made+of+units

* * *

1) (having a relatively large distance between opposite sides; not thin: a thick book; thick walls; thick glass.) paksu

2) (having a certain distance between opposite sides: It's two inches thick; a two-inch-thick pane of glass.) paksu

3) ((of liquids, mixtures etc) containing solid matter; not flowing (easily) when poured: thick soup.) sakea

4) (made of many single units placed very close together; dense: a thick forest; thick hair.) tiheä

5) (difficult to see through: thick fog.) paksu

6) (full of, covered with etc: The room was thick with dust; The air was thick with smoke.) paksu

7) (stupid: Don't be so thick!) typerä

- thickly

1) [layer, garment] spesso; [ liquid] denso; [ vegetation] fitto; [ fog] fitto, spesso; [hair, eyebrows] folto; [ lips] grosso; [ make-up] pesante; [ accent] forte; [ voice] (from sore throat) roco, rauco; (from alcohol) impastato

2) colloq. (stupid) tonto

3) colloq. (friendly)

4) BE colloq. (unreasonable)

nome (of forest) folto m.

••

* * *

1) (having a relatively large distance between opposite sides; not thin: a thick book; thick walls; thick glass.) spesso

2) (having a certain distance between opposite sides: It's two inches thick; a two-inch-thick pane of glass.) grosso, spesso

3) ((of liquids, mixtures etc) containing solid matter; not flowing (easily) when poured: thick soup.) denso

4) (made of many single units placed very close together; dense: a thick forest; thick hair.) folto

5) (difficult to see through: thick fog.) fitto

6) (full of, covered with etc: The room was thick with dust; The air was thick with smoke.) pieno

7) (stupid: Don't be so thick!) stupido

- thickly

* * *

1) [layer, garment] spesso; [ liquid] denso; [ vegetation] fitto; [ fog] fitto, spesso; [hair, eyebrows] folto; [ lips] grosso; [ make-up] pesante; [ accent] forte; [ voice] (from sore throat) roco, rauco; (from alcohol) impastato

2) colloq. (stupid) tonto

3) colloq. (friendly)

4) BE colloq. (unreasonable)

nome (of forest) folto m.

••

1) dick; breit, dick [Linie]

2) (dense) dicht [Haar, Nebel, Wolken, Gestrüpp usw.]

3) (filled)

4) steif [Gallerte]; dickflüssig [Sahne]; dick [Suppe, Schlamm, Brei, Kleister]

5) (stupid) dumm

6) (coll.): (intimate)

* * *

1) (having a relatively large distance between opposite sides; not thin: a thick book; thick walls; thick glass.) dick

2) (having a certain distance between opposite sides: It's two inches thick; a two-inch-thick pane of glass.) dick

3) ((of liquids, mixtures etc) containing solid matter; not flowing (easily) when poured: thick soup.) dickflüssig

4) (made of many single units placed very close together; dense: a thick forest; thick hair.) dicht

5) (difficult to see through: thick fog.) dicht

6) (full of, covered with etc: The room was thick with dust; The air was thick with smoke.) voller

7) (stupid: Don't be so thick!)

- academic.ru/92633/thickly">thickly

* * *

I. adj

1. (not thin) coat, layer, volume dick

with a \thick helping of butter dick mit Butter bestrichen

2. (bushy) eyebrows dicht

\thick hair volles [o dichtes] [o SCHWEIZ meist dickes] Haar

3. after n (measurement) dick, stark

the walls are two metres \thick die Wände sind zwei Meter dick

4. (not very fluid) dick, zähflüssig

5. (dense) dicht

the air in the banqueting hall was \thick with smoke die Luft im Festsaal war völlig verraucht

the atmosphere was \thick with unspoken criticism ( fig) unausgesprochene Kritik belastete die Atmosphäre

