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  • 81 Saulnier, Raymond

    SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace
    [br]
    b. late eighteenth century France
    d. mid-twentieth century
    [br]
    French designer of aircraft, associated with Louis Blériot and later the Morane- Saulnier company.
    [br]
    When Louis Blériot made his historic flight across the English Channel in 1909, the credit for the success of the flight naturally went to the pilot. Few people thought about the designer of the successful aeroplane, and those who did assumed it was Blériot himself. Blériot did design several of the aeroplanes bearing his name, but the cross- Channel No. XI was mainly designed by his friend Raymond Saulnier, a fact not; broadcast at the time.
    In 1911 the Morane-Saulnier company was founded in Paris by Léon (1885–1918) and Robert (1886–1968) Morane and Raymond Saulnier, who became Chief Designer. Flying a Morane-Saulnier, Roland Garros made a recordbreaking flight to a height of 5,611 m (18,405 ft) in 1912, and the following year he made the first non-stop flight across the Mediterranean. Morane-Saulnier built a series of "parasol" monoplanes which were very widely used during the early years of the First World War. With the wing placed above the fuselage, the pilot had an excellent downward view for observation purposes, but the propeller ruled out a forward-firing machine gun. During 1913–4, Raymond Saulnier was working on an idea for a synchronized machine gun to fire between the blades of the propeller. He could not overcome certain technical problems, so he devised a simple alternative: metal deflector plates were fitted to the propeller, so if a bullet hit the blade it did no harm. Roland Garros, flying a Type L Parasol, tested the device in action during April 1915 and was immediately successful. This opened the era of the true fighter aircraft. Unfortunately, Garros was shot down and the Germans discovered his secret weapon: they improved on the idea with a fully synchronized machine gun fitted to the Fokker E 1 monoplane. The Morane-Saulnier company continued in business until 1963, when it was taken over by the Potez Group.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War I, 1990, London: Jane's (reprint) (provides plans and details of 1914–18 Morane-Saulnier aeroplanes).
    JDS

    Biographical history of technology > Saulnier, Raymond

  • 82 Whittle, Sir Frank

    SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace
    [br]
    b. 1 June 1907 Coventry, England
    [br]
    English engineer who developed the first British jet engine.
    [br]
    Frank Whittle enlisted in the Royal Air Force (RAF) as an apprentice, and after qualifying as a pilot he developed an interest in the technical aspects of aircraft propulsion. He was convinced that the gas-turbine engine could be adapted for use in aircraft, but he could not convince the Air Ministry, who turned down the proposal. Nevertheless, Whittle applied for a patent for his turbojet engine the following year, 1930. While still in the RAF, he was allowed time to study for a degree at Cambridge University and carry out postgraduate research (1934–7). By 1936 the official attitude had changed, and a company called Power Jets Ltd was set up to develop Whittle's jet engine. On 12 April 1937 the experimental engine was bench-tested. After further development, an official order was placed in March 1938. Whittle's engine had a centrifugal compressor, ten combustion chambers and a turbine to drive the compressor; all the power output came from the jet of hot gases.
    In 1939 an experimental aircraft was ordered from the Gloster Aircraft Company, the E 28/39, to house the Whittle W1 engine, and this made its first flight on 15 May 1941. A development of the W1 by Rolls-Royce, the Welland, was used to power the twin-engined Gloster Meteor fighter, which saw service with the RAF in 1944. Whittle retired from the RAF in 1948 and became a consultant. From 1977 he lived in the United States. Comparisons between the work of Whittle and Hans von Ohain show that each of the two engineers developed his engine without knowledge of the other's work. Whittle was the first to take out a patent, Ohain achieved the first flight; the Whittle engine and its derivatives, however, played a much greater role in the history of the jet engine.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Knighted 1948. Commander of the Order of the Bath 1947. Order of Merit 1986. FRS 1947. Honorary Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society.
    Bibliography
    1953, Jet, London (an account not only of his technical problems, but also of the difficulties with civil servants, politicians and commercial organizations).
    Further Reading
    J.Golley, 1987, Whittle: The True Story, Shrewsbury (this author based his work on Jet, but carried out research, aided by Whittle, to give a fuller account with the benefit of hindsight).
    JDS

    Biographical history of technology > Whittle, Sir Frank

  • 83 arc fault

    1. "дуговая" неисправность

     

    "дуговая" неисправность
    Неисправность, приводящая к возникновению дуги.
    [Интент]

    Параллельные тексты EN-RU

    An arc fault occurs when there is a reduction in the dielectric strength of the insulating means (air, in LV switchboards) interposed between two or more conducting elements at different potential.

