZNW 44, ’52/53, 1–43 (lit.); HvCampenhausen, Kirchl. Amt u. geistl. Vollmacht in den ersten 3 Jahrhunderten ’53; WMichaelis, Das Ältestenamt der christlichen Gemeinde im Lichte der Hl. Schrift ’53; RBultmann, Theol. of the NT (tr. KGrobel) ’55, II, 95–111; TManson, The Church’s Ministry ’56; FNötscher, Vom Alten zum NT ’62, 188–220; DMoody, Interpretation 19, ’65, 168–81; HBraun, Qumran u. das NT ’66, II 326–42; RGG3 I 335–37 (lit.); JFitzmyer, PSchubert Festschr., ’66, 256f, n. 41 (lit.); RAC II 394–407; RBrown, TS 41, ’80, 322–38 (rev. of NT data).—Poland 377. M-M. EDNT. TW. Sv. -
12 μάρτυς
Grammatical information: m. f.Meaning: `witness' (Il.; on the spread etc. E. Kretschmer Glotta 18, 92 f., on the use in Homer Nenci Par. del Pass. 13, 221ff.) `martyr, (blood-witness)' (christ. lit.; s. Bauer Gr.-dt. Wb. s.v.).Other forms: Aeol. (Hdn. Gr.) a. Dor. μάρτυρ, Cret. Epid. μαῖτυς (- ρς), - ρος, acc. also μάρτυν (Simon.), dat. pl. μάρτυσι (- ρσι Hippon.?); ep., also NWGr. μάρτυρος.Compounds: Compp., e.g. μαρτυρο-ποιέομαι `call as witness' (inscr., pap.), ψευδό-μαρτυς `false witness' (Pl.; Risch IF 59, 257 f.), ἐπί-μαρτυς `witness' (Ar., Call., A. R.), prob. backformation from ἐπι-μαρτύρομαι, - ρέω; on supposed ἐπιμάρτυρος (for ἔπι μάρτυρος) see Leumann Hom. Wörter 71.Derivatives: μαρτυρία (λ 325; cf. below on μαρτυρέω), μαρτύριον (IA) `testimony, evidence'. Denominatives: 1. μαρτύρομαι, also wiht prefix, e.g. δια-, ἐπι-, `call as witness' (IA); 2. μαρτυρέω, often w. prefix, e.g. ἀντι-, ἐκ-, ἐπι-, δια-, κατα-, συν-, `testify, bear witness' (Alc., Pi., IA) with μαρτύρημα (E.), ( ἀντι-, κατα-)-μαρτύρησις (Epicur., pap.) `testimony', also ( δια-, ἐκ-, ἐπι-, συμ-) μαρτυρία `id.' (cf. above and Scheller Oxytonierung 34f. w. n. 4).Origin: PG [a word of Pre-Greek origin]Etymology: The basis may be a verbal noun *μάρ-τυ- `testimony', seen in μάρ-τυς, - τυν, - τυσι; cf. below. The change from abstract `testimony' to appellative `witness' is attested more often, e.g. Fr. témoin \< Lat. testimonium, Engl. witness orig. `testimony', then `witness'. The suffix ρο- gave the personal, prob. orig. adjectival μάρτυ-ρος. A compromise with μάρτυς gave perhaps the consonantstem μάρτυρ-; note esp. the gen. pl. μαρτύρων ( ἐναντίον μαρτύρων etc.), which can be both from the o-stem and from the consonantstem; further see Egli Heteroklisie 117ff. Dissimilation occurred in μαῖτυ(ρ)ς (\< *μάρτυρ-ς); μάρτυσι and μάρτυς can be explained in the same way (Schwyzer 260); cf. above. - As zero grade τυ-derivation μάρτυς may belong to a verb for `remember', which may be found in Skt. smárati and which may have other derivatives in Greek, e.g. μέριμνα (s. v.); proper