\thick clouds dichte Wolkendecke

\thick fog dichter Nebel

6. (extreme) deutlich, ausgeprägt

\thick accent starker Akzent

\thick darkness tiefe Dunkelheit

7. voice belegt, heiser

he spoke and his voice was \thick with fear er sprach mit angstvoller Stimme

8. (headache)

to have a \thick head einen Brummschädel [o dicken Kopf] haben fam

I've got a \thick head mir brummt der Schädel fam

9. ( pej sl: mentally slow) dumm

to be [a bit] \thick [ein bisschen] begriffsstutzig sein

10. BRIT ( fam: plentiful) reichlich, massenhaft

female engineers are not too \thick on the ground weibliche Ingenieure sind dünn gesät

11. BRIT (exaggerated)

to be a bit \thick etwas übertrieben sein

hiring four Rolls Royces for a village wedding was a bit \thick vier Rolls Royce für eine Dorfhochzeit zu mieten, war schon etwas dick aufgetragen

▶ to be as \thick as two short planks dumm wie Bohnenstroh sein

▶ blood is \thicker than water ( saying) Blut ist dicker als Wasser prov

▶ to get a \thick ear BRIT ein paar auf [o hinter] die Ohren bekommen fam

▶ to give sb a \thick ear BRIT jdm ein paar [o eins] hinter die Ohren geben fam

▶ to have a \thick skin ein dickes Fell haben

▶ to be as \thick as thieves wie Pech und Schwefel zusammenhalten

▶ to be \thick with sb mit jdm eng befreundet sein

Peter is \thick with Tom Peter und Tom sind dicke Freunde

II. n no pl ( fam)

▪ in the \thick of sth mitten[drin] in etw dat

an argument had ensued at the bar and in the \thick of it stood my husband an der Bar war ein Streit ausgebrochen und mein Mann steckte mittendrin

in the \thick of the battle im dichtesten Kampfgetümmel

III. adv (heavily) dick

the snow lay \thick on the path auf dem Weg lag eine dicke Schneedecke

to spread bread \thick with butter Brot dick mit Butter bestreichen

▶ to come \thick and fast hart auf hart kommen

the complaints were coming \thick and fast es hagelte Beschwerden

▶ to lay it on \thick dick auftragen fam

* * *

1. adj (+er)

1) dick; thread, legs, arms dick, stark; lips dick, voll

2) hair, fog, smoke dick, dicht; forest, hedge, beard dicht; liquid, sauce, syrup etc dick(flüssig); mud dick; darkness tief; night undurchdringlich; crowd dicht (gedrängt); air schlecht, dick (inf); (= airless) atmosphere schwer; (= unclear) voice träge; accent stark, breit

3) (Brit inf = stupid) person dumm, doof (inf)

4) (inf

5) (inf

2. n

1)

2) (of finger, leg) dickste Stelle

3. adv (+er)

* * *

thick [θık]

A adj (adv thickly)

1. allg dick:

a board 2 inches thick ein zwei Zoll starkes Brett;

the book is 500 pages thick das Buch ist 500 Seiten stark; → skin A 1

2. dick, massig (Nacken etc)

3. Bergbau: mächtig (Flöz)

4. give sb a thick ear umg jemandem eins oder ein paar hinter die Ohren geben

5. dicht (Haar, Menschenmenge etc), (Nebel etc auch) dick

6. thick with über und über bedeckt von:

the furniture was thick with dust auf den Möbeln lag dick der Staub

7. thick with voll von, voller, reich an (dat):

thick with smoke verräuchert;

the air is thick with snow die Luft ist voll(er) Schnee

8. dick(flüssig)

9. neblig, trüb(e) (Wetter)

10. schlammig:

thick puddles Schlammpfützen

11. dumpf, belegt, heiser (Stimme)

12. umg dumm

13. dicht (aufeinanderfolgend)

14. fig reichlich, massenhaft:

they are thick on the ground, they are (as) thick as peas es gibt sie wie Sand am Meer

15. umg stark, frech:

that’s a bit thick! das ist ein starkes Stück!

