-
81 World War II
(1939-1945)In the European phase of the war, neutral Portugal contributed more to the Allied victory than historians have acknowledged. Portugal experienced severe pressures to compromise her neutrality from both the Axis and Allied powers and, on several occasions, there were efforts to force Portugal to enter the war as a belligerent. Several factors lent Portugal importance as a neutral. This was especially the case during the period from the fall of France in June 1940 to the Allied invasion and reconquest of France from June to August 1944.In four respects, Portugal became briefly a modest strategic asset for the Allies and a war materiel supplier for both sides: the country's location in the southwesternmost corner of the largely German-occupied European continent; being a transport and communication terminus, observation post for spies, and crossroads between Europe, the Atlantic, the Americas, and Africa; Portugal's strategically located Atlantic islands, the Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verde archipelagos; and having important mines of wolfram or tungsten ore, crucial for the war industry for hardening steel.To maintain strict neutrality, the Estado Novo regime dominated by Antônio de Oliveira Salazar performed a delicate balancing act. Lisbon attempted to please and cater to the interests of both sets of belligerents, but only to the extent that the concessions granted would not threaten Portugal's security or its status as a neutral. On at least two occasions, Portugal's neutrality status was threatened. First, Germany briefly considered invading Portugal and Spain during 1940-41. A second occasion came in 1943 and 1944 as Great Britain, backed by the United States, pressured Portugal to grant war-related concessions that threatened Portugal's status of strict neutrality and would possibly bring Portugal into the war on the Allied side. Nazi Germany's plan ("Operation Felix") to invade the Iberian Peninsula from late 1940 into 1941 was never executed, but the Allies occupied and used several air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands.The second major crisis for Portugal's neutrality came with increasing Allied pressures for concessions from the summer of 1943 to the summer of 1944. Led by Britain, Portugal's oldest ally, Portugal was pressured to grant access to air and naval bases in the Azores Islands. Such bases were necessary to assist the Allies in winning the Battle of the Atlantic, the naval war in which German U-boats continued to destroy Allied shipping. In October 1943, following tedious negotiations, British forces began to operate such bases and, in November 1944, American forces were allowed to enter the islands. Germany protested and made threats, but there was no German attack.Tensions rose again in the spring of 1944, when the Allies demanded that Lisbon cease exporting wolfram to Germany. Salazar grew agitated, considered resigning, and argued that Portugal had made a solemn promise to Germany that wolfram exports would be continued and that Portugal could not break its pledge. The Portuguese ambassador in London concluded that the shipping of wolfram to Germany was "the price of neutrality." Fearing that a still-dangerous Germany could still attack Portugal, Salazar ordered the banning of the mining, sale, and exports of wolfram not only to Germany but to the Allies as of 6 June 1944.Portugal did not enter the war as a belligerent, and its forces did not engage in combat, but some Portuguese experienced directly or indirectly the impact of fighting. Off Portugal or near her Atlantic islands, Portuguese naval personnel or commercial fishermen rescued at sea hundreds of victims of U-boat sinkings of Allied shipping in the Atlantic. German U-boats sank four or five Portuguese merchant vessels as well and, in 1944, a U-boat stopped, boarded, searched, and forced the evacuation of a Portuguese ocean liner, the Serpa Pinto, in mid-Atlantic. Filled with refugees, the liner was not sunk but several passengers lost their lives and the U-boat kidnapped two of the ship's passengers, Portuguese Americans of military age, and interned them in a prison camp. As for involvement in a theater of war, hundreds of inhabitants were killed and wounded in remote East Timor, a Portuguese colony near Indonesia, which was invaded, annexed, and ruled by Japanese forces between February 1942 and August 1945. In other incidents, scores of Allied military planes, out of fuel or damaged in air combat, crashed or were forced to land in neutral Portugal. Air personnel who did not survive such crashes were buried in Portuguese cemeteries or in the English Cemetery, Lisbon.Portugal's peripheral involvement in largely nonbelligerent aspects of the war accelerated social, economic, and political change in Portugal's urban society. It strengthened political opposition to the dictatorship among intellectual and working classes, and it obliged the regime to bolster political repression. The general economic and financial status of Portugal, too, underwent improvements since creditor Britain, in order to purchase wolfram, foods, and other materials needed during the war, became indebted to Portugal. When Britain repaid