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   For a small country perched on the edge of western Europe but with an early history that began more than 2,000 years ago, there is a vast bibliography extant in many languages. Since general reference works with bibliography on Portugal are few, both principal and minor works are included. In the first edition, works in English, and a variety of Portuguese language works that are counted as significant if not always classic, were included. In the second and third editions, more works in Portuguese are added.

   It is appropriate that most of the works cited in some sections of the bibliograpy are in English, but this pattern should be put in historical perspective. Since the late 1950s, the larger proportion of foreign-language works on Portugal and the Portuguese have been in English. But this was not the case before World War II. As a whole, there were more studies in French, with a smaller number in German, Italian, and Spanish, than in English. Most of the materials published today on all aspects of this topic continue to be in Portuguese, but English-language works have come to outnumber the other non-Portuguese language studies. In addition to books useful to a variety of students, a selection of classic works of use to the visitor, tourist, and foreign resident of Portugal, as well as to those interested in Portuguese communities overseas, have been included.

   Readers will note that publishers' names are omitted from some Portuguese citations as well as from a number of French works. There are several reasons for this. First, in many of the older sources, publishers no longer exist and are difficult to trace. Second, the names of the publishers have been changed in some cases and are also difficult to trace. Third, in many older books and periodicals, printers' names but not publishers were cited, and identifying the publishers is virtually impossible.

   Some recommended classic titles for beginners are in historical studies: José Hermano Saraiva, Portugal: A Companion History (1997); A. H. de Oliveira Marques, History of Portugal (1976 ed.), general country studies in two different historical eras: Sarah Bradford, Portugal (1973) and Marion Kaplan, The Portuguese: The Land and Its People (2002 and later editions); political histories, Antônio de Figueiredo, Portugal: Fifty Years of Dictatorship (1975) and Douglas L. Wheeler, Republican Portugal: A Political History ( 1910-1926) (1978; 1998). On Portugal's Revolution of 25 April 1974 and contemporary history and politics: Kenneth Maxwell, The Making of Portuguese Democracy (1995); Phil Mailer, The Impossible Revolution (1977); Richard A. H. Robinson, Contemporary Portugal: A History (1979); Lawrence S. Graham and Douglas L. Wheeler (eds.), In Search of Modern Portugal: The Revolution and Its Consequences (1983); Lawrence S. Graham and Harry M. Makler (eds.), Contemporary Portugal: The Revolution and its Antecedents (1979). On contemporary Portuguese society, see Antonio Costa Pinto (ed.), Contemporary Portugal: Politics, Society, Culture (2003).

   Enduring works on the history of Portugal's overseas empire include: C. R. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415-1825 (1969 and later editions); and Bailey W. Diffie and George Winius, The Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415-1580 (1977); on Portugal and the Age of Discoveries: Charles Ley (ed.), Portuguese Voyages 1498-1663 (2003). For a new portrait of the country's most celebrated figure of the Age of Discoveries, see Peter Russell, Prince Henry 'The Navigator': A Life (2000). A still useful geographical study about a popular tourist region is Dan Stanislawski's Portugal's Other Kingdom: The Algarve (1963). A fine introduction to a region of rural southern Portugal is José Cutileiro's A Portuguese Rural Society (1971).

   Early travel account classics are Almeida Garrett, Travels in My Homeland (1987) and William Beckford, Recollections of an Excursion to the Monasteries of Alcobaca and Batalha (1969 and later editions). On travel and living in Portugal, see Susan Lowndes Marques and Ann Bridge, The Selective Traveller in Portugal (1968 and later editions); David Wright and Patrick Swift, Lisbon: A Portrait and Guide (1968 and later editions); Sam Ballard and Jane Ballard, Pousadas of Portugal (1986); Richard Hewitt, A Cottage in Portugal (1996);

   Ian Robertson, Portugal: The Blue Guide (1988 and later editions); and Anne de Stoop, Living in Portugal (1995). Fine reads on some colorful, foreign travellers in Portugal are found in Rose Macauley, They Went to Portugal (1946 and later editions) and They Went to Portugal Too (1990). An attractive blend of historical musing and current Portugal is found in Paul Hyland's, Backing Out of the Big World: Voyage to Portugal (1996); Datus Proper's The Last Old Place: A Search through Portugal (1992); and Portugal's 1998 Nobel Prize winner in Literature, José Sarmago, writes in Journey through Portugal (2001).