16. umg dick befreundet ( with mit):

a) sie sind dicke Freunde,

b) sie halten zusammen wie Pech und Schwefel

B s

1. dickster Teil, dick(st)e Stelle

2. fig dichtester Teil, Mitte f, Brennpunkt m:

in the thick of mitten in (dat);

in the thick of it mittendrin;

in the thick of the fight(ing) im dichtesten Kampfgetümmel;

in the thick of the crowd im dichtesten Menschengewühl;

through thick and thin durch dick und dünn

C adv

1. dick:

spread thick Butter etc dick aufstreichen oder auftragen;

lay it on thick umg dick auftragen

2. dicht oder rasch (aufeinander):

the blows came thick and fast die Schläge fielen hageldicht

* * *

1) dick; breit, dick [Linie]

2) (dense) dicht [Haar, Nebel, Wolken, Gestrüpp usw.]

3) (filled)

4) steif [Gallerte]; dickflüssig [Sahne]; dick [Suppe, Schlamm, Brei, Kleister]

5) (stupid) dumm

6) (coll.): (intimate)

* * *

dicht adj.

dick adj.

slice, line, socks gruby; sauce, forest, hair gęsty; ( inf) person tępy

* * *

1) (having a relatively large distance between opposite sides; not thin: a thick book; thick walls; thick glass.) gruby

2) (having a certain distance between opposite sides: It's two inches thick; a two-inch-thick pane of glass.) gruby

3) ((of liquids, mixtures etc) containing solid matter; not flowing (easily) when poured: thick soup.) gęsty

4) (made of many single units placed very close together; dense: a thick forest; thick hair.) gęsty

5) (difficult to see through: thick fog.) gęsty

6) (full of, covered with etc: The room was thick with dust; The air was thick with smoke.) pełen

7) (stupid: Don't be so thick!) głupi, tępy

- thickly

1) (having a relatively large distance between opposite sides; not thin: a thick book; thick walls; thick glass.) biezs

2) (having a certain distance between opposite sides: It's two inches thick; a two-inch-thick pane of glass.) biezs

3) ((of liquids, mixtures etc) containing solid matter; not flowing (easily) when poured: thick soup.) biezs

4) (made of many single units placed very close together; dense: a thick forest; thick hair.) biezs

5) (difficult to see through: thick fog.) biezs

6) (full of, covered with etc: The room was thick with dust; The air was thick with smoke.) pilns

7) (stupid: Don't be so thick!) stulbs; neaptēsts (par cilvēku)

- thickly

* * *

drūzma, burzma; stulbenis; biezs; trekns; piepildīts, pilns; biežs; aizsmacis; nesaprotams, neskaidrs; duļķains; apmācies; dumjš, stulbs; nešķirams; biezi, bieži

1) (having a relatively large distance between opposite sides; not thin: a thick book; thick walls; thick glass.) storas

2) (having a certain distance between opposite sides: It's two inches thick; a two-inch-thick pane of glass.) storumo

3) ((of liquids, mixtures etc) containing solid matter; not flowing (easily) when poured: thick soup.) tirštas

4) (made of many single units placed very close together; dense: a thick forest; thick hair.) tankus

5) (difficult to see through: thick fog.) tirštas

6) (full of, covered with etc: The room was thick with dust; The air was thick with smoke.) pilnas

7) (stupid: Don't be so thick!) kvailas, bukas

- thickly

adj. tjock; fet; tät, kompakt; fyllig, ymnig; talrik; dum; tjockskallig; vänskaplig

adv. tätt; tjockt; rikligt

n. mitt, center

* * *

1) (having a relatively large distance between opposite sides; not thin: a thick book; thick walls; thick glass.) tjock

2) (having a certain distance between opposite sides: It's two inches thick; a two-inch-thick pane of glass.) tjock

3) ((of liquids, mixtures etc) containing solid matter; not flowing (easily) when poured: thick soup.) tjock[]

4) (made of many single units placed very close together; dense: a thick forest; thick hair.) tjock, tät

5) (difficult to see through: thick fog.) tjock, tät

6) (full of, covered with etc: The room was thick with dust; The air was thick with smoke.) tjock, full

7) (stupid: Don't be so thick!) tjockskallig, dum

- thickly

1) (having a relatively large distance between opposite sides; not thin: a thick book; thick walls; thick glass.) silný, tlustý

2) (having a certain distance between opposite sides: It's two inches thick; a two-inch-thick pane of glass.) silný, tlustý