this debt after the war, Portugal was able to restore and expand its merchant fleet. Unlike most of Europe, ravaged by the worst war in human history, Portugal did not suffer heavy losses of human life, infrastructure, and property. Unlike even her neighbor Spain, badly shaken by its terrible Civil War (1936-39), Portugal's immediate postwar condition was more favorable, especially in urban areas, although deep-seated poverty remained.Portugal experienced other effects, especially during 1939-42, as there was an influx of about a million war refugees, an infestation of foreign spies and other secret agents from 60 secret intelligence services, and the residence of scores of international journalists who came to report the war from Lisbon. There was also the growth of war-related mining (especially wolfram and tin). Portugal's media eagerly reported the war and, by and large, despite government censorship, the Portuguese print media favored the Allied cause. Portugal's standard of living underwent some improvement, although price increases were unpopular.The silent invasion of several thousand foreign spies, in addition to the hiring of many Portuguese as informants and spies, had fascinating outcomes. "Spyland" Portugal, especially when Portugal was a key point for communicating with occupied Europe (1940-44), witnessed some unusual events, and spying for foreigners at least briefly became a national industry. Until mid-1944, when Allied forces invaded France, Portugal was the only secure entry point from across the Atlantic to Europe or to the British Isles, as well as the escape hatch for refugees, spies, defectors, and others fleeing occupied Europe or Vichy-controlled Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria. Through Portugal by car, ship, train, or scheduled civil airliner one could travel to and from Spain or to Britain, or one could leave through Portugal, the westernmost continental country of Europe, to seek refuge across the Atlantic in the Americas.The wartime Portuguese scene was a colorful melange of illegal activities, including espionage, the black market, war propaganda, gambling, speculation, currency counterfeiting, diamond and wolfram smuggling, prostitution, and the drug and arms trade, and they were conducted by an unusual cast of characters. These included refugees, some of whom were spies, smugglers, diplomats, and business people, many from foreign countries seeking things they could find only in Portugal: information, affordable food, shelter, and security. German agents who contacted Allied sailors in the port of Lisbon sought to corrupt and neutralize these men and, if possible, recruit them as spies, and British intelligence countered this effort. Britain's MI-6 established a new kind of "safe house" to protect such Allied crews from German espionage and venereal disease infection, an approved and controlled house of prostitution in Lisbon's bairro alto district.Foreign observers and writers were impressed with the exotic, spy-ridden scene in Lisbon, as well as in Estoril on the Sun Coast (Costa do Sol), west of Lisbon harbor. What they observed appeared in noted autobiographical works and novels, some written during and some after the war. Among notable writers and journalists who visited or resided in wartime Portugal were Hungarian writer and former communist Arthur Koestler, on the run from the Nazi's Gestapo; American radio broadcaster-journalist Eric Sevareid; novelist and Hollywood script-writer Frederick Prokosch; American diplomat George Kennan; Rumanian cultural attache and later scholar of mythology Mircea Eliade; and British naval intelligence officer and novelist-to-be Ian Fleming. Other notable visiting British intelligence officers included novelist Graham Greene; secret Soviet agent in MI-6 and future defector to the Soviet Union Harold "Kim" Philby; and writer Malcolm Muggeridge. French letters were represented by French writer and airman, Antoine Saint-Exupery and French playwright, Jean Giroudoux. Finally, Aquilino Ribeiro, one of Portugal's premier contemporary novelists, wrote about wartime Portugal, including one sensational novel, Volframio, which portrayed the profound impact of the exploitation of the mineral wolfram on Portugal's poor, still backward society.In Estoril, Portugal, the idea for the world's most celebrated fictitious spy, James Bond, was probably first conceived by Ian Fleming. Fleming visited Portugal several times after 1939 on Naval Intelligence missions, and later he dreamed up the James Bond character and stories. Background for the early novels in the James Bond series was based in part on people and places Fleming observed in Portugal. A key location in Fleming's first James Bond novel, Casino Royale (1953) is the gambling Casino of Estoril. In addition, one aspect of the main plot, the notion that a spy could invent "secret" intelligence for personal profit, was observed as well by the British novelist and former MI-6 officer, while engaged in operations in wartime Portugal. Greene later used this information in his 1958 spy novel, Our Man in Havana, as he observed enemy agents who fabricated "secrets" for money.Thus, Portugal's World War II experiences introduced the country and her people to a host of new peoples, ideas, products, and influences that altered attitudes and quickened the pace of change in this quiet, largely tradition-bound, isolated country. The 1943-45 connections established during the Allied use of air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands were a prelude to Portugal's postwar membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). -