   For aspects of Portuguese literature in translation, see Aubrey F. G. Bell, The Oxford Book of Portuguese Verse (1952 edition by B. Vidigal); José Maria Eça de Queirós, The Maias (2007 and earlier editions); and José Sara-mago's Baltasar and Blimunda (1985 and later editions), as well as many other novels by this, Portugal's most celebrated living novelist. See also Landeg White's recent translation of the national 16th century epic of Luis de Camóes, The Lusiads (1997). A classic portrait of the arts in Portugal during the country's imperial age is Robert C. Smith's The Art of Portugal, 1500-1800 (1968).

   For those who plan to conduct research in Portugal, the premier collection of printed books, periodicals, and manuscripts is housed in the country's national library, the Biblioteca Nacional de Lisboa, in Lisbon. Other important collections are found in the libraries of the major universities in Coimbra, Lisbon, and Oporto, and in a number of foundations and societies. For the history of the former colonial empire, the best collection of printed materials remains in the library of Lisbon's historic Geography Society, the Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa, Lisbon; and for documents there is the state-run colonial archives, the Arquivo Historico Ultramarino, in Restelo, near Lisbon. Other government records are deposited in official archives, such as those for foreign relations in the archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, housed in Necessidades Palace, Lisbon.

   For researchers in North America, the best collections of printed materials on Portugal are housed in the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.; New York Public Library, New York City; Newberry Library, Chicago, Illinois; and in university libraries including those of Harvard, Yale, Johns Hopkins, Brown, Indiana, Illinois, University of California at Los Angeles, University of California - Berkeley, University of California - Santa Barbara, Stanford, Florida State, Duke, University of New Hampshire, Durham, University of Toronto, University of Ottawa, McGill, and University of British Columbia. Records dealing with Portuguese affairs are found in U.S. government archives, including, for instance, those in the National Archives and Record Service (NARS), housed in Washington, D.C.

   BIBLIOGRAPHIES

   ■ Academia Portuguesa de História. Guia Bibliográfica Histórica Portuguesa. Vol. I-?. Lisbon, 1954-.

   ■ Anselmo, Antônio Joaquim. Bibliografia das bibliografias portuguesas. Lisbon: Biblioteca Nacional, 1923.

   ■ Bell, Aubrey F. G. Portuguese Bibliography. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1922.

   ■ Borchardt, Paul. La Bibliographie de l'Angola, 1500-1900. Brussels, 1912. Chilcote, Ronald H., ed. and comp. The Portuguese Revolution of 25 April 1974. Annotated bibliography on the antecedents and aftermath. Coimbra: Centro de Documentação 25 de Abril, Universidade de Coimbra, 1987. Cintra, Maria Adelaide Valle. Bibliografia de textos medievais portugueses. Lisbon: Centro de Estudos Filolôgicos, 1960.

   ■ Costa, Mário. Bibliografia Geral de Moçambique. Lisbon, 1945. Coutinho, Bernardo Xavier da Costa. Bibliographie franco-portugaise: Essai d'une bibliographie chronologique de livres français sur le Portugal. Oporto: Lopes da Silva, 1939.

   ■ Diffie, Bailey W. "A Bibliography of the Principal Published Guides to Portuguese Archives and Libraries," Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Luso-Brazilian Studies. Nashville, Tenn., 1953. Gallagher, Tom. Dictatorial Portugal, 1926-1974: A Bibliography. Durham, N.H.: International Conference Group on Portugal, 1979.

   ■ Gibson, Mary Jane. Portuguese Africa: A Guide to Official Publications. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1967. Greenlee, William B. "A Descriptive Bibliography of the History of Portugal." Hispanic American Historical Review XX (August 1940): 491-516. Gulbenkian, Fundação Calouste. Boletim Internacional de Bibliografia Luso-Brasileira. Vol. 1-15. Lisbon, 1960-74.

   ■ Instituto Camoes. Faculdade de Letras da Universidade De Coimbra. Repertorio Bibliografico da Historiografia Portuguesa ( 1974-1994). Coimbra:

   ■ Instituto Camoes; Universidade de Coimbra, 1995. Junta De Investigações Científicas Do Ultramar. Bibliografia Da Junta De Investigações Científicas Do Ultramar Sobre Ciências Humanas E Sociais. Lisbon: Junta de Investigações Científicas Do Ultramar, 1975. Kettenring, Norman E., comp. A Bibliography of Theses and Dissertations on Portuguese Topics Completed in the United States and Canada, 1861-1983.