    The arc is generated at the moment when, due to the high ionization of the air, there is a breakdown of the dielectric of the medium and the consequent flow of the current through it.

    In an arc fault the highest stresses are of thermal type and proportional to RaI2 owing to the high value taken by the arc resistance Ra; this because the fault current flows in a medium which is always insulating, even if extremely ionized.

    Such stresses manifest themselves essentially in the form of:
    • high thermal gradients caused by the quick and intense rise in the air temperature;
    • high pressure gradients in the form of pressure wave;
    • high ionization of the air with consequent reduction of its insulating strength.

    Generally speaking, in a LV assembly designed and tested according to the Standard IEC 60439-1 an arc fault is not very likely to occur; however, should it occur, the consequences would be extremely harmful to both the equipment as well as the personnel (see Chapters 2.2 and 2.3).

    The causes of an arc fault can be both technical as well as non technical; among the latter the most frequent are the following:
    • personnel errors, above all during maintenance operations;
    • installation operations not sufficiently accurate;
    • inadequate maintenance, above all in the case of severe environmental conditions.

    Among the technical causes of an arc fault in a LV assembly the following ones are to be remembered:
    • breakdown of the insulation essentially in the proximity of the supports of the busbars and of the plug-in contacts of the withdrawable units (75% of cases);
    • overvoltages generating disruptive discharges between the points at minimum clearances (15% of cases);
    • constructional defects of the apparatus (10% of cases).

    [ABB]

    К «дуговой» неисправности, относится неисправность, обусловленная уменьшением электрической прочности изолирующей среды (воздуха в НКУ) между двумя или более токоведущими частями, находящимися под разными электрическими потенциалами.

    Дуга образуется в тот момент, когда вследствие высокой ионизации воздуха происходит пробой изолирующей среды, вследствие чего через нее начинает протекать электрический ток.

    Проявлением дуговой неисправности, является тепловое воздействие, пропорциональное RaI2 и достигающее большого значения вследствие большого сопротивления дуги Ra.
    Дело в том, что ток дуги протекает через среду, которая всегда является изолирующей, пусть даже и чрезвычайно ионизированной.

    Указанные воздействия очевидны сами по себе особенно в форме:
    • теплового градиента температуры, вызванного быстрым и интенсивным подъемом температуры воздуха;
    • высоким градиентом давления в форме волны давления;
    • высокой ионизацией воздуха с последующим уменьшением электрической прочности.

    Вообще говоря, в НКУ, разработанных и испытанных в соответствии с требованиями стандарта МЭК 60439-1 «дуговая» неисправность маловероятна. Однако, если дуга все таки возникнет, ее последствия буду чрезвычайно тяжелыми как для оборудования, так и для персонала (см. п. 2.2 и 2.3).

    Причина дуговой неисправности может носить как технический, так и нетехнический характер. Среди последних наиболее часто возникают следующие:
    • ошибки персонала, совершаемые главным образом во время технического обслуживания;
    • недостаточно аккуратное выполнение монтажа;
    • ненадлежащее техническое обслуживание, главным образом при эксплуатации НКУ в тяжелых условиях окружающей среды.

    Среди технических причин дуговой неисправности в НКУ необходимо помнить о следующих:
    • пробой изоляции, особенно вблизи опор шин и втычных контактов выдвижных частей НКУ (75 % случаев);
    • перенапряжения, вызываемые разрушительными электрическими разрядами между точками с минимальными зазорами (15 % случаев);
    • конструктивные дефекты аппаратуры (10 % случаев).

    [Перевод Интент]

    Тематики

    • НКУ (шкафы, пульты,...)

    EN

    Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > arc fault

  • 84 adequacy

    ˈædɪkwəsɪ сущ.
    1) адекватность, соответствие I am very critical of the adequacy of Britain's race laws. ≈ Я очень критично отношусь к британским законам о нациях. We do not, therefore, anticipate that the reader will object to the adequacy of the cause proposed. ≈ Однако мы не ожидаем, что читатель не согласится с адекватностью предложенного описания. Syn: conformity, accordance
    2) полнота, достаточность
    3) знание, компетентность Syn: competence
    достаточность;
    - the * of treatment with antibiotics is being tested сейчас проверяется результативность лечения антибиотиками соответствие;
    адекватность;
    - * of data достоверность данных компетентность;
    - * for the job соответствие занимаемой должности
    adequacy адекватность ~ достаточность ~ компетентность ~ пригодность ~ соответствие, адекватность ~ соответствие ~ соразмерность

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > adequacy

  • 85 routine

    ru:'ti:n
    1. noun
    (a regular, fixed way of doing things: one's daily routine; One needs some routine.) rutina

    2. adjective
    (regular; ordinary: routine work.) rutinario, de rutina, habitual
    routine n rutina
    tr[rʊː'tiːn]
    1 rutina
    2 (act) número
    1 (monotonous) rutinario,-a
    2 (everyday) de rutina
    routine [ru:'ti:n] adj
    : rutinario
    routinely adv
    : rutina f
    adj.
    rutinario, -a adj.
    n.
    rutina s.f.