meaning *'remembrance'. -- Not with Thieme Studien 55 (with criticism of the traditional interpretation): from *mr̥t-tur prop. `seizing death' (?), cf. Leumann Gnomon 25, 191. - But this cannot explain the vocalism, so rather a loand from Pre-Greek (Fur. 296). The speculations above, which start from an IE origin, must be rejected.Page in Frisk: 2,178-179Greek-English etymological dictionary (Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά ετυμολογική λεξικό) > μάρτυς
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13 παλίουρος
Grammatical information: m.Meaning: plantname, Christ's thorn, Paliurus australis (Thphr., Theocr.)Origin: PG [a word of Pre-Greek origin]X [probably]Greek-English etymological dictionary (Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά ετυμολογική λεξικό) > παλίουρος
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14 σοφός
Grammatical information: adj.Meaning: `clever, skillful, able, shrewd, wise' (Hes. Fr. 193).Compounds: As 1st member a. o. in Σοφο-κλῆς; very often as 2nd member, e. g. φιλό-σοφος `friend of a σοφόν, who loves τὸ σοφόν, την σοφίαν, eager for knowledge, friend of the sciences, philosopher' (Heracleit., Att.) with φιλοσοφ-ία f. `(scientific) study, education, philosophy' (Att.; on the meaning Heyde Philosophia naturalis 7 [1961] 144 ff.), - έω `to be eager for knowledge, to study' (IA.); on ἐπί-σσοφος n. of a yearly changing official (Thera) s. ψέφει.Derivatives: σοφ-ία, Ion. - ίη f. `skilfulness, virtuosity, knowledge, cleverness, shrewdness, wisdom' (since O 412). Denom. verbs. 1. σοφίζομαι, also w. prefix, esp. κατα- `to practice a form of art, to think up, to concoct' (since Hes. Op. 649), - ίζω `to make smart, to instruct' (LXX, christ. lit.); from it σόφ-ισμα n. `(clever, cunning) concoction' (Pi., IA.), with - ισμάτιον, - ισματώδης, - ισματικός; - ισις f. (sch.); - ιστής m. "concoctor", `artist, learned man, teacher, sophist' (Pi., IA.) with - ίστρια, - ιστικός, - ιστήριον, - ιστεύω, - ιστεία. 2. σοφόω = σοφίζω (LXX). -- On σοφός and σοφία s. Snell Ausdrücke 1ff, B. Gladigow Sophia und Kosmos. Unters. zur Frühgesch. von σοφός und σοφίη (Spudasmata 1).Origin: PG [a word of Pre-Greek origin]Etymology: Unexplained. Unsuccesful attempts at interpretation from IE Bq (a. o. Brugmann IF 16, 499 ff. w. lit.). Cf. Σίσυφος, also σάφα and ψέφει. - A word with this meaning is often substratum loan.Page in Frisk: 2,754-755Greek-English etymological dictionary (Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά ετυμολογική λεξικό) > σοφός
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15 αὔξησις