   ■ Durham, N.H.: International Conference Group on Portugal, 1984. Kunoff, Hugo. Portuguese Literature from Its Origins to 1990: A Bibliography Based on the Collections at Indiana University. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1994.

   ■ Laidlar, John. Lisbon. World Bibliographical Series, Vol. 199. Oxford: ABC-Clio, 1997.. Portugal. World Bibliographical Series, Vol. 71, rev. ed. Oxford: ABC-Clio, 2000.

   ■ Lomax, William. Revolution in Portugal: 1974-1976. A Bibliography. Durham, N.H.: International Conference Group on Portugal, 1978.

   ■ McCarthy, Joseph M. Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde Islands: A Comprehensive Bibliography. New York: Garland, 1977.

   ■ Moniz, Miguel. Azores. World Bibliographical Series, Vol. 221. Oxford: ABC-Clio, 1999.

   ■ Nunes, José Lúcio, and José Júlio Gonçalves. Bibliografia Histórico-Militar do Ultramar Portugües. Lisbon, 1956. Pélissier, René. Bibliographies sur l'Afrique Luso-Hispanophone 1800-1890.

   ■ Orgeval, France: 1980. Portuguese Studies. London. 1984-. Annual.

   ■ Portuguese Studies Newsletter. No. 1-23 (1976-90). Durham, N.H.: International Conference Group on Portugal. Semiannual.

   ■ Portuguese Studies Review. Vols. 1-9 (1991-2001). Durham, N.H.: International Conference Group on Portugal. Semi-Annual.. Vols. 10- (2002-). Durham, N.H.: Trent University; Peterborough, Ontario, Canada.

   ■ Rocha, Natércia. Bibliografia geral da Literatura Portuguesa para Crianças. Lisbon: Edit. Comunicação, 1987.

   ■ Rogers, Francis Millet, and David T. Haberly. Brazil, Portugal and Other Portuguese-Speaking Lands: A List of Books Primarily in English. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968.

   ■ Santos, Manuel dos. Bibliografia geral ou descrição bibliográfica de livros tantos de autores portugueses como brasileiros e muitos outras nacionalidades, impressos desde o século XV até à actualidade, 2 vols. Lisbon, 1914-25.

   ■ Silva, J. Donald. A Bibliography on the Madeira Islands. Durham, N.H.: International Conference Group on Portugal, 1987.

   ■ Teixeira, Carlos, and G. Lavigne. Os portugueses no Canadá: Uma bibliografia ( 1953-1996). Lisbon: Direção-Geral dos Assuntos Consulares e Comunidades Portuguesas, 1998.

   ■ University of Coimbra, Faculty of Letters. Bibliografia Anual de História de Portugal. Vol. 1. [sources published beginning in 1989- ] Coimbra: Grupo de História; Faculdade de Letras; Universidade de Coimbra, 1992-.

   ■ Unwin, P. T. H., comp. Portugal. World Bibliographical Series, Vol. 71. Oxford, U.K.: ABC-Clio Press, 1987.

   ■ Viera, David J., et al., comp. The Portuguese in the United States ( Supplement to the 1976 Leo Pap Bibliography). Durham, N.H.: International Conference Group on Portugal, 1990.

   ■ Welsh, Doris Varner, comp. A Catalogue of the William B. Greenlee Collection of Portuguese History and Literature and the Portuguese Materials in the Newberry Library. Chicago: Newberry Library, 1953.

   ■ Wiarda, Iêda Siqueira, ed. The Handbook of Portuguese Studies. Washington, D.C.: Xlibris, 2000.

   ■ Wilgus, A. Curtis. Latin America, Spain & Portugal: A Selected & Annotated Bibliographical Guide to Books Published 1954-1974. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1977.

   ■ Winius, George. "Bibliographical Essay: A Treasury of Printed Source Materials Pertaining to the XV and XVI Centuries." In George Winius, ed., Portugal, the Pathfinder: Journeys from the Medieval toward the Modern World, 1300-ca. 1600, 373-401. Madison, Wis.: Hispanic Seminary of Medieval Studies, 1995.

   ■ PERIODICALS RELATING TO PORTUGAL

   ■ Africana. Oporto. Semiannual.

   ■ Africa Report. New York. Monthly or bimonthly.

   ■ Africa Today. Denver, Colo. Quarterly.

   ■ Agenda Cultural. Lisbon. Monthly.