    I ruː'tiːn
    1) c u ( regular pattern) rutina f
    2) c (of gymnast, skater, comedian) número m

    II
    a) ( usual) <procedure/inquiries/investigation> de rutina
    b) (ordinary, dull) rutinario
    [ruː'tiːn]
    1. N
    1) (=normal procedure) rutina f

    people entering the country are asked certain questions as a matter of routine — como parte de la rutina a la gente que entra en el país se le hacen ciertas preguntas

    schoolchildren were tested for tuberculosis as a matter of routinede forma rutinaria or rutinariamente se les hacía a los alumnos la prueba de la tuberculosis

    2) (esp Theat) número m

    dance routinenúmero m de baile

    exercise routinetabla f de ejercicios

    3) (=spiel)
    4) (Comput) rutina f
    2.
    ADJ [test, check-up, maintenance, inspection] de rutina; [matter, problem] rutinario; [work] habitual, de rutina
    * * *

    I [ruː'tiːn]
    1) c u ( regular pattern) rutina f
    2) c (of gymnast, skater, comedian) número m

    II
    a) ( usual) <procedure/inquiries/investigation> de rutina
    b) (ordinary, dull) rutinario

    English-spanish dictionary > routine

  • 86 means

    means [mi:nz]
    1. noun
       a. ( = way) moyen(s) m(pl)
    to find the means to do or of doing sth trouver le(s) moyen(s) de faire qch
    the only means of contacting him is... le seul moyen de le joindre, c'est...
    by all means! ( = of course) mais certainement !
    by means of... au moyen de...
       b. ( = wealth) moyens mpl
    * * *
    [miːnz] 1.
    noun (pl means) ( way) moyen m ( of doing de faire)

    a means ofun moyen de [communication, transport]

    yes, by all means — oui, certainement

    if you wish to leave, then by all means do — si vous voulez partir, cela ne tient qu'à vous

    2.
    plural noun ( resources) moyens mpl, revenus mpl

    of moderate means[person, family] aux revenus modestes

    ••

    English-French dictionary > means

  • 87 handle

    han·dle [ʼhændl̩] n
    1) ( handgrip to move objects) Griff m; of pot Henkel m; of door Klinke f; of handbag Bügel m;
    to turn a \handle eine [Tür]klinke hinunterdrücken
    2) (sl: name with highborn connotations) [Adels]titel m
    3) (Am) ( on CB radio) Deckname m
    PHRASES:
    to get a \handle on sth ( get under control) etw unter Kontrolle bringen;
    ( gain understanding of) einen Zugang zu etw dat finden vt
    to \handle sth
    1) (feel, grasp an object) etw anfassen;
    \handle with care, glass! Vorsicht, Glas!
    2) (move, transport sth) etw befördern [o transportieren];
    3) (deal with, direct) sich akk mit etw dat befassen;
    can you \handle it alone? schaffst du das alleine? ( fam)
    who \handles the marketing in your company? wer ist in Ihrer Firma für das Marketing zuständig?;
    to \handle people mit Menschen umgehen
    4) (discuss, write about) etw behandeln, sich akk mit etw dat befassen;
    this writer \handles the subject of pornography very sensitively dieser Autor geht sehr behutsam mit dem Thema Pornographie um
    5) gun, knife etw handhaben [o bedienen];
    have you ever \handled a gun before? hattest du jemals eine Pistole in der Hand?;
    to be able to \handle sth mit etw dat umgehen können
    6) ( esp Brit) ( buy and sell) mit etw dat handeln;
    we only \handle cosmetics which have not been tested on animals wir führen nur Kosmetikartikel, die nicht an Tieren getestet wurden vi + adv sich akk handhaben lassen;
    this car \handles really well dieser Wagen lässt sich echt gut fahren

    English-German students dictionary > handle

  • 88 proven

    prov·en [ʼpru:vən] vt, vi
    1) ( tested) nachgewiesen;
    a \proven liar ein bekannter Lügner;
    a \proven remedy ein erprobtes Heilmittel
    2) ( Scot) law
    not \proven unbewiesen

    English-German students dictionary > proven

  • 89 sight

    [saɪt]
    n

    His sight was exquisitely keen and clear. — У него было исключительно острое и ясное зрение.

