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develop+...+method

  • 41 создавать

    •

    The magnetic moment produces a diamagnetic effect.

    •

    It is this reaction which builds up the reservoir of activated molecules.

    •

    Displacing a particle in one direction brings about a force in the opposite direction.

    •

    To build up (or produce) sufficient pressure so as to ensure...

    •

    If the rotor is given the shape of a polygon, the lines of force exert the desired torque.

    •

    The heat generated by magnetization...

    •

    The feedback generates parasitic laser oscillations.

    •

    The resistance element generates precision voltages.

    •

    The pump produces a vacuum of 0.1 mm.

    •

    When a current passes through a wire, it sets up a magnetic field around the wire.

    •

    The magnetic field sets up a magnetomotive force.

    •

    The flywheels set up in the spring-mounted screen a motion which...

    •

    The heating of the coils sets up a ventilating draught.

    •

    The object of the experiment is to build up a high current of charged particles.

    •

    The gradient of viscous shear stresses establishes a steady-state concentration gradient.

    •

    These energy transitions give rise to pockets of photons.

    •

    This brings with it acute problems of electrical interference.

    •

    In the past 20 years the electronics industry has generated many completely new technological systems.

    •

    The media bring into existence and cultivate a new form of common consciousness.

    II
    •

    The research staffs are evolving workable designs.

    •

    The engineers have come up with an improved technique for...

    •

    He originated the projection method.

    Русско-английский научно-технический словарь переводчика > создавать

  • 42 разработать новую методику

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > разработать новую методику

  • 43 вместо

    instead of, in place of, as an alternative, rather than; in favor of, in lieu of
    • Вместо того, чтобы пытаться провести общее исследование задачи, мы... - Rather than attempt a general investigation of the problem, we...
    • Вместо того, чтобы пытаться проделать это, мы... - Instead of attempting this, we...
    • Вместо этого давайте разработаем один общий метод, посредством которого... - Instead, let us develop a general method whereby...
    • Вместо этого мы должны предположить, что... - Instead, we must assume that...
    • Вместо этого мы обязаны сказать, что... - Instead, we must say that...
    • Вместо этого мы рассмотрим... - We direct our attention, rather, to...
    • Вместо этого мы удовольствуемся... - We content ourselves, instead, with...
    • Вместо этого нам напоминают, что... - One is instead reminded that...
    • Вместо этого предполагается, что... - Instead one assumes that...
    • Вместо этого, как было указано ранее, мы должны... - Instead, as mentioned above, we should...
    • Обычно вместо Р записывают (= используют) Q. - It is customary to write P in place of Q.
    • Предположим, что вместо этого мы заинтересованы в... - Suppose instead that we are interested in...

    Русско-английский словарь научного общения > вместо

  • 44 объяснять

    (= объяснить, см. также объясняться) explain, be responsible for, give account of, attribute to
    • Были также сделаны попытки объяснить... - Attempts have also been made to explain...
    • Было выдвинуто много теорий, чтобы объяснить... - Many theories have been advanced to explain...
    • В то же время необходимо объяснить, что... - At the same time it must be explained that...
    • Данная модель предназначена для того, чтобы объяснить... - The model seeks to explain...
    • Данная теория также объясняет тот факт, что... - This theory also explains the fact that...
    • Данный результат объясняет (= разъясняет)... - This result explains...
    • Здесь не делается попыток объяснить... - No attempt is made here to explain...
    • Как это следует объяснить? - How is this to be explained?
    • Качественно это можно объяснить на основе... - Qualitatively, this can be explained on the basis of...
    • Многие идеи были выдвинуты, чтобы объяснить... - Many ideas were put forward to explain...
    • Можно было бы попытаться объяснить этот эффект предположением, что... - One could try to explain this effect by assuming that...
    • Мы можем объяснить этот факт тем, что... - We can explain this fact by...
    • Мы уже объяснили, что понимается под... - We have already explained what is meant by...
    • Наиболее просто это было объяснено предположением, что... - This was most simply explained by the supposition that...
    • Объяснить это наилучшим образом можно с помощью примеров. - This is best made clear by means of examples.
    • Причина (для) этого может быть объяснена с помощью рис. 5. - The reason for this may be explained with reference to Figure 5.
    • Причина этого расхождения была объяснена Смитом [1]. - The reason for the discrepancy was explained by Smith [1].
    • Простая аналогия может объяснить (нам), как... - A simple analogy may explain how...
    • Такое поведение не может быть объяснено (влиянием и т. п.)... - This behavior cannot be explained by...
    • Чтобы объяснить..., мы должны выдвинуть предположение. - We must develop a hypothesis in order to explain...
    • Чтобы объяснить получившийся результат, мы могли бы предположить, что... - То explain the above result, we could suppose that...
    • Чтобы объяснить это странное поведение, мы... - То account for this strange behavior, we...
    • Чтобы объяснить это явление, мы... - In order to explain this phenomenon, we...
    • Эта гипотеза не объясняет механизма действия... - This hypothesis leaves unexplained (or fails to explain) the mechanism of...
    • Эта теория может также объяснить... - This theory may also account for... j
    • Эта точка зрения будет объяснена примерами, когда мы будем изучать метод... - This point will be clarified by examples when we study the method of...
    • Эти отдельные попытки объяснить... провалились. - These particular efforts fail to explain...
    • Эти факты могут быть объяснены, если... - These facts can be explained if...
    • Эти явления могут быть объяснены (чем-л). - These effects can be accounted for by...
    • Это не объясняет существования (чего-л). - It does not explain the existence of...
    • Это объясняет доминирование... - This explains the predominance of...
    • Это также объясняет поведение... - It also explains the behavior of...

    Русско-английский словарь научного общения > объяснять

  • 45 посредством

    (= с помощью) via, by means of, by virtue of, by way of, through
    • Вместо этого давайте разработаем (один) общий метод, посредством которого... - Instead, let us develop a general method whereby...
    • Однако мы можем представить эту функцию посредством... - We can, however, represent the function by means of...
    • Смит [1] описывает простой тест, посредством которого... - Smith [1] describes a simple test whereby...
    • Формула (4) может быть выражена в несколько отличной форме посредством... - The result (4) may be expressed in a slightly different form by means of...