αὔξησις, εως, ἡ (s. αὐξάνω; Pre-Socr., Hdt.+; Epict. 1, 14, 14; ins [57/56 B.C.] in Mitt-Wilck. I/2, 70, 12; Sb 1161, 18; 4224, 23; PMich XIII, 659, 227 [VI A.D.] of taxes; 2 Macc 5:16; ParJer 5:30; Philo; Jos., Ant. 1, 60; 4, 261; Just., A II, 5, 2; D. 88, 2; Ath., R. 69, 9) growth, increase αὔ. ποιεῖσθαι cause growth (for this phrase s. Aristot., HA 6, 12, 566b, 18 growth of a dolphin) εἴς τι Eph 4:16 mystical sense of the Christian community growing as a body in its sense of unity and understanding of God’s purpose in Christ; sim. αὔξειν τὴν αὔ. τοῦ θεοῦ; grows w. divine growth Col 2:19 (cp. Herm. Wr. 3, 3 εἰς τὸ αὐξάνεσθαι ἐν αὐξήσει; OdeSol 11:19).—DELG s.v. αὔξω. M-M. -
16 γνώμη
γνώμη, ης, ἡ (s. γινώσκω; w. var. mngs. since Pind., Pre-Socr.; BSnell, Die Ausdrücke f. den Begriff des Wissens in der vorplatonischen Philosophie 1924, 20–30; Hdt.+)① that which is purposed or intended, purpose, intention, mind, mind-set ἐν αὐτῇ γνώμῃ in unity of mind 1 Cor 1:10; sim. Rv 17:13 (μία γνώμη as Demosth. 10, 59; Plut., Cam. 150 [40, 2]; Ael. Aristid. 23, 31 K.=42 p. 778 D.; SIG 135, 21; Pollux 8, 151 μίαν γ. ἔχειν; Philo, Mos. 1, 235; Jos., Ant. 7, 60; 276; s. WvanUnnik in: Studies in John Presented to Prof. Dr. JSevenster, ’70, 209–20). ἐν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ γνώμῃ under the control of the mind of J. C. IEph 3:2; IPhld ins; ἡ εἰς θεὸν γ. mind directed toward God IRo 7:1; IPhld 1:2; ἡ ἐν θεῷ γ. mind fixed in God IPol 1:1. γ. τοῦ θεοῦ purpose/will of God IEph 3:2 (here also Christ as τοῦ πατρὸς ἡ γ., i.e., the personification of what God has in mind for appropriate conduct.—Jos., Ant. 2, 309; 3, 16; 17 τοῦ θεοῦ γ. is clearly God’s will. Likew. Appian, Bell. Civ. 4, 100 §421 κατὰ γνώμην θεῶν; IAndrosIsis, Kyme 40 p. 124 Peek; OGI 383, 110 [I B.C.]; Just., D. 95, 2; 125, 4; Tat. 32, 2); IRo 8:3; ISm 6:2; IPol 8:1; ἡ τ. ἐπισκόπου γ. IEph 4:1; of the devil θλιβέντες τῇ γνώμῃ αὐτοῦ oppressed by his design IPhld 6:2 (γνώμῃ as instrumental dat. in Pind., N. 10, 89). γ. ἀγαθή good will or motive B 21:2 (cp. SIG 75, 28).—γ. ὀρθή IEph 1:1 v.l. (Lghtf.); γ. ἀλλοτρία=(behaves) in a contrary state of mind IPhld 3:3 (cp. 2 below).—As used in diplomatic parlance (s. OGI 315, 82f al.) B 2:9 of divine attitude or disposition = mind-set.② a viewpoint or way of thinking about a matter, opinion, judgment, way of thinking (earliest use Hdt. 1, 120 [Parm. 8, 61 is questionable]; Dio Chrys. 