    My sight is failing/my sight is dim. — У меня слабеет зрение.

    He recovered his sight. — К нему вернулось зрение.

    - poor sight
    - short sight
    - long sight
    - loss of sight
    - tricks of sight
    - ruin the sight of the right eye
    - have one's sight tested
    - recover one's sight
    - strain one's sight
    2) взгляд, взор, поле зрения

    The problem seemed easy at first sight. — На первый взгляд задача казалась нетрудной.

    The ship was soon out of sight. — Пароход вскоре скрылся из виду.

    I caught sight of a familiar face in the crowd. — Я увидел, как в толпе мелькнуло знакомое лицо.

    - somewhere out of sight - at last land came in sight
    - in one's own sight co
    - be in sight
    - be out of sight
    - catch sight of smb, smth
    - come into sight
    - fall in love at first sight
    - gain favour in smb's sight
    - lose sight of the coast
    - lose sight of the main purpose
    - keep out of sight
    - set one's sights smth
    - translate at sight
    3) зрелище, вид, картина

    Have one's first sight of home (of land, of the ocean). — Впервые увидеть родину (сушу, окен).

    It was a sight to see. — Это надо было видеть.

    - beautiful sight
    - strange sight
    - sad sight
    - everyday sight
    - striking sight
    - splendid sight
    - pleasant sight
    - welcome attractive sight
    - scenic sight
    - thrilling sight
    - miserable sight
    - ugly sight
    - touching sight
    - disgusting sight
    - unexpected sight
    - sight of a total eclipse of the sun
    - sight of unequalled beauty
    - sight not to be forgotten
    - at the sight of blood
    - within sight of death
    - within sight of victory
    - on their first sight of the shore
    - be a perfect sight
    - make a sight of oneself
    4) (обыкновенно pl) достопримечательности

    Out of sight, out of mind. — С глаз долой, из сердца вон.

    - chief sights of the city
    - view the sights of the city
    - few sights have become more famous
    USAGE:

    English-Russian combinatory dictionary > sight

  • 90 dirty

    I adj

    They sat up drinking and telling dirty stories — Сидели они долго, киряя и рассказывая похабные анекдоты

    How would you know what's dirty and what's not? — Откуда ты знаешь, что прилично, а что неприлично?

    2) infml esp BrE
    3) infml esp AmE

    Chinese tested another dirty bomb — Китайцы испытали еще одну бомбу с большим количеством радиоактивных осадков

    4) pred AmE sl
    5) pred AmE sl

    The cops saw that she was dirty and locked her up hoping thai her need for drugs would force her to cooperate — Полицейские засекли на ее руках следы от иглы и заперли ее в надежде на то, что потребность в наркотиках вынудит ее сотрудничать с ними

    He's dirty even though he says otherwise — Он употребляет наркотики, хотя и утверждает обратное

    6) pred AmE sl

    She's dirty no matter what she says — У нее есть наркотики, что бы она там ни говорила

    II adv

    When we think dirty we're always hot — Когда нам в голову лезут грязные мысли, мы всегда возбуждаемся

    After about one and a half rational statements she starts fighting dirty — Она может некоторое время рассуждать здраво, а потом снова пускает в ход свои подлые штучки

    3) attr sl

    The new dictionary of modern spoken language > dirty

  • 91 dope

    I n
    2) sl

    Lay off the dope, will ya? — Завязывай с наркотиками, понял?

    3) sl
    4) sl
    5) sl

    He didn't look like a dope — По его виду нельзя было сказать, что он какой-то там недоумок

    6) sl

    They have inside dope on the scandal — Они получили сведения относительно этого скандала из конфиденциальных источников

    II vt sl

    The new dictionary of modern spoken language > dope

  • 92 proven

    1. a доказанный
    2. a испытанный, доказавший свою пригодность
    Синонимический ряд:
    1. reliable (adj.) confirmed; excellent; good; great; reliable; solid; superior; tried and true; trusty
    2. established (verb) determined; established; made out; shown or showed
    3. tried (verb) checked; demonstrated; examined; tested; tried