82 common
1 ( the people) the commons le peuple ;C adj1 ( often encountered) [crime, illness, mistake, name, problem, reaction] courant, fréquent ; in common use d'un usage courant ; in common parlance dans le langage courant ; it is common for sb to do il est courant que qn fasse ; to be common among être répandu chez [children, mammals etc] ;2 ( shared) [aim, approach, attributes, border, enemy, language, interest, ownership] commun (to à) ; for the common good pour le bien commun ; by common agreement d'un commun accord ; it is common property c'est la propriété de tous ; it is common knowledge c'est de notoriété publique ;3 ( ordinary) [man, woman] du peuple (after n) ; the common people le peuple ; a common soldier un simple soldat ; the common herd péj la masse ; a common criminal péj un criminel ordinaire ;5 ( minimum expected) [courtesy, decency, humanity] le/la plus élémentaire ;7 Math [denominator, factor, multiple] commun.D in common adv phr en commun ; to have sth in common avoir qch en commun ; to hold sth in common Jur posséder qch en commun.to be as common as muck ou dirt ○ ( vulgar) être d'une vulgarité crasse ○ ; they are as common as muck ○ ( widespread) on en ramasse à la pelle ; to be on short commons GB être rationné, faire maigre hum ; to have the common touch avoir de la simplicité. -
83 offer
offer, US [transcription]["O ;f-"]A n1 ( proposition) gen, Fin offre f (to do de faire) ; an offer of help/work une offre d'assistance/de travail ; to make sb an offer faire une offre à qn ; job offer offre d'emploi ; an offer of marriage une proposition de mariage ; an offer of £10 per share une offre à 10 livres sterling l'action ; offers over/around 40,000 dollars offres supérieures à/autour de 40 000 dollars ; that's my final ou best offer c'est mon dernier mot ; to be open to offers être ouvert à toute proposition ; to put in ou make an offer on a house faire une offre sur une maison ; the house is under offer il y a une promesse d'achat sur cette maison ; or near(est) offer ( in property ad) à débattre ; offers in the region of £80,000 prix 80 000 livres, à débattre ;3 ( available) the goods/cases on offer were dear les marchandises/valises en vente étaient chères ; there's a lot/nothing on offer il y a beaucoup/peu de choix ; what's on offer in the catalogue? qu'est-ce qu'on propose dans le catalogue?B vtr1 ( proffer) donner [advice, explanation, information, friendship] ; offrir [cigarette, help, job, reward, suggestion, support] ; émettre [opinion] ; faire [reduction] ; proposer [service] ; accorder [discount] ; to offer sb sth, to offer sth to sb offrir qch à qn ; to offer to do se proposer pour faire ; ‘I'll do it,’ she offered ‘je le ferai,’ proposa-t-elle ; she has a lot to offer the company elle peut beaucoup apporter à la société ; he had little to offer in the way of news/evidence il n'avait pas beaucoup de nouvelles/preuves à apporter ;2 ( provide) offrir [facilities, advantages, guarantee, resistance] ; donner [insight] ; the tree offers protection from the rain l'arbre offre une protection contre la pluie ; this vest offers protection against bullets ce gilet protège des balles ;3 ( possess) posséder [language] ; avoir [experience] ; candidates must offer two foreign languages les candidats doivent posséder deux langues étrangères ;4 ( sell) offrir [goods] ; the radios were being offered at bargain prices les radios étaient vendues à prix réduit ; to offer sth for sale mettre qch en vente ;5 ( present) présenter ; the army/battleship offered its flank to the enemy l'armée/le cuirassé a présenté son flanc à l'ennemi.■ offer up:▶ offer [sth] up, offer up [sth] offrir [prayer] ; faire l'offrande de [animal, sacrifice] ; to offer up one's life for sth s'offrir en victime pour qch. -
84 dispute
[dɪsˈpju:t]dispute диспут; дебаты, полемика; beyond (или past, without) dispute вне сомнения; бесспорно; the matter is in dispute дело находится в стадии обсуждения boundary dispute пограничный спор demarcation dispute пограничный спор demarcation dispute спор о демаркационной линии dispute дебаты dispute дискуссия dispute дискутировать dispute диспут; дебаты, полемика; beyond (или past, without) dispute вне сомнения; бесспорно; the matter is in dispute дело находится в стадии обсуждения dispute диспут dispute обсуждать dispute обсуждение dispute оспаривать (первенство в состязании и т. п.) dispute оспаривать, подвергать сомнению (право на что-л., достоверность чего-л. и т. п.) dispute оспаривать dispute прения dispute пререкаться, ссориться dispute противиться; препятствовать; оказывать сопротивление; отстаивать dispute сомневаться dispute спор, разногласия; пререкания; labour (или industrial, trade) dispute трудовой конфликт dispute спор dispute спорить, оспаривать dispute спорить, дискутировать (with, against - с; on, about - о) dispute спорить dispute