    Русско-английский словарь научного общения > посредством

  • 46 división2

    2 = divide, division, partition, split, splitting up, cleavage, rift, segmentation, splitting, splintering, splinter, balkanization, fault line, parting, divided line.
    Ex. Nevertheless, this basic divide remains a useful distinction between two major categories of indexing systems.
    Ex. In simple terms, the essence of subject organisation is the division of literature (or references to literature) into manageable, or scannable categories, with each category being associated with an index term.
    Ex. It is concluded that the choice of citation and co-citation thresholds can be influenced by formal considerations which ensure statistically meaningful partitions rather than arbitrary decision which can produce meaningless interpretations.
    Ex. The information note may consist of a brief history of a corporate body, highlighting changes in the body's name, mergers with other bodies, splits within or between bodies, etc.
    Ex. New topics develop not merely by fission -- the splitting up of established subjects -- but also by fusion -- the merging of previously distinct subjects.
    Ex. After the Civil War, Emerson saw in collegiate education 'a cleavage occurring in the hitherto firm granite of the past'.
    Ex. Chief among these challenges is the technological rift that exists between the Third World and on-line systems that have their roots in technologically advanced societies.
    Ex. Using this method, the segmentation of natural keywords can be handled flexibly.
    Ex. The most obvious threat is the splitting of the media sector into separate information and entertainment sectors.
    Ex. This splintering of membership hinders the development of library unionism as a factor within the profession.
    Ex. However, others see the splinters in the discipline as a step in its revitalization.
    Ex. This shifts in emphasis mirror the general balkanization of modern American society.
    Ex. These views underlie the fault line that divides British politics today.
    Ex. A brief selection of possible scientific explanations for a number of biblical miracles -- Noah's flood, the parting of the Red Sea, the burning bush, the ten plagues, manna from heaven, and the raising of Lazarus -- is provided.
    Ex. The 1944 Education Act established free, universal secondary education but on the divided lines suited to the needs of capitalism.
    ----
    * división cultural, la = cultural divide, the.
    * división del mercado por grupos de consumidores = market segmentation.
    * división del trabajo = division of labour.
    * división de opiniones = division of opinion, split decision, divided opinions.
    * división de poderes = division of powers.
    * división digital, la = digital divide, the.
    * división + no estar clara = blur + division.
    * división política = political division.
    * división territorial = land division.
    * haber división de opiniones = be split on, opinion + be divided.
    * haber división de opiniones entre los críticos = critics + be divided.
    * hacer desaparecer una división = blur + division.
    * punto de división = break.
    * salvar la división = bridge + the divide.

    Spanish-English dictionary > división2

  • 47 docente2

    2 = educational, teaching.
    Ex. The collections we develop, the attempt that we make is an educational effort, and it seems to me that our subject headings are simply part of that, and they should be part of that.
    Ex. The teaching programme includes large postgraduate courses and an undergraduate course, each with 50 students a year with a total of 250 overall.
    ----
    * método docente = teaching method.

    Spanish-English dictionary > docente2

  • 48 división

    f.
    1 division, sharing out, distribution, partition.
    2 separation, division, disunion, split-up.
    3 division.
    4 division, branch, subsidiary.
    5 partition, division, wall.
    6 department, sector, division.
    7 scission, division.
    8 splitting, division.
    La división del átomo The splitting of the atom.
    9 division, military division.
    10 Division.
    11 cleavage.
    * * *
    1 division
    2 figurado division, divergence
    \
    división acorazada/blindada MILITAR armoured (US armored) division
    división de honor DEPORTE league of honour (US honor)
    primera/segunda división DEPORTE first/second division
    * * *
    noun f.
    * * *
    SF
    1) (=separación) [de célula] division; [de átomo] splitting; [de gastos, ganancias] division
    2) (Mat) division

    hacer una división — to divide, do a division

    3) (=desunión) [de partido, familia] division, split
    4) (Dep) division

    división de honor — top division; (Ftbl) premier division

    5) (Mil) division
    6) (Com) (=sección) division
    7) (Bio) (=categoría) category
    8) (=zona)

    división administrativa, división territorial — administrative region

    * * *
    a) (Mat) division
    b) ( desunión) division
    c) ( del átomo) splitting; ( de célula) division, splitting; ( de herencia) division, sharing (out)
    d) (Adm, Dep, Mil) division
    * * *
    a) (Mat) division
    b) ( desunión) division
    c) ( del átomo) splitting; ( de célula) division, splitting; ( de herencia) division, sharing (out)
    d) (Adm, Dep, Mil) division
    * * *
    división1

    Ex: Computers have circuits for performing arithmetic operations, such as: addition, subtraction, division, multiplication and exponentiation.

    división2
    2 = divide, division, partition, split, splitting up, cleavage, rift, segmentation, splitting, splintering, splinter, balkanization, fault line, parting, divided line.

    Ex: Nevertheless, this basic divide remains a useful distinction between two major categories of indexing systems.