    English-Russian base dictionary > proven

  • 93 Luso-Tropicalism

       An anthropological and sociol ogical theory or complex of ideas allegedly showing a process of civilization relating to the significance of Portuguese activity in the tropics of Africa, Asia, and the Americas since 1415. As a theory and method of social science analysis, Luso-Tropicalism is a 20th-century phenomenon that has both academic and political (foreign and colonial policy) relevance. While the theory was based in part on French concepts of the "science of tropicology" in anthropology, it was Gilberto Freyre, an eminent Brazilian sociologist-anthropologist, who developed Luso-Tropicalism as an academic theory of the unique qualities of the Portuguese style of imperial activity in the tropics. In lectures, articles, and books during the period 1930-60, Freyre coined the term Luso-Tropicalism to describe Portuguese civilization in the tropics and to claim that the Portuguese, more than any other European colonizing people, successfully adapted their civilization to the tropics.
       From 1960 on, the academic theory was co-opted to lend credence to Portugal's colonial policy and determination to continue colonial rule in her large, remaining African empire. Freyre's Luso-Tropicalism theme was featured in the elaborate Fifth Centenary of the Death of Prince Henry the Navigator celebrations held in Lisbon in 1960 and in a massive series of publications produced in the 1960s to defend Portugal's policies in its empire, the first to be established and the last to decolonize in the Third World. Freyre's academic theory and his international prestige as a scholar who had put the sociology of Brazil on the world map were eagerly adopted and adapted by the Estado Novo. A major thesis of this interesting but somewhat disorganized mass of material was that the Portuguese were less racist and prejudiced toward the tropical peoples they encountered than were other Europeans.
       As African wars of insurgency began in Portugal's empire during 1961-64, and as the United Nations put pressures on Portugal, Luso-Tropicalism was tested and contested not only in academia and the press, but in international politics and diplomacy. Following the decolonization of Portugal's empire during 1974 and 1975 (although Macau remained the last colony to the late 1990s), debate over the notion of Luso-Tropicalism died down. With the onset of the 500-year anniversary celebrations of the Portuguese Age of Discoveries and Exploration, beginning in 1988, however, a whiff of the essence of Luso- Tropicalism reappeared in selected aspects of the commemorative literature.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Luso-Tropicalism

  • 94 Tomás, Américo de Deus Rodrigues

    (1894-1987)
       Admiral Tomás was the last president of the republic of the Estado Novo (1958-74). Although he was selected by Prime Minister António de Oliveira Salazar for his exceptional qualities of loyalty to the system's principles and to the dictator, the last period of the regime, a time of crisis, tested those very characteristics. In the crisis of September 1968, when Salazar was suddenly incapacitated, Tomás selected Salazar's successor, Marcello Caetano. Later, when Caetano faltered and wished to resign his besieged office, it was Tomás' intransigence that worked to make Caetano go on.
       A career naval officer who graduated from the Naval School in 1916, Tomás rose steadily through naval ranks to top positions, including minister of the navy. Salazar chose him to be the regime's presidential candidate in the controversial 1958 elections, because he considered Tomás to be the most reliable, honest, and hardworking of the regime's military officers of the day. Twice Tomás was reelected in the managed presidential elections of 1965 and 1972, as pressures on the regime mounted.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Tomás, along with Caetano, his now reluctant prime minister, was sent into exile on Madeira Island and later to Brazil. Despite demands from leftist forces for the arrest and prosecution of Tomás, the new Lisbon government never initiated a legal case against him. Tomás was allowed to return from his Brazilian exile in July 1978, to settle in Cascais, outside Lisbon. In 1980, he was granted a state pension, but, despite numerous requests, he was not restored to his rank and membership in the navy. He died peacefully at home at age 92.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Tomás, Américo de Deus Rodrigues

  • 95 proven

    1 ['pru:vən] pp of prove
    (a) ['pru:vən] (tested) éprouvé;
    a woman of proven courage une femme qui a fait preuve de courage;
    a candidate with proven experience un candidat qui a déjà fait ses preuves;
    a proven method une méthode qui a fait ses preuves
    (b) ['prəʊvən] Scottish Law a verdict of not proven un non-lieu