55 [72], 12 ἑπτὰ σοφῶν τ. γνώμας; Vi. Aesopi G 20 ἡ τοῦ φίλου γνώμη; Sir 6:23; 2 Macc 14:20; 4 Macc 9:27; Jos., Ant. 13, 416) Ac 4:18 D; κατὰ τὴν ἐμὴν γ. in my judgment 1 Cor 7:40 (κατὰ τ. γ. as PPetr II, 11; I, 1; Wsd 7:15); γ. διδόναι express an opinion, appraise a matter, offer counsel or direction (for the phrase cp. Diod S 20, 16, 1 τ. ἐναντίαν δοὺς γνώμην; for the sense ‘direction, guidance’ s. also Iren. 4, 37, 2 [Harv. II 287, 8]) 1 Cor 7:25; 2 Cor 8:10; ἀλλοτρία γ. alien view IPhld 3:3 (cp. Just., D. 35, 6 of heresies). This mng. is poss. Phlm 14, and the phrase χωρὶς τῆς σῆς γ. can be understood in the sense without your input, but s. 3 below.③ the act of expressing agreement with a body of data, approval (Polyb. 2, 21, 3 Appian, Bell. Civ. 4, 96 §403 γ. δημοκρατικῆς διανοίας=showing preference for republican government; Jos., Ant. 18, 336) χωρὶς τῆς σῆς γ. Phlm 14: numerous versions (incl. NRSV, REB) and comm. favor approval, consent (s. 2 above); also ἄνευ γνώμης σου IPol 4:1 (exx. fr. Hellenistic times for both in Nägeli 33; also Diod S 16, 50, 8 ἄνευ τῆς ἐκείνου γνώμης; IAndrosIsis [δοξάζω 2]; UPZ 112, III 3 [III B.C.] al.). μετὰ γνώμης τινός w. someone’s approval (Isaeus 2, 8; Demosth. 25, 10; Diod S 16, 91, 2 μετὰ τῆς τῶν θεῶν γνώμης; UPZ 27, 1 [II B.C. al.) IPol 5:2. S. Renehan ’82, 49.④ a declaration that expresses formal consideration of a matter, declaration, decision, resolution (freq. used as a t.t. for official proposals and proclamations: s. Herodas 2, 86 γνώμῃ δικαίῃ of judges; IPriene 105, 31 [9 B.C.] γνώμη τοῦ ἀρχιερέως; POxy 54, 12; PFay 20, 4; PBrem 15, 8 al.) of God Rv 17:17; w. impv. foll. γ. ἀγαθή gracious pronouncement i.e. a declaration that displays God’s gracious disposition 1 Cl 8:2. Sim. resolve, decision (Thu. 1, 53, 2; 2, 86, 5 γ. ἔχοντες μὴ ἐκπλεῖν; POxy 1280, 5 ἑκουσίᾳ καὶ αὐθαιρέτῳ γνώμῃ; En 6:4; Philo, In Flacc. 145, Spec. Leg. 2, 88 al.; Jos., Ant. 10, 253; Tat. 7:2 αὐτεξουσίῳ γ.; Ath. 34, 1 ὑπὸ χειρὸς καὶ γνώμης) Ac 20:3 (γίνομαι 7); of a proposal Hs 5, 2, 8.—SMouraviev, Glotta 51, ’73, 69–78. B. 1240. DELG s.v. γιγνώσκω. M-M. TW. Sv. -
17 δόκιμος
δόκιμος, ον (s. four prec. entries; Pre-Socr., Hdt.+; superlative: Tat. 1, 1; 38, 1) CArbenz, Die Adj. auf-ιμος, diss. Zürich ’33, 38ff; Schwyzer I 494f.① pert. to being genuine on the basis of testing, approved (by test), tried and true, genuine (Alcaeus 6, 12 L-P [119 + 120 + 122 Diehl] of a man: νῦν τις ἀνὴρ δόκιμος γενέσθω; TestJos 2:7) Js 1:12; 2 Cor 10:18; 13:7; 2 Ti 2:15. δ. τραπεζῖται approved money changers (who put genuine money or legal tender [cp. Epict. 1, 7, 6 δραχμὰς δοκίμους κ. ἀδοκίμους; Socrat., Ep. 6, 12] in circulation) Agr 11. ὁ δ. ἐν Χριστῷ the approved one in Christ= the tried and true Christian Ro 16:10; οἱ δ. 1 Cor 11:19.② pert. to being considered worthy of high regard, respected, esteemed (Hdt., al.; Philo, Op. M. 128, De Jos. 201; Jos., C. Ap. 1, 18) δ. τοῖς ἀνθρώποις among people (in contrast to God) Ro 14:18.③ pert. to being valuable, precious comp. of Polycarp’s bones more precious than gold (cp. 1 Pt 1:7 v.l.) MPol 18:2.—DELG s.v. δοκάω etc. III p. 291. M-M. TW. Spicq. Sv. -