спорный вопрос dispute ставить под сомнение to dispute in arms every inch of ground отстаивать с оружием в руках каждую пядь земли to dispute the enemy's advance сдерживать наступление, продвижение противника fishing dispute конфликт в области рыболовства in dispute спорный industrial dispute производственный конфликт industrial dispute производственный спор industrial dispute трудовой спор (на предприятии между профсоюзом и работодателем) interunion dispute спор между различными профсоюзами (например, из-за того, кто должен вести коллективные переговоры) jurisdictional dispute юридический спор dispute спор, разногласия; пререкания; labour (или industrial, trade) dispute трудовой конфликт labour dispute трудовой конфликт labour dispute трудовой спор (особенно коллективный) labour: dispute dispute трудовой конфликт labour market dispute конфликт на рынке труда legal dispute правовой спор legal dispute юридические разногласия dispute диспут; дебаты, полемика; beyond (или past, without) dispute вне сомнения; бесспорно; the matter is in dispute дело находится в стадии обсуждения property dispute спор о праве собственности recognition dispute спор за признание (например, между различнами пофсоюзами за право ведения коллективных переговоров) trade dispute трудовой конфликт wage dispute конфликт из-за оплаты труда wage dispute спор по поводу заработной платы wage dispute трудовой конфликт -
85 guard
I[ga:d] n պահակ, ժամա պահ. պա հակա խումբ. երկթ. ուղեկցորդ. կոնդուկտոր, մրզ. պաշտպանական դիրք. the guards ռզմ. գվար դիա. (զգոնություն, աչալրջություն) be on guard զգույշ/զգոն լինել. պահակ լինել. be off guard զգոնություն չցուցաբերել, անհոգություն ցուցաբերել. on guard ռզմ. ժամապահության մեջ. mount guard ժամապահությունն ընդունել. relieve guard պահակը փոխել. station/set the guard պահակ/ժամապահ կանգնեցնել. guard of honour պատվավոր ժամապահ. strengthen the guard պաշտպանությունը ուժեղացնել. go on guard պա հակ կանգնել. a guard dog պահակաշուն. հմկրգ. guard bit պահպանող կարգII[ga:d] v պահպանել, պաշտ պա նել. հսկել, պահակություն անել. guard prisoners/prisoners of war բանտարկյալնե րին/պատե րազմի գերիներին հսկել. guard one’s property ունեցվածքը պաշտպանել. guard against ինչ-որ բանից պաշտպանել. guard a town agianst the enemy քաղաքը թշնամուց պաշտպանել
Страницы
См. также в других словарях:
enemy property — All property within enemy territory. If suffered to remain in the hostile country after the war breaks out, it becomes impressed with the national character of the belligerent where it is situated without regard to the owner s sentiments or… … Ballentine's law dictionary
Custodian of Enemy Property — The Custodian of Enemy Property is an institution that handles property claims created by war. In wartime, civilian property may be left behind or taken by the occupying state. In ancient times, such property was considered war loot, and the… … Wikipedia
Custodian for Enemy Property for India — The Custodian of Enemy Property for India is an Indian government department that is empowered to appropriate property in India owned by Pakistani nationals. After the Indo Pakistani War of 1965, the Enemy Property Act was promulgated in 1968 .… … Wikipedia
enemy — /en euh mee/, n., pl. enemies, adj. n. 1. a person who feels hatred for, fosters harmful designs against, or engages in antagonistic activities against another; an adversary or opponent. 2. an armed foe; an opposing military force: The army… … Universalium
enemy — en•e•my [[t]ˈɛn ə mi[/t]] n. pl. mies, adj. 1) a person who hates, opposes, or fosters harmful designs against another; hostile opponent 2) an opposing military force 3) a ship, aircraft, etc., of such a force 4) a hostile nation or state 5) a… … From formal English to slang
enemy — /ˈɛnəmi / (say enuhmee) noun (plural enemies) 1. someone who cherishes hatred or harmful designs against another; an adversary or opponent. 2. an armed foe; an opposing military force. 3. a hostile nation or state. 4. a subject of such a state. 5 …
Property — • The person who enjoys the full right to dispose of it insofar as is not forbidden by law Catholic Encyclopedia. Kevin Knight. 2006. Property Property … Catholic encyclopedia
enemy — Adversary; e.g. military adversary @ enemy alien An alien residing or traveling in a country which is at war with the country of which he is a national. Enemy aliens may be interned or restricted @ enemy belligerent Citizens who associate… … Black's law dictionary
enemy — Adversary; e.g. military adversary @ enemy alien An alien residing or traveling in a country which is at war with the country of which he is a national. Enemy aliens may be interned or restricted @ enemy belligerent Citizens who associate… … Black's law dictionary
Enemy combatant — This article is about persons held as enemy combatants. For the book, see Enemy combatant (book). Enemy combatant is a term historically referring to members of the armed forces of the state with which another state is at war.[1][2] Prior to 2008 … Wikipedia
Enemy of the people — Not to be confused with An Enemy of the People (the Henrik Ibsen play), the 2009 documentary film Enemies of the People (film), or Enemy of the state. The term enemy of the people is a fluid designation of political or class opponents of the… … Wikipedia