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > proven

  • 96 subject

    1 noun ['sʌbdʒɪkt]
    (a) (topic) sujet m;
    on the subject of au sujet de, à propos de;
    this will be the subject of my next lecture ma prochaine conférence portera sur ce sujet;
    to wander from the subject s'écarter du sujet, faire une digression;
    let's come or get back to the subject revenons à nos moutons;
    don't try and change the subject n'essaie pas de changer de sujet ou de détourner la conversation;
    let's drop the subject parlons d'autre chose;
    while we're on the subject à (ce) propos;
    while we're on the subject of holidays puisque nous parlons de vacances;
    that's a touchy subject c'est un sujet délicat
    (b) (of legal case, contract) objet m;
    (in letters and memos) subject: recruitment of new staff objet: recrutement de personnel
    the subject of her film/novel le sujet de son film/roman;
    he always photographs his subjects in natural light il photographie toujours ses sujets en lumière naturelle
    (d) Grammar & Philosophy sujet m
    (e) School & University matière f, discipline f; (field) domaine m;
    she's taking exams in four subjects elle passe des examens dans quatre matières;
    I was always better at science subjects j'ai toujours été plus fort en sciences;
    it's not really my subject ce n'est pas vraiment mon domaine;
    that would be a good subject for a PhD thesis ce serait un bon sujet pour une thèse de doctorat
    (f) Politics (of monarch) sujet(ette) m,f;
    she is a British subject c'est une ressortissante britannique;
    foreign subjects ressortissants mpl étrangers
    she'd be a good subject for the new treatment elle serait un bon sujet pour le nouveau traitement;
    subjects were tested for their reactions on a testé la réaction des sujets
    (h) (cause) objet m;
    he was the subject of much comment il a été l'objet de nombreux commentaires
    2 adjective ['sʌbdʒɪkt]
    (a) (subordinate → people, country) assujetti, soumis;
    they are subject to my authority ils sont placés sous mon autorité, ils dépendent de moi;
    we are all subject to the rule of law nous sommes tous soumis à la loi;
    subject states États mpl dépendants
    (b) (liable, prone)
    subject to sujet à;
    he is subject to frequent lung infections il est sujet à de fréquentes infections pulmonaires;
    subject to attack exposé à l'attaque;
    to be subject to violent changes of mood/fits of jealousy être sujet à de brusques sautes d'humeur/des crises de jalousie;
    the terms are subject to alteration without notice les termes peuvent être modifiés sans préavis;
    subject to tax imposable, assujetti à l'impôt;
    the price is subject to a handling charge les frais de manutention sont en sus;
    all trains will be subject to delay des retards sont à prévoir sur toutes les lignes
    3 transitive verb [sʌb'dʒekt]
    (a) (country, people) soumettre, assujettir
    to subject to soumettre à;
    to subject sb/sth to an examination faire subir un examen à qn/qch, soumettre qn/qch à un examen;
    the material was subjected to intense heat le matériau a été soumis ou exposé à une température très élevée;
    I refuse to subject anyone to such indignities je refuse de faire subir de tels affronts à qui que ce soit;
    their plans were subjected to much criticism leurs projets ont fait l'objet de nombreuses critiques
    ['sʌbdʒɪkt] (save for) sous réserve de, sauf; (conditional upon) à condition de;
    these are the rules, subject to revision voici le règlement, sous réserve de modification;
    subject to your passing the exam à condition de réussir ou à condition que vous réussissiez l'examen;
    it's all subject to her approval tout est subordonné à son approbation
    ►► subject catalogue fichier m par matières;
    subject index index m des matières;
    subject matter (topic) sujet m, thème m; (substance) substance f, contenu m

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > subject

  • 97 Breguet, Louis

    SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace
    [br]
    b. 2 January 1880 Paris, France
    d. 4 May 1955 Paris, France
    [br]
    French aviation pioneer who built a helicopter in 1907 and designed many successful aircraft.
    [br]
    The Breguet family had been manufacturing fine clocks since before the French Revolution, but Louis Breguet and his brother Jacques used their mechanical skills to produce a helicopter, or "gyroplane" as they named it. It was a complex machine with four biplane rotors (i.e. thirty-two lifting surfaces). Louis Breguet had carried out many tests to determine the most suitable rotor design. The Breguet brothers were assisted by Professor Charles Richet and the Breguet-Richet No. 1 was tested in September 1907 when it succeeded in lifting itself, and its pilot, to a height of 1.5 metres. Unfortunately, the gyroplane was rather unstable and four helpers had to steady it; consequently, the flight did not qualify as a "free" flight. This was achieved two months later, also in France, by Paul Cornu who made a 20-second free flight.
    Louis Breguet turned his attention to aeroplane design and produced a tractor biplane when most other biplanes followed the Wright brothers' layout with a forward elevator and pusher propeller. The Breguet I made quite an impression at the 1909 Reims meeting, but the Breguet IV created a world record the following year by carrying six people. During the First World War the Breguet Type 14 bomber was widely used by French and American squadrons. Between the First and Second World Wars a wide variety of designs were produced, including flying boats and another helicopter, the Breguet- Dorand Gyroplane which flew for over one hour in 1936. The Breguet company survived World War II and in the late 1940s developed a successful four-engined airliner/transport, the Deux-Ponts, which had a bulbous double-deck fuselage.
    Breguet was an innovative designer, although his designs were functional rather than elegant. He was an early advocate of metal construction and developed an oleo- (oil-spring) undercarriage leg.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1925, Le Vol à voile dynamique des oiseaux. Analyse des effets des pulsations du vent sur la résultante aérodynamique moyenne d'un planeur, Paris.
    Further Reading
    P.Faure, 1938, Louis Breguet, Paris (biography).
    C.H.Gibbs-Smith, 1965, The Invention of the Aeroplane 1799–1909, London (provides a careful analysis of Breguet's early aircraft).
    JDS