    Ex: In simple terms, the essence of subject organisation is the division of literature (or references to literature) into manageable, or scannable categories, with each category being associated with an index term.
    Ex: It is concluded that the choice of citation and co-citation thresholds can be influenced by formal considerations which ensure statistically meaningful partitions rather than arbitrary decision which can produce meaningless interpretations.
    Ex: The information note may consist of a brief history of a corporate body, highlighting changes in the body's name, mergers with other bodies, splits within or between bodies, etc.
    Ex: New topics develop not merely by fission -- the splitting up of established subjects -- but also by fusion -- the merging of previously distinct subjects.
    Ex: After the Civil War, Emerson saw in collegiate education 'a cleavage occurring in the hitherto firm granite of the past'.
    Ex: Chief among these challenges is the technological rift that exists between the Third World and on-line systems that have their roots in technologically advanced societies.
    Ex: Using this method, the segmentation of natural keywords can be handled flexibly.
    Ex: The most obvious threat is the splitting of the media sector into separate information and entertainment sectors.
    Ex: This splintering of membership hinders the development of library unionism as a factor within the profession.
    Ex: However, others see the splinters in the discipline as a step in its revitalization.
    Ex: This shifts in emphasis mirror the general balkanization of modern American society.
    Ex: These views underlie the fault line that divides British politics today.
    Ex: A brief selection of possible scientific explanations for a number of biblical miracles -- Noah's flood, the parting of the Red Sea, the burning bush, the ten plagues, manna from heaven, and the raising of Lazarus -- is provided.
    Ex: The 1944 Education Act established free, universal secondary education but on the divided lines suited to the needs of capitalism.
    * división cultural, la = cultural divide, the.
    * división del mercado por grupos de consumidores = market segmentation.
    * división del trabajo = division of labour.
    * división de opiniones = division of opinion, split decision, divided opinions.
    * división de poderes = division of powers.
    * división digital, la = digital divide, the.
    * división + no estar clara = blur + division.
    * división política = political division.
    * división territorial = land division.
    * haber división de opiniones = be split on, opinion + be divided.
    * haber división de opiniones entre los críticos = critics + be divided.
    * hacer desaparecer una división = blur + division.
    * punto de división = break.
    * salvar la división = bridge + the divide.

    división3
    3 = unit, division.

    Ex: Therefore, during the concluding phase of the revision project, the representatives of ALA units and other organizations will function as a single group.

    Ex: She did not know at the time that she would never return to that department, or to the larger division that later incorporated it.
    * característica de división = characteristic of division.
    * de la división = divisional.
    * división canónica = canonical division.
    * división de forma = form division.
    * división de honor = premiership.
    * división del censo = census tract.
    * división de país = country division.
    * División de Préstamo de la Biblioteca Británica (BLLD) = British Library Lending Division (BLLD).
    * División de Servicios Bibliográficos de la Biblioteca Británica (BLBSD) = British Library Bibliographic Services Division (BLBSD).
    * división en departamentos = departmentation.
    * división en secciones = departmentation.
    * división enumerada = enumerated division.
    * división geográfica = geographical division.
    * jugador de primera división = major league player.
    * primera división = premiership.
    * Primera División, la = First Division, the.
    * sin división espacial = spatially unstructured.

    * * *
    1 ( Mat) division
    tengo que hacer cinco divisiones I have to do five divisions o division sums
    2 (desunión) division
    hay divisiones/hay una división en el seno del partido there are divisions/there is a division within the party
    3 (del átomo) splitting; (de una célula) division, splitting; (de una herencia) division, sharing, sharing out
    4 ( Mil) division
    la División Azul the Blue Division
    5 ( Dep) division
    la Primera División the First Division
    6 ( Adm) division
    la división financiera the financial division o section
    Compuestos:
    administrative region
    separation of powers
    division of labor*
    administrative region
    * * *

     

    división sustantivo femenino ( en general) division;

    división sustantivo femenino division: la división acorazada está en camino, the armoured division is on the way

    ' división' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    casta
    - interfase
    - partición
    - tercera
    - cabeza
    - compás
    - condado
    - decir
    - distribución
    - intendencia
    - ocupar
    - repartición
    - sección
    - separación
    - separar
    English:
    border
    - bracket
    - counterpart
    - division
    - into
    - part
    - relegate
    - severance
    - split
    - act
    - partition
    - season
    - state
    - tracking
    * * *
    1. [repartición] division;
    [partición] splitting up; [de átomo] splitting;
    hablaron sobre la división de la herencia they talked about how the inheritance was to be divided
    división de poderes separation of powers;
    división del trabajo division of labour
    2. [diversidad]
    hubo división de opiniones opinion was divided;
    aquí hay división de gustos musicales people have different tastes in music here
    3. [desunión] division;
    hay mucha división en el partido the party is very divided, there's a lot of division in the party
    4. [departamento] division, department;
    la división comercial de la empresa the firm's commercial department o division
    5. [matemática] division
    6. [militar] division
    división acorazada armoured division
    7. [deportiva] division;
    primera/segunda división first/second division;
    bajar a segunda división to be relegated to the second division
    la división de honor the first division, Br ≈ the Premier League
    * * *
    f
    1 MAT, MIL, DEP division
    2
    :
    hubo división de opiniones there were differences of opinion
    * * *
    división nf, pl - siones : division
    * * *
    división n division

    Spanish-English dictionary > división

  • 49 docente

    adj.
    teaching.
    personal docente teaching staff
    f. & m.
    teacher.
    * * *
    1 teaching
    1 teacher
    * * *
    1. noun mf. 2. adj.
    * * *
    1.
    ADJ teaching antes de s
    2.
    * * *
    adjetivo < personal> teaching (before n)
    * * *
    adjetivo < personal> teaching (before n)
    * * *
    docente1
    1 = teacher, educator.

    Ex: For example a set of slides for use by teachers may be indexed according to alphabetical subject headings.

    Ex: I believe very, very firmly that librarians are educators.

    docente2
    2 = educational, teaching.

    Ex: The collections we develop, the attempt that we make is an educational effort, and it seems to me that our subject headings are simply part of that, and they should be part of that.

    Ex: The teaching programme includes large postgraduate courses and an undergraduate course, each with 50 students a year with a total of 250 overall.
    * método docente = teaching method.