3) ((of liquids, mixtures etc) containing solid matter; not flowing (easily) when poured: thick soup.) hustý

4) (made of many single units placed very close together; dense: a thick forest; thick hair.) hustý

5) (difficult to see through: thick fog.) hustý

6) (full of, covered with etc: The room was thick with dust; The air was thick with smoke.) plný

7) (stupid: Don't be so thick!) hloupý

- thickly

* * *

1) (having a relatively large distance between opposite sides; not thin: a thick book; thick walls; thick glass.) hrubý

2) (having a certain distance between opposite sides: It's two inches thick; a two-inch-thick pane of glass.) hrubý

3) ((of liquids, mixtures etc) containing solid matter; not flowing (easily) when poured: thick soup.) hustý

4) (made of many single units placed very close together; dense: a thick forest; thick hair.) hustý

5) (difficult to see through: thick fog.) hustý

6) (full of, covered with etc: The room was thick with dust; The air was thick with smoke.) plný

7) (stupid: Don't be so thick!) hlúpy

- thickly

* * *

∎ to bundle sth with sth offrir qch en plus de qch;

∎ to come bundled with sth être vendu(e) avec qch

1) (having a relatively large distance between opposite sides; not thin: a thick book; thick walls; thick glass.) gros

2) (having a certain distance between opposite sides: It's two inches thick; a two-inch-thick pane of glass.) gros de (...)

3) ((of liquids, mixtures etc) containing solid matter; not flowing (easily) when poured: thick soup.) dens, consistent

4) (made of many single units placed very close together; dense: a thick forest; thick hair.) dens

5) (difficult to see through: thick fog.) des

6) (full of, covered with etc: The room was thick with dust; The air was thick with smoke.) plin (de)

7) (stupid: Don't be so thick!) tâmpit

- thickly

1) (having a relatively large distance between opposite sides; not thin: a thick book; thick walls; thick glass.) παχύς, χοντρός

2) (having a certain distance between opposite sides: It's two inches thick; a two-inch-thick pane of glass.) σε πάχος

3) ((of liquids, mixtures etc) containing solid matter; not flowing (easily) when poured: thick soup.) πηχτός

4) (made of many single units placed very close together; dense: a thick forest; thick hair.) πυκνός

5) (difficult to see through: thick fog.) πυκνός, απροσπέλαστος

6) (full of, covered with etc: The room was thick with dust; The air was thick with smoke.) πηγμένος

7) (stupid: Don't be so thick!) χοντροκέφαλος

- thickly

1) (having a relatively large distance between opposite sides; not thin: a thick book; thick walls; thick glass.) épais

2) (having a certain distance between opposite sides: It's two inches thick; a two-inch-thick pane of glass.) épais de; de (...) d'épaisseur

3) ((of liquids, mixtures etc) containing solid matter; not flowing (easily) when poured: thick soup.) épais, consistant

4) (made of many single units placed very close together; dense: a thick forest; thick hair.) dense

5) (difficult to see through: thick fog.) opaque

6) (full of, covered with etc: The room was thick with dust; The air was thick with smoke.) plein (de), couvert (de)

7) (stupid: Don't be so thick!) bête

- thickly

1) (having a relatively large distance between opposite sides; not thin: a thick book; thick walls; thick glass.) grosso, espesso

2) (having a certain distance between opposite sides: It's two inches thick; a two-inch-thick pane of glass.) de grossura, de espessura

3) ((of liquids, mixtures etc) containing solid matter; not flowing (easily) when poured: thick soup.) grosso, denso

4) (made of many single units placed very close together; dense: a thick forest; thick hair.) denso, abundante

5) (difficult to see through: thick fog.) cerrado

6) (full of, covered with etc: The room was thick with dust; The air was thick with smoke.) grosso

7) (stupid: Don't be so thick!) grosso

- thickly

   City and capital of Braga district in the Minho province, northwest Portugal. The population is about 60,000. As a city in Roman-ruled Lusitania, its name was "Bracara Augusta." Historic sites include Roman ruins and a 12th-century cathedral. The city had an important traditional role in the Catholic Church and in medieval Christianity. More recently, Braga was noted as the place where General Gomes da Costa, on 28 May 1926, made his initial pronunciamento of military rebellion against the parliamentary First Republic, and where the "march on Lisbon" by rebel military units began.

last, US [transcription][l_st] ⇒ Time units

A n

1 ( for shoes) forme f ;

2 ( end of life) to the last jusqu'au bout.