   ■ Almanaque do Exército. Lisbon, 1912-40.

   ■ American Historical Review. Washington, D.C. Quarterly.

   ■ Anais da Académia Portuguesa da História. Lisbon.

   ■ Anais das Bibliotecas e Arquivos. Lisbon. Annual.

   ■ Análise do sector público administrativo e empresarial. Lisbon. Quarterly. Análise Social. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Anglo-Portuguese News. Monte Estoril and Lisbon. 1937-2003. Biweekly and weekly.

   ■ Antropológicas. Oporto. 1998-. Semiannual. Anuário Católico de Portugal. Lisbon. Annual.

   ■ Archipélago. Revista do Instituto Universitário dos Açores. Punta Delgado. Semiannual. Architectural Digest. New York. Monthly. Archivum. Paris. Quarterly. Arqueologia. Oporto. Annual.

   ■ Arqueólogo Portugües, O. Lisbon. 1958-. Semiannual Arquivo das Colónias. Lisbon. 1917-33. Arquivo de Beja. Beja. Annual. Arquivo Histórico Portuguez. Lisbon.

   ■ Arquivos da Memória. Lisbon. 1997-. Semiannual.

   ■ Arquivos do Centro Cultural Portugües [Fundação Gulbenkian, Paris]. Paris. Annual.

   ■ Avante! Lisbon. Portuguese Communist Party. Daily. Biblos. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Boletim da Academia Internacional da Cultura Portuguesa. Lisbon. Boletim da Agência Geral das Colónias. Lisbon.

   ■ Boletim da Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa. Lisbon Quarterly; Bimonthly.

   ■ Boletim da Sociedade Geológica de Portugal. Oporto. Annual.

   ■ Boletim de Estudos Operários. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Boletim do Arquivo Histórico Militar. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Boletim do Instituto Histórico da Ilha Terceira. Angra do Heroismo, Terceira, Azores Islands. Semiannual. Boletim Geral do Ultramar. Lisbon. Bracara Augusta. Braga. Brigantia. Lisbon. 1990-. Semiannual.

   ■ British Bulletin of Publications on Latin America... Portugal and Spain. London. 1949-. Semiannual. British Historical Society of Portugal. Annual Report and Review. Lisbon. Brotéria. Lisbon. Quarterly. Bulletin des Etudes Portugaises. Paris. Quarterly.

   ■ Bulletin des Etudes Portugaises et de l'Institut Français au Portugal. Lisbon. Annual.

   ■ Cadernos de Arqueologia. Braga. Semiannual and annual. Monographs.

   ■ Cadernos do Noroeste. Braga, University of Minho. Semiannual.

   ■ Camões Center Quarterly. New York.

   ■ Capital, A. Lisbon. Daily newspaper.

   ■ Clio. Lisbon. 1996-. Annual.

   ■ Clio-Arqueologia. Lisbon. 1983-. Annual.

   ■ Colóquio/ Artes. Lisbon. Gulbenkian Foundation. Quarterly.

   ■ Colóquio/ Letras. Lisbon. Gulbenkian Foundation. Quarterly.

   ■ Conimbriga. Coimbra.

   ■ Cultura. London. Quarterly.

   ■ Democracia e Liberdade. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Dia, O. Lisbon. Daily newspaper.

   ■ Diário da Assembleia Nacional e Constituente. Lisbon. 1911.

   ■ Diário da Câmara de Deputados. Lisbon. 1911-26.

   ■ Diário de Lisboa. Lisbon. Daily newspaper.

   ■ Diário de Notícias. Lisbon. Daily newspaper of record.

   ■ Diário do Governo. Lisbon. 1910-74.

   ■ Diário do Senado. Lisbon. 1911-26.

   ■ Documentos. Centro de Documentação 25 de Abril. Coimbra. Quarterly.

   ■ E-Journal of Portuguese History. Providence, R.I. Quarterly.

   ■ Economia. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Economia e Finanças. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Economia e Sociologia. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Economist, The. London. Weekly magazine.

   ■ Estratégia Internacional. Lisbon.

   ■ Estudos Contemporâneos. Lisbon.

   ■ Estudos de economia. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Estudos históricos e económicos. Oporto. Semiannual.

   ■ Estudos Medievais. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Estudos Orientais. Lisbon, 1990. Semiannual.

   ■ Ethnologia. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Ethnologie Française. Paris. Quarterly.

   ■ Ethnos. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ European History Quarterly. Lancaster, U.K., 1970-. Quarterly.