    * * *
    ‹personal› teaching ( before n)
    centro docente ( frml); school, educational o teaching institution ( frml)
    * * *

    docente adjetivo teaching
    centro docente, educational centre
    ' docente' also found in these entries:
    English:
    experience
    - teaching centre
    - teaching staff
    - dean
    - educational
    - faculty
    - fellow
    - staff
    - teacher
    - teaching
    * * *
    ♦ adj
    teaching;
    la carrera docente está muy desprestigiada a teaching career no longer has the status it once had;
    centro docente educational institution;
    personal docente teaching staff
    ♦ nmf
    teacher
    * * *
    I adj teaching atr ;
    cuerpo docente teaching staff;
    II m/f teacher
    * * *
    docente adj
    : educational, teaching
    : teacher, lecturer

    Spanish-English dictionary > docente

  • 50 ключ

    criterion, key, keyword, ( цоколя лампы) alignment pin, guide pin, pip, aligning plug, spring
    * * *
    ключ м.
    1. (инструмент, напр. гаечный) брит. spanner; амер. wrench
    2. эл. switch
    3. элк. gate
    по сигна́лу «посы́лка» ключ открыва́ется и пропуска́ет выходно́й сигна́л генера́тора посы́лки — the “mark” signal causes the gate to pass the output of the mark oscillator
    4. свз. key
    рабо́тать ключо́м — send with a key
    га́ечный, га́зовый ключ — gas spanner, alligator wrench
    га́ечный, двусторо́нний ключ — double-ended spanner, double-ended wrench
    га́ечный, динамометри́ческий ключ — dynamometric [torque] wrench
    га́ечный ключ для кру́глых га́ек с нару́жным па́зом — pin-type spanner wrench
    га́ечный ключ для тру́бных муфт — union wrench
    га́ечный, коле́нчатый ключ — bent spanner, bent wrench
    га́ечный, косо́й ключ — skew spanner, angle wrench
    га́ечный, крючко́вый ключ — hook-type spanner, hook-type wrench
    га́ечный, накидно́й ключ — ring spanner, box wrench
    га́ечный, односторо́нний ключ — single-ended spanner, single-ended wrench
    га́ечный, прямо́й ключ — straight spanner
    га́ечный, разводно́й ключ — adjustable spanner, adjustable wrench
    га́ечный, рожко́вый ключ для кру́глых га́ек — double-pin spanner wrench
    га́ечный ключ с откры́тым зе́вом — open spanner
    га́ечный ключ с трещо́ткой — ratchet wrench
    га́ечный, тари́рованный ключ — torque wrench
    га́ечный, торцо́вый ключ — box spanner, socket wrench
    га́ечный, универса́льный ключ — universal spanner, general utility [universal] wrench
    га́ечный, шестигра́нный ключ — hexagon spanner, hex-nut wrench
    дверно́й ключ — door key
    ключ для регулиро́вки кла́панов — valve spanner, valve wrench
    ключ зажига́ния — ignition key
    ключ ко́да — key letter
    коммута́торный ключ — (switchboard) key
    коммута́торный ключ без аррети́ра — nonlocking key
    коммута́торный, вызывно́й ключ — ringing [signalling] key
    коммута́торный ключ за́нятости — busy key
    коммута́торный ключ избира́тельного вы́зова — selector key
    коммута́торный, испыта́тельный ключ — test key
    коммута́торный ключ обра́тного вы́зова — ring-back key
    коммута́торный, опро́сно-вызывно́й ключ — брит. speak-ring key; амер. listening key
    коммута́торный, отбо́йный ключ — release [clearing] key
    коммута́торный, переда́точный ключ — transfer switch
    коммута́торный ключ повто́рного вы́зова — recalling key
    коммута́торный, про́бный ключ — test key
    коммута́торный, разгово́рный ключ — talking [speaking] key
    коммута́торный, разъедини́тельный ключ — interruption [cut-off] key
    коммута́торный ключ с аррети́ром — locking key
    маршру́тный ключ ж.-д. — route switch, route key
    патро́нный ключ — chuck [socket] wrench
    ключ резцедержа́теля — toolpost wrench
    свечно́й ключ — spark-plug spanner; spark-plug wrench
    телегра́фный ключ — telegraph [sender, operating, manipulating, Morse] key
    опера́тор хорошо́ рабо́тает телегра́фным ключо́м — this operator has a clean-cut method of sending
    передава́ть телегра́фным ключо́м — send with a hand key
    приобрета́ть уве́ренные на́выки рабо́ты телегра́фным ключо́м — develop a good “fist”
    рабо́тать телегра́фным ключо́м — send with a hard key
    тренирова́ться в рабо́те телегра́фным ключо́м — practice Morse-code keying
    уме́ние хорошо́ рабо́тать телегра́фным ключо́м прихо́дит с пра́ктикой — good sending is a matter of practice
    телегра́фный ключ Мо́рзе — Morse key
    теплово́й ключ — thermal switch
    тру́бный ключ — pipe wrench
    тру́бный, аллига́торный ключ — alligator wrench
    тру́бный, цепно́й ключ — chain pipe wrench
    ключ управле́ния — control key, control switch
    цепно́й ключ — chain wrench
    электро́нный ключ — electronic switch

    Русско-английский политехнический словарь > ключ

  • 51 главная цель

    Главная цель-- The principal objective of this work was to develop a method of obtaining fracture toughness from small surveillance specimens.