B pron

1 ( final) the last le dernier/la dernière m/f (to do à faire) ; that was the last I saw of her c'est la dernière fois que je l'ai vue ; I thought we'd seen the last of him! je croyais qu'on en avait fini avec lui! ; I hope we've seen the last of the cold weather j'espère qu'on en a fini avec le froid ; you haven't heard the last of this! l'affaire n'en restera pas là! ; to leave sth till last s'occuper de qch en dernier (lieu) ;

2 ( of series) the last le dernier/la dernière m/f ; to be the last in a long line of Kings être le dernier (en date) d'une longue lignée de rois ; his new novel is better than the last son nouveau roman est meilleur que le dernier or le précédent ; the last I heard, he was living in Spain aux dernières nouvelles, il habitait en Espagne ; the last but one l'avant-dernier/-ière ; the night before last ( evening) avant-hier soir ; ( night) la nuit d'avant-hier ; the week before last il y a deux semaines ; lovely dresses, this last being the most expensive de belles robes, cette dernière étant la plus coûteuse ;

3 ( all that remains) the last le dernier/la dernière m/f ; ‘are there any more cakes?’-‘no, this is the last‘ ‘est-ce qu'il reste des gâteaux?’-‘non, c'est le dernier’ ; he poured out the last of the whisky il a versé ce qui restait de whisky ; the last of the guests were just leaving les derniers invités prenaient congé.

C adj

1 ( final) [hope, novel, time] dernier/-ière (before n) ; to the last detail jusqu'au dernier détail ; the last car to be made in Abingdon la dernière voiture fabriquée à Abingdon ; the last person to do la dernière personne à faire ; it is the last time that I/you do c'est la dernière fois que je/tu fais ; for the last time, will you be quiet! c'est la dernière fois que je vous le dis, taisez-vous! ; your last name please? votre nom de famille s'il vous plaît? ; in my last job là où je travaillais avant ; every last one of them tous jusqu'au dernier ;

2 ( final in series) dernier/-ière ; the last house before the garage la dernière maison avant le garage ; the last building/horse but one l'avant-dernier bâtiment/cheval ; his name is last but two on the list son nom est le troisième à partir de la fin de la liste ; the last few children/buildings les deux ou trois derniers enfants/bâtiments ;

3 ( describing past time) dernier/-ière ; last week/year la semaine/l'année dernière ; last Tuesday mardi dernier ; I was in Spain last Christmas j'étais en Espagne à Noël l'an dernier ; in ou over the last ten years durant ces dix dernières années ; Anne has been in Cambridge for the last eight months Anne est à Cambridge depuis huit mois ; last night ( evening) hier soir ; ( night-time) cette nuit ; late last night tard hier soir ; this time last year l'an dernier à cette époque-ci ; last week's figures les chiffres de la semaine dernière ; last night's broadcast l'émission d'hier soir ;

4 fig ( most unlikely) dernier/-ière ; he's the last person I'd ask! c'est la dernière personne à qui je m'adresserais! ; to be the last person to do être le dernier/la dernière à faire ; I'd be the last person to suggest that… je serais le dernier/la dernière à suggérer que… ; the last thing they want is publicity! la publicité, c'est vraiment ce qu'ils souhaitent le moins! ; the last thing I need is guests for the weekend il ne me manquait plus que des invités pour le week-end iron ; another cat is the last thing we need nous n'avons certainement pas besoin d'un autre chat.

D adv

1 ( in final position) to come in last [runner, racing car] arriver en dernier ; to be placed last être classé dernier/-ière ; the girls left last les filles sont parties les dernières ; last of all en dernier lieu ; to put sb/sth last faire passer qn/qch après tout le reste ;

2 ( most recently) she was last in Canada in 1976 la dernière fois qu'elle est allée au Canada, c'était en 1976 ; the play was last performed in 1925 la dernière représentation de la pièce a eu lieu en 1925, la pièce a été jouée pour la dernière fois en 1925.