18 ἁγνός
ἁγνός, ή, όν (Hom.+) pure, holy, cultic word, orig. an attribute of the divinity and everything belonging to it; cp. ἅζομαι ‘stand in awe of’ DELG s.v. ἅζομαι (Hom. et al.; ἁ. θεαὶ Demeter and Persephone IG 14, 204; SEG VIII, 550, 2 [I B.C.] ῏Ισι, ἁγνή, ἁγία; PUps 8 no. 14 [pre-Christian] τῇ Ἁγνῇ Θεᾷ s. LMoulinier, Le pur et l’impur dans la pensée des Grecs, ’52) then transf. to moral sense (Clem. Al., Strom. defines it 7, 27, 2 πᾶς ἁ. ἐστιν ὁ μηδὲν ἑαυτῷ κακὸν συνειδώς).ⓐ of pers. (Diog. L. 7, 119: acc. to the Stoics wise people are ἁγνοί, ὅσιοι, δίκαιοι; POxy 41, 29f ἁγνοὶ πιστοὶ σύνδικοι; Sb 4117; PHarr 55, 24 magic formula) of Christ 1J 3:3 (SibOr 3, 49 of the Messiah); of the apostles τῶν ἀγνῶν ἀνδρῶν AcPl Ha 1, 16; σεαυτὸν ἁ. τήρει keep yourself pure (fr. sins) 1 Ti 5:22; ἁ. ἐν τῇ σαρκί 1 Cl 38:2; ἁ. ἐν ἔργοις 48:5.— Innocent (Pla., Leg. 6, 759c ἁ. τοῦ φόνου) συνεστήσατε ἑαυτοὺς ἁγνοὺς εἶναι you have shown that you were innocent 2 Cor 7:11, where τῷ πράγματι is to be connected w. ἁγνούς.—Esp. of women chaste, pure (since Aeschyl., Fgm. 420 [238 N.]; Pla., Leg. 840d; SIG 985, 35; Sb 2481, 1f Ἰουλία ἁγνή; PGM 36, 289) παρθένος (Herodian 1, 11, 4; SIG 797, 20 [37 A.D.]; Aberciusins. 14; 4 Macc 18:7; Philo, Spec. Leg. 1, 107) 2 Cor 11:2; cp. Tit 2:5.ⓑ of things ὅσα ἁγνά everything that is pure Phil 4:8; ἔργα ἁ. (Pr 21:8) Hv 3, 8, 7; μερίς (Dt 3:9) 1 Cl 30:1; χεῖρες (Eur., Hipp. 316f, Or. 1604) 1 Cl 29:1; ἁ. ἀναστροφή 1 Pt 3:2. ἀγωγή 1 Cl 48:1. συνείδησις clear conscience (w. ἄμωμος, σεμνός) 1:3; Pol 5:3; ἀγάπη holy love 1 Cl 21:8. Of one’s person (cp. Herm. Wr. 1, 31 θυσίας ἁ.): (w. ἀμίαντον) τὸ βάπτισμα ἁ. τηρεῖν keep oneself pure after baptism 2 Cl 6:9. τὴν σάρκα ἁ. τηρεῖν keep the body pure 8:4; 6. Of the wisdom from above Js 3:17.—EWilliger, Hagios 1922.—M-M. TW. Sv. -
19 ἐπιφάνεια
ἐπιφάνεια, ας, ἡ (s. prec. entry; Pre-Socr.; Polyb. et al.; ins, pap (s. under 2), LXX, ApcEsdr 3:3 p. 27, 7 Tdf.; EpArist, Philo, Joseph., Just.) gener. ‘appearing, appearance’, esp. also the splendid appearance, e.g., of the wealthy city of Babylon (Diod S 2, 11, 3). As a t.t. relating to transcendence it refers to a visible and freq. sudden manifestation of a hidden divinity, either in the form of a personal appearance, or by some deed of power or oracular communication by which its presence is made known (OGI 233, 35f [III/II B.C.] Artemis; Dionys. Hal. 2, 68; Diod S 1, 25, 3 and 4; 2, 47, 7 [the appearance of Apollo]; in 5, 49, 5 τῶν θεῶν ἐπιφάνεια to help humans; Plut., Them. 127 [30, 3]; Ael. Aristid. 