    Biographical history of technology > Breguet, Louis

  • 98 Cayley, Sir George

    SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace
    [br]
    b. 27 December 1773 Scarborough, England
    d. 15 December 1857 Brompton Hall, Yorkshire, England
    [br]
    English pioneer who laid down the basic principles of the aeroplane in 1799 and built a manned glider in 1853.
    [br]
    Cayley was born into a well-to-do Yorkshire family living at Brompton Hall. He was encouraged to study mathematics, navigation and mechanics, particularly by his mother. In 1792 he succeeded to the baronetcy and took over the daunting task of revitalizing the run-down family estate.
    The first aeronautical device made by Cayley was a copy of the toy helicopter invented by the Frenchmen Launoy and Bienvenu in 1784. Cayley's version, made in 1796, convinced him that a machine could "rise in the air by mechanical means", as he later wrote. He studied the aerodynamics of flight and broke away from the unsuccessful ornithopters of his predecessors. In 1799 he scratched two sketches on a silver disc: one side of the disc showed the aerodynamic force on a wing resolved into lift and drag, and on the other side he illustrated his idea for a fixed-wing aeroplane; this disc is preserved in the Science Museum in London. In 1804 he tested a small wing on the end of a whirling arm to measure its lifting power. This led to the world's first model glider, which consisted of a simple kite (the wing) mounted on a pole with an adjustable cruciform tail. A full-size glider followed in 1809 and this flew successfully unmanned. By 1809 Cayley had also investigated the lifting properties of cambered wings and produced a low-drag aerofoil section. His aim was to produce a powered aeroplane, but no suitable engines were available. Steam-engines were too heavy, but he experimented with a gunpowder motor and invented the hot-air engine in 1807. He published details of some of his aeronautical researches in 1809–10 and in 1816 he wrote a paper on airships. Then for a period of some twenty-five years he was so busy with other activities that he largely neglected his aeronautical researches. It was not until 1843, at the age of 70, that he really had time to pursue his quest for flight. The Mechanics' Magazine of 8 April 1843 published drawings of "Sir George Cayley's Aerial Carriage", which consisted of a helicopter design with four circular lifting rotors—which could be adjusted to become wings—and two pusher propellers. In 1849 he built a full-size triplane glider which lifted a boy off the ground for a brief hop. Then in 1852 he proposed a monoplane glider which could be launched from a balloon. Late in 1853 Cayley built his "new flyer", another monoplane glider, which carried his coachman as a reluctant passenger across a dale at Brompton, Cayley became involved in public affairs and was MP for Scarborough in 1832. He also took a leading part in local scientific activities and was co-founder of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1831 and of the Regent Street Polytechnic Institution in 1838.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    Cayley wrote a number of articles and papers, the most significant being "On aerial navigation", Nicholson's Journal of Natural Philosophy (November 1809—March 1810) (published in three numbers); and two further papers with the same title in Philosophical Magazine (1816 and 1817) (both describe semi-rigid airships).
    Further Reading
    L.Pritchard, 1961, Sir George Cayley, London (the standard work on the life of Cayley).
    C.H.Gibbs-Smith, 1962, Sir George Cayley's Aeronautics 1796–1855, London (covers his aeronautical achievements in more detail).
    —1974, "Sir George Cayley, father of aerial navigation (1773–1857)", Aeronautical Journal (Royal Aeronautical Society) (April) (an updating paper).
    JDS