E vtr a loaf lasts me two days un pain me fait deux jours ; a loaf of bread lasts my mother a week ma mère, un pain lui fait la semaine ; we have enough food to last (us) three days nous avons assez de provisions pour trois jours ; there's enough to last me a lifetime! il y en a assez jusqu'à la fin de mes jours!

F vi

1 ( extend in time) [marriage, ceasefire, performance] durer ; the exhibition lasted two months l'exposition a duré deux mois ; it won't last! ça ne durera pas longtemps! ; it's too good to last! c'est trop beau pour que ça dure! ; he won't last long in this place il ne tiendra pas longtemps ici ; that beer didn't last long cette bière n'a pas fait long feu ○ ; I'm afraid the poor dog won't last long je crains que le pauvre chien n'en ait plus pour longtemps ;

2 ( maintain condition) [fabric] faire de l'usage ; [perishables] se conserver ; these shoes will last and last ces chaussures sont inusables.

■ last out:

▶ last out

1 ( not run out) [money] suffire ; [supplies] durer ;

2 ( persist) [person] tenir ; she says she's given up smoking, but she'll never last out! elle dit qu'elle a cessé de fumer, mais elle ne tiendra jamais! ;

3 ( endure siege) [inhabitants, town] tenir ;

▶ last out [sth] tenir jusqu'à la fin de [siege] ; she' ll never last out the month elle ne finira pas le mois.

SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building, Domestic appliances and interiors

[br]

[br]

[br]

Breuer began his student days following an art course in Vienna, but joined the Bauhaus at Weimar, where he later graduated, in 1920. When Gropius re-established the school in purpose-built structures at Dessau, Breuer became a member of the teaching staff in charge of the carpentry and furniture workshops. Much of his time there was spent in design and research into new materials being applied to furniture and interior decoration. The essence of his contribution was to relate the design of furniture to industrial production; in this field he developed the tubular-steel structure, especially in chair design, and experimented with aluminium as a furniture material as well as pieces of furniture made up from modular units. His furniture style was characterized by an elegance of line and a careful avoidance of superfluous detail. By 1926 he had furnished the Bauhaus with such furniture in chromium-plated steel, and two years later had developed a cantilevered chair.

Breuer left the Bauhaus in 1928 and set up an architectural practice in Berlin. In the early 1930s he also spent some time in Switzerland. Notable from these years was his Harnischmacher Haus in Wiesbaden and his apartment buildings in the Dolderthal area of Zurich. His architectural work was at first influenced by constructivism, and then by that of Le Corbusier (see Charles-Edouard Jeanneret). In 1935 he moved to England, where in partnership with F.R.S. Yorke he built some houses and continued to practise furniture design. The Isokon Furniture Co. commissioned him to develop ideas that took advantage of the new bending and moulding processes in laminated wood, one result being his much-copied reclining chair.

In 1937, like so many of the European architectural refugees from Nazism, he found himself under-occupied due to the reluctance of English clients to embrace the modern architectural movement. He went to the United States at Gropius's invitation to join him as a professor at Harvard. Breuer and Gropius were influential in training a new generation of American architects, and in particular they built a number of houses. This partnership ended in 1941 and Breuer set up practice in New York. His style of work from this time on was still modern, but became more varied. In housing, he adapted his style to American needs and used local materials in a functional manner. In the Whitney Museum (1966) he worked in a sculptural, granite-clad style. Often he utilized a bold reinforced-concrete form, as in his collaboration with Pier Luigi Nervi and Bernard Zehrfuss in the Paris UNESCO Building (1953–8) and the US Embassy in the Hague (1954–8). He displayed his masterly handling of poured concrete used in a strikingly expressionistic, sculptural manner in his St John's Abbey (1953–61) in Collegeville, Minnesota, and in 1973 his Church of St Francis de Sale in Michigan won him the top award of the American Institute of Architects.