    Русско-английский научно-технический словарь переводчика > главная цель

  • 52 schaffen

    schaf·fen
    1. schaf·fen <schaffte, geschafft> [ʼʃafn̩]
    vt
    etw \schaffen to manage [to do] sth;
    ein Examen \schaffen to pass an exam;
    eine Hürde \schaffen to manage [or clear] a hurdle;
    einen Termin \schaffen to make a date;
    ich schaffe es nicht mehr I can't manage [or cope] any more, I can't go on;
    wie schaffst du das nur? how do you [manage to] do it [all]?;
    wir \schaffen das schon we'll manage;
    wie soll ich das bloß \schaffen? how am I supposed to do [or manage] that?;
    das hätten wir/das wäre geschafft! [there,] that's done;
    du schaffst es schon you'll do [or manage] it;
    schaffst du es noch? can you manage?;
    es ist geschafft it's done
    2) (fam: fertig bringen)
    es \schaffen, etw zu tun to manage to do sth;
    das hast du wieder mal geschafft you've [gone and] done it again;
    ich habe es nicht mehr geschafft, dich anzurufen I didn't get round to calling you
    3) ( gelangen)
    wie sollen wir das auf den Berg \schaffen? how are we supposed [or will we manage] to get that up the mountain?;
    wir müssen es bis zur Grenze \schaffen we've got to get to the border;
    schaffe ich es bis zum Flughafen? will I get to the airport on time [or in good time] ?
    etw \schaffen to manage sth ( fam)
    ich habe es nicht geschafft I couldn't manage it all
    5) ( bringen)
    jdn/ etw in etw dat /zu etw etc. \schaffen to bring sb/sth in sth/to sth etc.;
    etw in etw \schaffen to put sth in sth
    6) (sl: erschöpfen)
    jdn \schaffen to take it out of [or ( Brit) (sl) to knacker] sb;
    geschafft sein to be exhausted [or ( fam) shattered] [or ( Brit) (sl) knackered]
    2. schaf·fen < schuf, geschaffen> [ʼʃafn̩]
    vt
    etw \schaffen
    1) ( herstellen) to create sth;
    eine Methode/ein System \schaffen to create [or develop] a method/system;
    dafür bist du wie ge\schaffen you're just made for it
    2) (geh: er\schaffen) to create sth
    3) ( verursachen) to cause [or create] sth;
    Frieden \schaffen to make peace;
    Versöhnung [zwischen ihnen] \schaffen to bring about reconciliation [between them], to reconciliate them
    3. schaf·fen schaffte, geschafft> [ʼʃafn̩]
    vi
    (südd, österr, schweiz) ( arbeiten)
    irgendwo/bei jdm \schaffen [gehen] [to go] to work somewhere/for sb;
    nichts mit jdm/etw zu \schaffen haben to have nothing to do with sb/sth;
    ich habe damit nichts zu \schaffen that has nothing to do with me;
    was hast du mit ihm zu \schaffen? what got you mixed up with him?;
    was hast du/haben Sie da zu \schaffen? what do you think you're doing there?, lost something? ( iron)
    daran hast du/haben Sie nichts zu \schaffen! ( fam) there's nothing for you there, you'll find nothing of interest there;
    jd macht jdm [mit etw] zu \schaffen sb annoys [or irritates] sb [with sth], sb['s sth] gets on sb's wick ( Brit) ( fam)
    jdm [mit etw dat] zu \schaffen machen to cause sb [a lot of] trouble [with sth];
    mein Herz macht mir noch zu \schaffen my heart's still giving me trouble [or ( Brit) (sl) gyp];
    sich dat an etw dat zu \schaffen machen to start tampering/fumbling with sth
    4. Schaf·fen -s> [ʼʃafn̩] nt
    kein pl ( geh) creative activity; ( einzelne Werke) work[s pl]

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch für Studenten > schaffen

  • 53 wyprac|ować

    pf — wyprac|owywać impf vt 1. (osiągnąć) to acquire, to gain
    - wypracować zysk to make a profit
    - wypracować sobie dobrą opinię to gain a. earn a good reputation
    2. (stworzyć) to develop, to work a. hammer [sth] out, to work a. hammer out
    - wypracować własną metodę badawczą to work out one’s own method of research
    - stronom udało się wypracować porozumienie the parties managed to hammer out an agreement

    The New English-Polish, Polish-English Kościuszko foundation dictionary > wyprac|ować