48, 45 K.=24 p. 477 D.; Polyaenus 2, 31, 4 Διοσκούρων ἐ.; oft. ins, and in LXX esp. 2 and 3 Macc.; Aristobul. in Eus., PE 8, 10, 3 [p. 136, 25 Holladay]; EpArist 264; Jos., Ant. 1, 255; 2, 339; 3, 310; 9, 60; 18, 75; 286. For material and lit. s. FPfister, Epiphanie: Pauly-W. Suppl. IV 1924, 277–323; MDibelius, Hdb. exc. on 2 Ti 1:10; OCasel, D. Epiphanie im Lichte d. Religionsgesch.: Benedikt. Monatsschr. 4, 1922, 13ff; RHerzog, Die Wunderheilungen v. Epidauros ’31, 49; BEaston, Pastoral Epistles ’47, 171f; CWestermann, Das Loben Gottes in den Psalmen ’54, 70; ESchnutenhaus, Das Kommen u. Erscheinen Gottes im AT: ZAW 76, ’64, 1–21; EPax, Ἐπιφάνεια ’55; DLührmann, KKuhn Festschr., ’71; RAC V, 832–909). In our lit., except for Papias, only of Christ’s appearing on earth.① act of appearing, appearance in our lit. that of Jesus, of hisⓐ first appearance on earth 2 Ti 1:10 (Just., A I, 14, 3 al.; Diod S 3, 62, 10 the mythographers speak of two appearances of Dionysus: δευτέραν ἐπιφάνειαν τοῦ θεοῦ παρʼ ἀνθρώποις).—ALaw, Manifest in Flesh ’96.ⓑ appearance in judgment 1 Ti 6:14; 2 Ti 4:1, 8. ἐ. τ. δόξης Tit 2:13 (for this combination cp. OGI 763, 19f; Epict. 3, 22, 29). ἐ. τῆς παρουσίας 2 Th 2:8 the appearance of his coming; the combination is not overly redundant, for ἐ. refers to the salvation that goes into effect when the π. takes place. ἡμέρα τῆς ἐ. the day of the appearing 2 Cl 12:1; 17:4.② that which can ordinarily be seen, surface appearance (Democr., Aristot. et al.) τοσοῦτον βάθος εἶχον ἀπὸ τῆς ἔξωθεν ἐπιφανείας the eyes (of Judas) lay so deep behind (the swollen) facial skin Papias (3:2). For the use of ἐ. in description of symptoms s. EGoodspeed, A Medical Papyrus Fragment: AJP 24, 1903, 328 ln. 5; cp. Gal. 16, 530.—DELG s.v. φαίνω. New Docs 4, 80f. M-M. TW. Spicq. -
20 ἕνωσις
ἕνωσις, εως, ἡ (Pre-Socr. et al.; Aristot., Phys. 222a, 20; M. Ant. 6, 38; Herm. Wr. 1, 6; 14, 6 al.; Philo, Leg. All. 1, 8; Ar. 13, 5; Ath.) the quality or state of being in complete accord (as opposed to discord or dissidence), union, unity, IMg 13:2; ITr 11:2. σαρκὸς καὶ πνεύματος with flesh and spirit IMg 1:2. ἕ. τοῦ αἵματος unity in his blood (capable of more than one interpr., but the main thing is the idea of union through the one blood) IPhld 4. τὴν ἕ. ἀγαπᾶν 7:2. τῆς ἑ. φροντίζειν be intent on unity IPol 1:2. ἄνθρωπος εἰς ἕ. κατηρτισμένος a man with designs on unity IPhld 8:1. τὴν ἕ. ποιεῖσθαι enter into a union (in marriage) IPol 5:2.—ThPreiss, La mystique de l’imitation du Christ et de l’unité chez Ign. d’Ant.: RHPR 18, ’38, 197–241.—DELG s.v. εἷς. M-M. Sv.
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