   ■ Expresso. Lisbon. 1973-. Weekly newspaper.

   ■ Facts and Reports. Amsterdam. Collected press clippings.

   ■ Financial Times. London. Daily; special supplements on Portugal.

   ■ Finisterra. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Flama. Lisbon. Monthly magazine.

   ■ Garcia de Orta. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Gaya. Oporto. Semiannual.

   ■ Geographica: Revista da Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Hispania. USA. Quarterly.

   ■ Hispania Antiqua. Madrid. Semiannual.

   ■ Hispanic American Historical Review. Chapel Hill, N.C. Quarterly. História. Lisbon. Monthly.

   ■ Iberian Studies. Nottingham, U.K. Quarterly or Semiannual.

   ■ Indicadores económicos. Lisbon. Bank of Portugal. Monthly. Ingenium. Revista da Ordem dos Engenheiros. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ International Journal of Iberian Studies. London and Glasgow, 1987-. Semiannual.

   ■ Illustração Portugueza. Lisbon. 1911-1930s. Magazine. Instituto, O. Coimbra. Annual.

   ■ Itinerário. Leiden (Netherlands). 1976-. Semiannual. Jornal, O. Lisbon. Weekly newspaper. Jornal de Letras, O. Lisbon. Weekly culture supplement. Jornal do Fundão. Fundão, Beira Alta. Weekly newspaper. Journal of European Economic History. Quarterly.

   ■ Journal of Modern History. Chicago, Ill. Quarterly.

   ■ Journal of Southern European Society & Politics. Athens, Greece. 1995-. Quarterly.

   ■ Journal of the American Portuguese Culture Society. New York. 1966-81. Semiannual or annual. Ler História. Lisbon. Quarterly. Lisboa: Revista Municipal. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Lusíada: Revista trimestral de ciência e cultura. Lisbon. 1989-. Three times a year.

   ■ Lusitania Sacra. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Luso-Americano, O. Newark, N.J. Weekly newspaper.

   ■ Luso-Brazilian Review. Madison, Wisc. 1964-. Semiannual.

   ■ Lusotopie. Paris. 1995-. Annual.

   ■ Nova economia. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Numismática. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Oceanos. Lisbon. Bimonthly.

   ■ Ocidente. Lisbon. Monthly.

   ■ Olisipo. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Ordem do Exército. Lisbon. 1926-74. Monthly.

   ■ Penélope. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Política Internacional. Lisbon. 1990-. Quarterly.

   ■ Portugal. Annuário Estatístico do Ultramar. Lisbon. 1950-74.

   ■ Portugal em Africa. Lisbon. 1894-1910. Bimonthly.

   ■ Portugal socialista. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Portugália. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Portuguese & Colonial Bulletin. London. 1961-74. Quarterly. Portuguese Studies. London. 1985-. Annual.

   ■ Portuguese Studies Newsletter. Durham, N.H. 1976-90. Semiannual.

   ■ Portuguese Studies Review. Durham, N.H. 1991-2001; Trent, Ont. 2002-. Semiannual.

   ■ Portuguese Times. New Bedford, Mass. Weekly newspaper.

   ■ Povo Livre. Lisbon. Monthly.

   ■ Primeiro do Janeiro. Oporto. Daily newspaper.

   ■ Quaderni Portoghesi. Rome. 1974-. Semiannual.

   ■ Race. A Journal of Race and Group Relations. London. Quarterly.

   ■ Recherches en Anthropologie au Portugal. Paris. 1995-. Annual.

   ■ República, A. Lisbon. Daily newspaper.

   ■ Revista Crítica de Ciências Sociais. Coimbra. Quarterly.

   ■ Revista da Biblioteca Nacional. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Revista da Faculdade de Direito da Universidade de Lisboa. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Revista da Faculdade de Letras. Lisbon. Quarterly. Revista da Faculdade de Letras. Oporto. Semiannual. Revista da Universidade de Coimbra. Coimbra. Quarterly. Revista de Ciência Política. Lisbon. Semiannual. Revista de Ciências Agrárias. Lisbon. Semiannual. Revista de Economia. Lisbon. 1953-. Three times a year. Revista de Estudos Anglo-Portugueses. Lisbon. Annual. Revista de Estudos Históricos. Rio de Janeiro. Semiannual. Revista de Guimarães. Guimarães. Semiannual. Revista de História. São Paulo, Brazil. Semiannual. Revista de História Económica e Social. Oporto. Semiannual. Revista de Infanteria. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Revista Internacional de Estudos Africanos. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Revista Lusitana. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Revista Militar. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Revista Portuguesa de História. Coimbra. Quarterly.