  • 54 цель

    сущ.
    1. aim; 2. target; 3. purpose; 4. object; 5. objective; 6. goal; 7. end; 8. point
    Русское существительное цель многозначно и относится как к физической, так и к интеллектуальной сферам деятельности, не указывает на конкретные причины, называющие цель и желаемый результат. В английском же языке эквиваленты, напротив, содержат в себе указание на причины, характер самой цели и желаемый результат.
    1. aim — (существительное aim многозначно и соответствует двум значениям русского слова цель): a) цель, прицел, прицеливание, линия прицела: to take aim — прицеливаться; to miss the aim — промахнуться/не попасть в цель; to hit the aim — попасть в цель My aim wasn't very good and the ball went over the fence. — Я плохо прицелился, и мяч улетел через забор. What part of the target are you taking aim at? — В какую часть мишени ты целишься? Не quickly regained his balance, took aim, and fired. — Он быстро вновь обрел равновесие, прицелился и выстрелил. b) цель, намерение, план, планы, стремление, замыслы (то что вы надеетесь достичь, приложив усилия): sinister aims — зловещие замыслы; ambicious aims — честолюбивые планы The aim of the project is to help patients to be more independent. — Цель этого проекта — помочь пациентам стать более самостоятельными. The group was committed to achieving its aims through peaceful means. — Группа стремится к достижению своих целей мирными средствами. The council's aim is to improve services and cut costs. — Цель комитета — улучшить обслуживание и сократить расходы. The course's aim is to train students to develop their communicative skills. — Цель курса — помочь студентам развить их коммуникативные навыки.
    2. target — (существительное target многозначно; используется в прямом смысле как объект атаки/нападения, а также и в метафорическом, переносном смысле: цель деятельности): a) цель, мишень (при стрельбе, в спорте, игре), объект для нападения, объект для критики, объект для насмешек и т. д.: Few players managed to get their shots on target. — Мало кто из игроков смог послать мяч в цель./Мало кто из игроков смог послать стрелу в цель. Foreigners have become targets for attack by terrorists. — Иностранцы стали объектом нападения террористов. The house was left vacant and therefore a target for vandals. — Оставленный пустым дом стал объектом нападения вандалов./Оставленный пустым дом стал объектом нападения хулиганов. His war records became a target for his enemies. — Его военные заслуги сделали его мишенью для нападок недоброжелателей. b) заданная цель, поставленная задача ( часто выраженная в деньгах): prime target — приоритетная задача; to set a target — ставить цель/поставить задачу; to meet a target — достичь цели Target for the appeal is $20.000 for children's charities. — Цель обращения — собрать двадцать тысяч долларов на благотворительные цели для нуждающихся детей. The magazine has a target readership of half a million people. — Журнал ставит своей целью достичь полумиллионного тиража. We think teenagers are a prime target for the anti-smoking campaign. — Нам кажется, что основным объектом кампании против курения являются подростки.
    3. purpose — цель ( предполагает получение желаемого результата путем конкретных действий): specific (definite, unchanging, common, essential, temporary) purpose — особая (ясная, неизменная, общая, основная, временная) цель; in/with didactic/educational (patriotic, propagandistic) purposes — в воспитательных (патриотических, пропагандистских) целях; the sole purpose of doing it — единственная цель этих действий; to pursue a purpose — преследовать цель The author's purpose in writing this book was to draw attention to the problems of homeless children. — Автор написал эту книгу с целью привлечь внимание к судьбе/проблемам бездомных детей. The purpose of his tour is to attend the conference. — Цель его поездки — участие в конференции. The purpose of this dictionary is to help students of English. — Цель этого словаря — помочь изучающим английский язык./Задача этого словаря — помочь изучающим английский язык. Her sole purpose in being here was to kill some time. — Единственной целью ее прихода сюда было убить время. You must decide which method suits your purpose best. — Вы должны решить, какой метод наиболее соответствует вашей цели.
    4. object — цель, конечная цель (нечто, что вы планируете достичь, особенно труднодостижимое; употребляется только в единственном числе): the object of the exercise — цель ( любого) действия His object was to gain time until help could arrive. — У него была одна цель — выиграть время, пока не придет помощь. The object of the research is to find a cure for this illness. — Цель этого исследования — найти средство от этой болезни. In this game the object is to score as many points as you can in the time given. — Цель этой игры — набрать как можно больше очков в заданное время.
    5. objective — цель, задача, стремление (конечный результат, на который направлена вся деятельность; употребляется в основном в ситуациях, связанных с бизнесом и политикой): key objective — основная цель; primary/prime/principal objective — основная цель/важная цель; overriding objective — первостепенная цель/ приоритетная цель; ultimate objective — конечная цель; to accomplish/to achieve/to attain an objective — достигать цели; to fulfill/to meet/to reach one's objectives — выполнить задуманное/выполнить за планированное/ довести задуманное до конца/достигнуть цели I am not sure I understand the objective of this exercise. — Я не совсем понимаю цель этой деятельности. The main objective for unions should still be to safeguard the wages and conditions of their members. — Основной целью профсоюзов должны оставаться недопущение понижения зарплаты и ухудшения условий труда. One of the objectives behind the current advertising compaign is to increase sales overseas. — Одна из целей проводимой рекламной кампании — увеличение продаж за рубежом. This company is constantly failing to achieve its objectives. — Эта фирма почти никогда не добивается своих целей.
    6. goal — цель, задачи, планы, стремления, перспективы на будущее ( обозначает планы — личные или общественные — как ориентир для дальнейшего развития, даже если на достижение их потребуется длительный период): definite (ultimate, desired, stimulating) goal — четкие (конечные, желаемые, стимулирующие/придающие мотивированность деятельности) планы/четкие (конечные, желаемые, стимулирующие/придающие мотивированность деятельности) задачи/четкие (конечные, желаемые, стимулирующие/придающие мотивированность деятельности) цели; veiled (vague, illusory, mysterious) goal — неясные (туманные, иллюзорные, загадочные) цели/иеясные (туманные, иллюзорные, загадочные) перспективы; luminous (glittering, common, traditional, selfsame) goal — сияющие (манящие, обычные, общепринятые, неизменные) цели/сияющие (манящие, обычные, общепринятые, неизменные) планы/сияющие (манящие, обычные, общепринятые, неизменные) задачи; to achieve/to attain (to cherish, to gain, to realize) goal (s) — достигать (лелеять, добиваться, реализовать/воплощать) цели Our goal is to provide a good standard of medical care. — Наша цель — добиваться высокого уровня медицинского обслуживания. You should set goals for yourself at the beginning of each school year. — Ежегодно в начале учебного года следует ставить перед собой цели на этот год./Ежегодно в начале учебного года следует продумывать, чего ты хотел бы достичь в предстоящем году. More motivation can be created if the children have definite goals toward which they can work. — Если перед детьми стоят ясные цели, их работа может быть более мотивированной./Если перед детьми стоят ясные цели, их работа может быть более осмысленной. Our goal is to radically reduce unemployment within five years. — Наша цель — радикально сократить уровень безработицы в течение следующих пяти лет./Наша задача — радикально сократить уровень безработицы в ближайшие пять лет.
    7. end — конечная цель (в данном значении end употребляется только во множественном числе, предполагает корыстные устремления/ цели/интересы, часто нечестные средства их достижения): selfish (personal, sordid/dirty, petty, shameful, disastrous) ends — эгоистические (личные, грязные, низменные, постыдные, губительные) цели/эгоистические (личные, грязные, низменные, постыдные, губительные) интересы/эгоистические (личные, грязные, низменные, постыдные, губительные) устремления; political (commercial) ends — политические (коммерческие/торговые) соображения/политические (коммерческие/торговые) цели The demonstrators' ends do not justify their means. — Цели демонстрантов не оправдывают используемые ими средства. Racial tension in the country is exaggerated for political ends. — Напряженность расовых отношений в стране преувеличивается в политических целях./Напряженность расовых отношений в стране раздувается в политических целях. She used people for her own ends. — Она пользовалась людьми в своих корыстных целях. Business manipulates political issues for commercial ends. — Бизнес тенденциозно манипулирует политическими вопросами для достижении своих коммерческих целей.
    8. point — цель, задача, смысл (в данном значении используется только в единственном числе; употребляется для разъяснения стоящих задач, смысла деятельности): crucial (focal, fundamenial, important, key, main) point — решающая (центральная, основная, ключевая, важная, приоритетная) цель (чего-либо); to illustrate one's point — пояснять свои цели/проиллюстрировать смысл своей деятельности; to prove one's point —доказывать смысл своей деятельности/доказывать цель своей деятельности The point of these events is to raise money for children in need. — Цель этих действий — собрать деньги для нуждающихся детей. What's the point in keeping all these clothes that the children have grown out of? — Какой толк хранить всю эту одежду, из которой дети давно выросли?/Какой смысл хранить всю эту одежду, из которой дети давно выросли?/Зачем хранить всю эту одежду, из которой дети давно выросли?/ С какой целью хранить всю эту одежду, из которой дети давно выросли? I'm sorry, I just don't see the point of doing this. — Простите, но я не понимаю, зачем надо это делать./Простите, но я не вижу смысла, зачем надо это делать. I see no point discussing this any further. — Я не вижу смысла обсуждать дальше этот вопрос/Бесцельно обсуждать дальше этот вопрос./Бессмысленно обсуждать дальше этот вопрос. What's the point? — Зачем?/С какой целью? цивилизованный — civilized — см. культурный(о стране или обществе)