    Biographical history of technology > Cayley, Sir George

  • 99 Héroult, Paul Louis Toussaint

    SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy
    [br]
    b. 1863 Thury-Harcourt, Caen, France
    d. 9 May 1914 Antibes, France
    [br]
    French metallurigst, inventor of the process of aluminium reduction by electrolysis.
    [br]
    Paul Héroult, the son of a tanner, at the age of 16, while still at school in Caen, read Deville's book on aluminium and became obsessed with the idea of developing a cheap way of producing this metal. After his family moved to Gentillysur-Bièvre he studied at the Ecole Sainte-Barbe in Paris and then returned to Caen to work in the laboratory of his father's tannery. His first patent, filed in February and granted on 23 April 1886, described an invention almost identical to that of C.M. Hall: "the electrolysis of alumina dissolved in molten cryolite into which the current is introduced through suitable electrodes. The cryolite is not consumed." Early in 1887 Héroult attempted to obtain the support of Alfred Rangod Pechiney, the proprietor of the works at Salindres where Deville's process for making sodium-reduced aluminium was still being operated. Pechiney persuaded Héroult to modify his electrolytic process by using a cathode of molten copper, thus making it possible produce aluminium bronze rather than pure aluminium. Héroult then approached the Swiss firm J.G.Nehe Söhne, ironmasters, whose works at the Falls of Schaffhausen obtained power from the Rhine. They were looking for a new metallurgical process requiring large quantities of cheap hydroelectric power and Héroult's process seemed suitable. In 1887 they established the Société Metallurgique Suisse to test Héroult's process. Héroult became Technical Director and went to the USA to defend his patents against those of Hall. During his absence the Schaffhausen trials were successfully completed, and on 18 November 1888 the Société Metallurgique combined with the German AEG group, Oerlikon and Escher Wyss, to establish the Aluminium Industrie Aktiengesellschaft Neuhausen. In the early electrolytic baths it was occasionally found that arcs between the bath surface and electrode could develop if the electrodes were inadvertently raised. From this observation, Héroult and M.Killiani developed the electric arc furnace. In this, arcs were intentionally formed between the surface of the charge and several electrodes, each connected to a different pole of the AC supply. This furnace, the prototype of the modern electric steel furnace, was first used for the direct reduction of iron ore at La Praz in 1903. This work was undertaken for the Canadian Government, for whom Héroult subsequently designed a 5,000-amp single-phase furnace which was installed and tested at Sault-Sainte-Marie in Ontario and successfully used for smelting magnetite ore.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    Aluminium Industrie Aktiengesellschaft Neuhausen, 1938, The History of the Aluminium-Industrie-Aktien-Gesellschaft Neuhausen 1888–1938, 2 vols, Neuhausen.
    C.J.Gignoux, Histoire d'une entreprise française. "The Hall-Héroult affair", 1961, Metal Bulletin (14 April):1–4.
    ASD

    Biographical history of technology > Héroult, Paul Louis Toussaint

  • 100 Lilienthal, Otto

    SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace
    [br]
    b. 23 May 1848 Anklam, Prussia (now Germany)
    d. 10 August 1896 Berlin, Germany
    [br]
    German glider pioneer, the first to make a controlled flight using wings.
    [br]
    Otto Lilienthal and his brother Gustav developed an interest in flying as boys, when they studied birds in flight, built models and even tried to fit wings to their arms. Gustav went on to become a successful architect while Otto, after a brilliant scholastic career, became a mechanical engineer. Otto was able to devote his spare time to the problems of flight, and Gustav helped when his work allowed. They considered manpowered and mechanically powered projects, but neither looked hopeful so they turned to gliding. Otto published his research work in a book, Bird Flight as a Basis for Aviation. By 1889 Otto Lilienthal was ready to test his first full-size gliders. No. 1 and No. 2 were not successful, but No. 3, built in 1891, showed promise. He gradually improved his designs and his launching sites as he gained experience. To take off he ran downhill carrying his hang-glider until it became airborne, then he controlled it by swinging his body weight in the appropriate direction. He even built an artificial mound near Berlin so that he could take off into the wind whichever way it was blowing.
    In all, Lilienthal built some eighteen gliders with various wing shapes, including biplanes. By 1895 he was planning movable control surfaces (operated by head movement) and a powered version using a carbonic acid gas motor. Unfortunately, Lilienthal crashed and died of his injuries before these ideas could be tested. In all, he made over two thousand flights covering distances up to 300 m (300 yds. Many of these flights were recorded on photographs and so generated an interest in flying. Lilienthal's achievements also encouraged other pioneers, such as Percy Pilcher in Britain, and Octave Chanute and the Wright brothers in the United States.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1899, Der Vogelflug als Grundlage der Fliegekunst, Berlin, reprinted c. 1977; repub. in English, 1911, as Bird Flight as a Basis for Aviation.
    Further Reading
    Charles H.Gibbs-Smith, 1985, Aviation, London (provides a detailed account of Lilienthal's gliders).
    P.H.Lilienthal, 1978, "Die Lilienthal Gebrüder", Aerospace (Royal Aeronautical Society) (January) (for more personal information).
    "The Lilienthal and Pilcher gliders compared", Flight (1 January 1910 and 8 January 1910) (for details about and plans of a typical Lilienthal glider).
    JDS

    Biographical history of technology > Lilienthal, Otto

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