   ■ Revue Geographique des Pyrenees et du Sud-Ouest. Paris. Semiannual.

   ■ Sábado. Lisbon. Weekly news magazine.

   ■ Seara Nova. Lisbon. 1921-. Bimonthly.

   ■ Século, O. Lisbon. Daily Newspaper.

   ■ Selecções do Readers Digest. Lisbon. Monthly.

   ■ Semanário económico. Lisbon. Weekly.

   ■ Setúbal arqueologica. Setúbal. Semiannual.

   ■ Sigila. Paris. 1998-. Semiannual.

   ■ Sintria. Sintra. Annual.

   ■ Sociedade e Território. Revista de estudos urbanos e regionais. Oporto. 1986-. Quarterly.

   ■ Studia. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Studies in the History of Gardens and Designed Landscapes. New York. Quarterly.

   ■ Studium Generale. Oporto. Quarterly.

   ■ Tempo, O. Lisbon. Daily newspaper.

   ■ Tempo e o Modo, O. Lisbon. 1968-74. Quarterly.

   ■ Trabalhos da Sociedade Portuguesa de Antropologia. Oporto. Semiannual.

   ■ Trabalhos de Antropologia E Etnologia. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Trabalhos de Arqueologia. Lisbon. Annual.

   ■ Translation. New York. Quarterly.

   ■ Ultramar. Lisbon. 1960-71. Quarterly.

   ■ Veja. São Paulo. Weekly news magazine.

   ■ Veleia. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Vida Mundial. Lisbon. Weekly news magazine.

   ■ West European Politics. London. Quarterly.

SUBJECT AREA: Chemical technology, Metallurgy

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Following an extensive education, in 1835 Bell entered the Tyneside chemical and iron business where his father was a partner; for about five years from 1845 he controlled the ironworks. In 1844, he and his two brothers leased an iron blast-furnace at Wylam on Tyne. In 1850, with partners, he started chemical works at Washington, near Gateshead. A few years later, with his two brothers, he set up the Clarence Ironworks on Teesside. In the 1880s, salt extraction and soda-making were added there; at that time the Bell Brothers' enterprises, including collieries, employed 6,000 people.

Lowthian Bell was a pioneer in applying thermochemistry to blast-furnace working. Besides his commercial interests, scientific experimentation and international travel, he found time to take a leading part in the promotion of British technical organizations; upon his death he left evidence of a prodigious level of personal activity.

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SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology

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After education at Warley Grammar School, Briggs entered St John's College, Cambridge, in 1577 and became a fellow in 1588. Having been Reader of the Linacre Lecture in 1592, he was appointed to the new Chair in Geometry at Gresham House (subsequently Gresham College), London, in 1596. Shortly after, he concluded that the logarithms developed by John Napier would be much more useful if they were calculated to the decimal base 10, rather than to the base e (the "natural" number 2.71828…), a suggestion with which Napier concurred. Until the advent of modern computing these decimal logarithms were invaluable for the accurate calculations involved in surveying, navigation and astronomy. In 1619 he accepted the Savilian Chair in Geometry at Oxford University, having two years previously published the base 10 logarithms of 1,000 numbers. The year 1624 saw the completion of his monumental Arithmetica Logarithmica, which contained fourteen-figure logarithms of 30,000 numbers, together with their trigonometric sines to fifteen decimal places and their tangents and secants to ten places!

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SUBJECT AREA: Civil engineering

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After a basic education in mathematics, latin, French and geometry, Clark was articled to a solicitor, but he left after two years because he did not like the work. He had no permanent training otherwise, and for four years he led an idle life, becoming self-taught in the subjects that interested him. He eventually became a teacher at his old school before entering Cambridge, although he returned home after two years without taking a degree. He then toured the European continent extensively, supporting himself as best he could. He returned to England in 1839 and obtained further teaching posts. With the railway boom in progress he decided to become a surveyor and did some work on a proposed line between Oxford and Brighton.