    Русско-английский объяснительный словарь > цель

  • 55 Bothe, Walter Wilhelm Georg Franz

    SUBJECT AREA: Weapons and armour
    [br]
    b. 8 January 1891 Oranienburg, Berlin, Germany
    d. 8 February 1957 Heidelberg, Germany
    [br]
    German nuclear scientist.
    [br]
    Bothe studied under Max Planck at the University of Berlin, gaining his doctorate in 1914. After military service during the First World War, he resumed his investigations into nuclear physics and achieved a breakthrough in 1929 when he developed a method of studying cosmic radiation by placing one Geiger counter on top of another. From this he evolved the means of high-speed counting known as "coincidence counting". The following year, in conjunction with Hans Becker, Bothe made a Further stride forward when they identified a very penetrative neutral particle by bombarding beryllium with alpha particles; this was a significant advance towards creating nuclear energy in that the neutral particle was what Chadwick later identified as the neutron.
    In 1934 Bothe's achievements were recognized by his appointment as Director of the Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, although this was after Planck himself had been deposed because of his Jewish sympathies. Bothe did, however, become primarily involved in Germany's pursuit of the atomic bomb and in 1944 constructed Germany's first cyclotron for accelerating nuclear particles. By that time Germany was faced with military defeat and Bothe was not able to develop his ideas further. Even so, for his work in the field of cosmic radiation Bothe shared the 1954 Nobel Prize for Physics with the naturalized Briton (formerly German) Max Born, whose subject was statistical mechanics.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Co-winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics 1954.
    CM

    Biographical history of technology > Bothe, Walter Wilhelm Georg Franz

  • 56 Camm, Sir Sydney

    [br]
    b. 5 August 1893 Windsor, Berkshire, England
    d. 12 March 1966 Richmond, Surrey, England
    [br]
    English military aircraft designer.
    [br]
    He was the eldest of twelve children and his father was a journeyman carpenter, in whose footsteps Camm followed as an apprentice woodworker. He developed an early interest in aircraft, becoming a keen model maker in his early teens and taking a major role in founding a local society to this end, and in 1912 he designed and built a glider able to carry people. During the First World War he worked as a draughtsman for the aircraft firm Martinsyde, but became increasingly involved in design matters as the war progressed. In 1923 Camm was recruited by Sopwith to join his Hawker Engineering Company as Senior Draughtsman, but within two years had risen to be Chief Designer. His first important contribution was to develop a method of producing metal aircraft, using welded steel tubes, and in 1926 he designed his first significant aircraft, the Hawker Horsley torpedo-bomber, which briefly held the world long-distance record before it was snatched by Charles Lindbergh in his epic New York-Paris flight in 1927. His Hawker Hart light bomber followed in 1928, after which came his Hawker Fury fighter.
    By the mid-1930s Camm's reputation as a designer was such that he was able to wield significant influence on the Air Ministry when Royal Air Force (RAF) aircraft specifications were being drawn up. His outstanding contribution came, however, with the unveiling of his Hawker Hurricane in 1935. This single-seater fighter was to prove one of the backbones of the RAF during 1939–45, but during the war he also designed two other excellent fighters: the Tempest and the Typhoon. After the Second World War Camm turned to jet aircraft, producing in 1951 the Hawker Hunter fighter/ground-attack aircraft, which saw lengthy service in the RAF and many other air forces. His most revolutionary contribution was the design of the Harrier jump-jet, beginning with the P.1127 prototype in 1961, followed by the Kestrel three years later. These were private ventures, but eventually the Government saw the enormous merit in the vertical take-off and landing concept, and the Harrier came to fruition in 1967. Sadly Camm, who was on the Board of Sopwith Hawker Siddeley Group, died before the aircraft came into service. He is permanently commemorated in the Camm Memorial Hall at the RAF Museum, Hendon, London.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    CBE 1941. Knighted 1953. Associate Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society 1918, Fellow 1932, President 1954–5, Gold Medal 1958. Daniel Guggenheim Medal (USA) 1965.
    Further Reading
    Alan Bramson, 1990, Pure Luck: The Authorized Biography of Sir Thomas Sopwith, 1888–1989, Wellingborough: Patrick Stephens (provides information about Camm and his association with Sopwith).
    Dictionary of National Biography, 1961–70.
    CM

    Biographical history of technology > Camm, Sir Sydney

  • 57 Caro, Heinrich

    [br]
    b. 13 February 1834 Poznan, Poland
    d. 11 October 1911 Dresden, Germany
    [br]
    German dyestuffi chemist.
    [br]
    Caro received vocational training as a dyer at the Gewerbeinstitut in Berlin from 1852, at the same time attending chemistry lectures at the university there. In 1855 he was hired as a colourist by a firm of calico printers in Mulheim an der Ruhr, where he was able to demonstrate the value of scientific training in solving practical problems. Two years later, the year after Perkin's discovery of aniline dyes, he was sent to England in order to learn the latest dyeing techniques. He took up a post an analytical chemist with the chemical firm Roberts, Dale \& Co. in Manchester; after finding a better way of synthesizing Perkin's mauve, he became a partner in the business. Caro was able to enlarge both his engineering experience and his chemical knowledge there, particularly by studying Hofmann's researches on the aniline dyes. He made several discoveries, including induline, Bismark brown and Martius yellow.
    Like other German chemists, however, he found greater opportunities opening up in Germany, and in 1866 he returned to take up a post in Bunsen's laboratory in Heidelberg. In 1868 Caro obtained the important directorship of Badische Anilin-Soda- Fabrik (BASF), the first true industrial research organization and leading centre of dyestuffs research. A steady stream of commercial successes followed. In 1869, after Graebe and Liebermann had showed him their laboratory synthesis of the red dye alizarin, Caro went on to develop a cheaper and commercially viable method. During the 1870s he collaborated with Adolf von Baeyer to make methylene blue and related dyes, and then went on to the azo dyes. His work on indigo was important, but was not crowned with commercial success; that came in 1897 when his successor at BASF discovered a suitable process for producing indigo on a commercial scale. Caro had resigned his post in 1889, by which time he had made notable contributions to German supremacy in the fast-developing dyestuffs industry.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    A.Bernthsen, 1912, obituary, Berichte derDeut
    schen Chemischen Gesellschaft, 45; 1,987–2,042 (a substantial obituary).
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Caro, Heinrich