[br]

SUBJECT AREA: Electricity, Metallurgy

[br]

[br]

[br]

Coolidge obtained his BS from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1896, and his PhD (physics) from the University of Leipzig in 1899. He was appointed Assistant Professor of Physics at MIT in 1904, and in 1905 he joined the staff of the General Electric Company's research laboratory at Schenectady. In 1905 Schenectady was trying to make tungsten-filament lamps to counter the competition of the tantalum-filament lamps then being produced by their German rival Siemens. The first tungsten lamps made by Just and Hanaman in Vienna in 1904 had been too fragile for general use. Coolidge and his life-long collaborator, Colin G. Fink, succeeded in 1910 by hot-working directly dense sintered tungsten compacts into wire. This success was the result of a flash of insight by Coolidge, who first perceived that fully recrystallized tungsten wire was always brittle and that only partially work-hardened wire retained a measure of ductility. This grasped, a process was developed which induced ductility into the wire by hot-working at temperatures below those required for full recrystallization, so that an elongated fibrous grain structure was progressively developed. Sintered tungsten ingots were swaged to bar at temperatures around 1,500°C and at the end of the process ductile tungsten filament wire was drawn through diamond dies around 550°C. This process allowed General Electric to dominate the world lamp market. Tungsten lamps consumed only one-third the energy of carbon lamps, and for the first time the cost of electric lighting was reduced to that of gas. Between 1911 and 1914, manufacturing licences for the General Electric patents had been granted for most of the developed work. The validity of the General Electric monopoly was bitterly contested, though in all the litigation that followed, Coolidge's fibering principle was upheld. Commercial arrangements between General Electric and European producers such as Siemens led to the name "Osram" being commonly applied to any lamp with a drawn tungsten filament. In 1910 Coolidge patented the use of thoria as a particular additive that greatly improved the high-temperature strength of tungsten filaments. From this development sprang the technique of "dispersion strengthening", still being widely used in the development of high-temperature alloys in the 1990s. In 1913 Coolidge introduced the first controllable hot-cathode X-ray tube, which had a tungsten target and operated in vacuo rather than in a gaseous atmosphere. With this equipment, medical radiography could for the first time be safely practised on a routine basis. During the First World War, Coolidge developed portable X-ray units for use in field hospitals, and between the First and Second World Wars he introduced between 1 and 2 million X-ray machines for cancer treatment and for industrial radiography. He became Director of the Schenectady laboratory in 1932, and from 1940 until 1944 he was Vice-President and Director of Research. After retirement he was retained as an X-ray consultant, and in this capacity he attended the Bikini atom bomb trials in 1946. Throughout the Second World War he was a member of the National Defence Research Committee.

[br]

SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping, Steam and internal combustion engines

[br]

[br]

[br]

Pounder served an apprenticeship with Richardsons Westgarth, marine engineers in north east England. Shortly after, he moved to Harland \& Wolff of Belfast and there fulfilled his life's work. He rose to the rank of Director but is remembered for his outstanding leadership in producing the most advanced steam and diesel machinery installations of their time. Harland \& Wolff were the main licensees for the Burmeister \& Wain marine diesel system, and the Copenhagen company made most of the decisions on design; however, Pounder often found himself in the hot seat and once had the responsibility of concurring with the shipyard's decision to build three Atlantic liners with the largest diesel engines in the world, well beyond the accepted safe levels of extrapolation. With this, Belfast secured worldwide recognition as builders of diesel-driven liners. During the German occupation of Denmark (1940–5), the engineering department at Belfast worked on its own and through systematic research and experimentation built up a database of information that was invaluable in the postwar years.

Pounder was instrumental in the development of airless injection diesel fuel pumps. He was a stalwart supporter of all research and development, and while at Belfast was involved in the building of twelve hundred power units. While in his twenties, Pounder began a literary career which continued for sixty years. The bulk of his books and papers were on engineering and arguably the best known is his work on marine diesel engines, which ran to many editions. He was Chairman of Pametrada, the marine engineering research council of Great Britain, and later of the machinery committee of the British Ship Research Association. He regarded good relations within the industry as a matter of paramount importance.

[br]