After being promised an interview with Robert Stephenson, he managed to see him in March 1846. Stephenson took a liking to Clark and asked him to investigate the strains on the Britannia Bridge tubes under various given conditions. This work so gained Stephenson's full approval that, after being entrusted with experiments and designs, Clark was appointed Resident Engineer for the Britannia Bridge across the Menai Straits. He not only completed the bridge, which was opened on 19 October 1850, but also wrote the history of its construction. After the completion of the bridge—and again without any professional experience—he was appointed Engineer-in-Chief to the Electric and International Telegraph Company. He was consulted by Captain Mark Huish of the London \& North Western Railway on a telegraphic system for the railway, and in 1853 he introduced the Block Telegraph System.

Clark was engaged on the Crystal Palace and was responsible for many railway bridges in Britain and abroad. He was Engineer and part constructor of the harbour at Callao, Peru, and also of harbour works at Colón, Panama. On canal works he was contractor for the marine canal, the Morskoy Canal, in 1875 between Kronstadt and St Petersburg. His great work on canals, however, was the concept with Edward Leader Williams of the hydraulically operated barge lift at Anderton, Cheshire, linking the Weaver Navigation to the Trent \& Mersey Canal, whose water levels have a vertical separation of 50 ft (15 m). This was opened on 26 July 1875. The structure so impressed the French engineers who were faced with a bottleneck of five locks on the Neuffossée Canal south of Saint-Omer that they commissioned Clark to design a lift there. This was completed in 1878 and survives as a historic monument. The design was also adopted for four lifts on the Canal du Centre at La Louvière in Belgium, but these were not completed until after Clark's death.

SUBJECT AREA: Steam and internal combustion engines

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Corliss's father was a physician and surgeon. The son was educated at Greenwich, New York, but while he showed an aptitude for mathematics and mechanics he first of all became a storekeeper and then clerk, bookkeeper, salesperson and official measurer and inspector of the cloth produced at W.Mowbray \& Son. He went to the Castleton Academy, Vermont, for three years and at the age of 21 returned to a store of his own in Greenwich. Complaints about stitching in the boots he sold led him to patent a sewing machine. He approached Fairbanks, Bancroft \& Co., Providence, Rhode Island, machine and steam engine builders, about producing his machine, but they agreed to take him on as a draughtsman providing he abandoned it. Corliss moved to Providence with his family and soon revolutionized the design and construction of steam engines. Although he started working out ideas for his engine in 1846 and completed one in 1848 for the Providence Dyeing, Bleaching and Calendering Company, it was not until March 1849 that he obtained a patent. By that time he had joined John Barstow and E.J.Nightingale to form a new company, Corliss Nightingale \& Co., to build his design of steam-engines. He used paired valves, two inlet and two exhaust, placed on opposite sides of the cylinder, which gave good thermal properties in the flow of steam. His wrist-plate operating mechanism gave quick opening and his trip mechanism allowed the governor to regulate the closure of the inlet valve, giving maximum expansion for any load. It has been claimed that Corliss should rank equally with James Watt in the development of the steam-engine. The new company bought land in Providence for a factory which was completed in 1856 when the Corliss Engine Company was incorporated. Corliss directed the business activities as well as technical improvements. He took out further patents modifying his valve gear in 1851, 1852, 1859, 1867, 1875, 1880. The business grew until well over 1,000 workers were employed. The cylindrical oscillating valve normally associated with the Corliss engine did not make its appearance until 1850 and was included in the 1859 patent. The impressive beam engine designed for the 1876 Centennial Exhibition by E. Reynolds was the product of Corliss's works. Corliss also patented gear-cutting machines, boilers, condensing apparatus and a pumping engine for waterworks. While having little interest in politics, he represented North Providence in the General Assembly of Rhode Island between 1868 and 1870.

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SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Weapons and armour

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Frederick W.Howe attended local schools until the age of 16 and then entered the machine shop of Gay \& Silver at North Chelmsford, Massachusetts, as an apprentice and remained with that firm for nine years. He then joined Robbins, Kendall \& Lawrence of Windsor, Vermont, as Assistant to Richard S. Lawrence in designing machine tools. A year later (1848) he was made Plant Superintendent. During his time with this firm, Howe designed a profiling machine which was used in all gun shops in the United States: a barrel-drilling and rifling machine, and the first commercially successful milling machine. Robbins \& Lawrence took to the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London, England, a set of rifles built on the interchangeable system. The interest this created resulted in a visit of some members of the British Royal Small Arms Commission to America and subsequently in an order for 150 machine tools, jigs and fixtures from Robbins \& Lawrence, to be installed at the small-arms factory at Enfield. From 1853 to 1856 Howe was in charge of the design and building of these machines. In 1856 he established his own armoury at Newark, New Jersey, but transferred after two years to Middletown, Connecticut, where he continued the manufacture of small arms until the outbreak of the Civil War. He then became Superintendent of the armoury of the Providence Tool Company at Providence, Rhode Island, and served in that capacity until the end of the war. In 1865 he went to Bridgeport, Connecticut, to assist Elias Howe with the manufacture of his sewing machine. After the death of Elias Howe, Frederick Howe returned to Providence to join the Brown \& Sharpe Manufacturing Company. As Superintendent of that establishment he worked with Joseph R. Brown in the development of many of the firm's products, including machinery for the Wilcox \& Gibbs sewing machine then being made by Brown \& Sharpe. From 1876 Howe was in business on his own account as a consulting mechanical engineer and in his later years he was engaged in the development of shoe machinery and in designing a one-finger typewriter, which, however, was never completed. He was granted several patents, mainly in the fields of machine tools and firearms. As a designer, Howe was said to have been a perfectionist, making frequent improvements; when completed, his designs were always sound.

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SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping

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King was educated at the High School of Glasgow, and then served an apprenticeship with the Port Glasgow shipyard of Russell \& Co. This was followed by experience in drawing offices in Port Glasgow, Hull and finally in Belfast, where he was responsible for the separate White Star Line drawing office of Harland \& Wolff Ltd, which was then producing the plans for the Atlantic passenger liners Majestic and Teutonic. Following certain unpopular government shipping enactments in 1890, a protest from shipbuilders and shipowners in Ireland, Liverpool and the West of Scotland led to the founding of a new classification society to compete against Lloyd's Register of Shipping. It became known as the British Corporation Register and had headquarters in Glasgow. King was recruited to the staff and by 1903 had become Chief Surveyor, a position he held until his retirement thirty-seven years later. By then the Register was a world leader, with hundreds of thousands of tons of shipping on its books; it acted as consultant to many governments and international agencies. Throughout his working life, King did everything in his power to quantify the risks and problems of ship operation: his contribution to the Load Lines Convention of 1929 was typical, and few major enactments in shipping were designed without his approval. During the inter-war period the performance of the British Corporation outshone that of all rivals, for which King deserved full credit. His especial understanding was for steel structures, and in this respect he ensured that the British Corporation enabled owners to build ships of strengths equal to any others despite using up to 10 per cent less steel within the structure. In 1949 Lloyd's Register of Shipping and the British Corporation merged to form the largest and most influential ship classification society in the world.

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SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy, Paper and printing

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The little that is known of Theophilus is what can be inferred from his great work, De diversis artibus. He was a Benedictine monk and priest living in north-west Germany, probably near an important art centre. He was an educated man, conversant with scholastic philosophy and at the same time a skilled, practising craftsman. Even his identity is obscure: Theophilus is a pseudonym, possibly for Roger of Helmarshausen, for the little that is known of both is in agreement.

Evidence in De diversis suggests that it was probably composed during 1110 to 1140. White (see Further Reading) goes on to suggest late 1122 or early 1123, on the grounds that Theophilus only learned of St Bernard of Clairvaulx's diatribe against lavish church ornamentation during the writing of the work, for it is only in the preface to Book 3 that Theophilus seeks to justify his craft. St Bernard's Apologia can be dated late 1122. No other medieval work on art combines the comprehensive range, orderly presentation and attention to detail as does De diversis. It has been described as an encyclopedia of medieval skills and crafts. It also offers the best and often the only description of medieval technology, including the first direct reference to papermaking in the West, the earliest medieval account of bell-founding and the most complete account of organ building. Many metallurgical techniques are described in detail, such as the making of a crucible furnace and bloomery hearth.

The treatise is divided into three books, the first on the materials and art of painting, the second on glassmaking, including stained glass, glass vessels and the blown-cylinder method for flat glass, and the final and longest book on metalwork, including working in iron, copper, gold and silver for church use, such as chalices and censers. The main texts are no mere compilations, but reveal the firsthand knowledge that can only be gained by a skilled craftsman. The prefaces to each book present perhaps the only medieval expression of an artist's ideals and how he sees his art in relation to the general scheme of things. For Theophilus, his art is a gift from God and every skill an act of praise and piety. Theophilus is thus an indispensable source for medieval crafts and technology, but there are indications that the work was also well known at the time of its composition and afterwards.

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