  • 58 Chevenard, Pierre Antoine Jean Sylvestre

    SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy
    [br]
    b. 31 December 1888 Thizy, Rhône, France
    d. 15 August 1960 Fontenoy-aux-Roses, France
    [br]
    French metallurgist, inventor of the alloys Elinvar and Platinite and of the method of strengthening nickel-chromium alloys by a precipitate ofNi3Al which provided the basis of all later super-alloy development.
    [br]
    Soon after graduating from the Ecole des Mines at St-Etienne in 1910, Chevenard joined the Société de Commentry Fourchambault et Decazeville at their steelworks at Imphy, where he remained for the whole of his career. Imphy had for some years specialized in the production of nickel steels. From this venture emerged the first austenitic nickel-chromium steel, containing 6 per cent chromium and 22–4 per cent nickel and produced commercially in 1895. Most of the alloys required by Guillaume in his search for the low-expansion alloy Invar were made at Imphy. At the Imphy Research Laboratory, established in 1911, Chevenard conducted research into the development of specialized nickel-based alloys. His first success followed from an observation that some of the ferro-nickels were free from the low-temperature brittleness exhibited by conventional steels. To satisfy the technical requirements of Georges Claude, the French cryogenic pioneer, Chevenard was then able in 1912 to develop an alloy containing 55–60 per cent nickel, 1–3 per cent manganese and 0.2–0.4 per cent carbon. This was ductile down to −190°C, at which temperature carbon steel was very brittle.
    By 1916 Elinvar, a nickel-iron-chromium alloy with an elastic modulus that did not vary appreciably with changes in ambient temperature, had been identified. This found extensive use in horology and instrument manufacture, and even for the production of high-quality tuning forks. Another very popular alloy was Platinite, which had the same coefficient of thermal expansion as platinum and soda glass. It was used in considerable quantities by incandescent-lamp manufacturers for lead-in wires. Other materials developed by Chevenard at this stage to satisfy the requirements of the electrical industry included resistance alloys, base-metal thermocouple combinations, magnetically soft high-permeability alloys, and nickel-aluminium permanent magnet steels of very high coercivity which greatly improved the power and reliability of car magnetos. Thermostatic bimetals of all varieties soon became an important branch of manufacture at Imphy.
    During the remainder of his career at Imphy, Chevenard brilliantly elaborated the work on nickel-chromium-tungsten alloys to make stronger pressure vessels for the Haber and other chemical processes. Another famous alloy that he developed, ATV, contained 35 per cent nickel and 11 per cent chromium and was free from the problem of stress-induced cracking in steam that had hitherto inhibited the development of high-power steam turbines. Between 1912 and 1917, Chevenard recognized the harmful effects of traces of carbon on this type of alloy, and in the immediate postwar years he found efficient methods of scavenging the residual carbon by controlled additions of reactive metals. This led to the development of a range of stabilized austenitic stainless steels which were free from the problems of intercrystalline corrosion and weld decay that then caused so much difficulty to the manufacturers of chemical plant.
    Chevenard soon concluded that only the nickel-chromium system could provide a satisfactory basis for the subsequent development of high-temperature alloys. The first published reference to the strengthening of such materials by additions of aluminium and/or titanium occurs in his UK patent of 1929. This strengthening approach was adopted in the later wartime development in Britain of the Nimonic series of alloys, all of which depended for their high-temperature strength upon the precipitated compound Ni3Al.
    In 1936 he was studying the effect of what is now known as "thermal fatigue", which contributes to the eventual failure of both gas and steam turbines. He then published details of equipment for assessing the susceptibility of nickel-chromium alloys to this type of breakdown by a process of repeated quenching. Around this time he began to make systematic use of the thermo-gravimetrie balance for high-temperature oxidation studies.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    President, Société de Physique. Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur.
    Bibliography
    1929, Analyse dilatométrique des matériaux, with a preface be C.E.Guillaume, Paris: Dunod (still regarded as the definitive work on this subject).
    The Dictionary of Scientific Biography lists around thirty of his more important publications between 1914 and 1943.
    Further Reading
    "Chevenard, a great French metallurgist", 1960, Acier Fins (Spec.) 36:92–100.
    L.Valluz, 1961, "Notice sur les travaux de Pierre Chevenard, 1888–1960", Paris: Institut de France, Académie des Sciences.
    ASD

    Biographical history of technology > Chevenard, Pierre Antoine Jean Sylvestre

  • 59 Clerke, Sir Clement

    SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy
    [br]
    d. 1693
    [br]
    English entrepreneur responsible, with others, for attempts to introduce coal-fired smelting of lead and, later, of copper.
    [br]
    Clerke, from Launde Abbey in Leicestershire, was involved in early experiments to smelt lead using coal fuel, which was believed to have been located on the Leicestershire-Derbyshire border. Concurrently, Lord Grandison was financing experiments at Bristol for similar purposes, causing the downfall of an earlier unsuccessful patented method before securing his own patent in 1678. In that same year Clerke took over management of the Bristol works, claiming the ability to secure financial return from Grandison's methods. Financial success proved elusive, although the technical problems of adapting the reverberatory furnace to coal fuel appear to have been solved when Clerke was found to have established another lead works nearby on his own account. He was forced to cease work on lead in 1684 in respect of Grandison's patent rights. Clerke then turned to investigations into the coal-fired smelting of other metals and started to smelt copper in coal-fired reverberatory furnaces. By 1688–9 small supplied of merchantable copper were offered for sale in London in order to pay his workers, possibly because of further financial troubles. The practical success of his smelting innovation is widely acknowledged to have been the responsibility of John Coster and, to a smaller extent, Gabriel Wayne, both of whom left Clerke and set up separate works elsewhere. Clerke's son Talbot took over administration of his father's works, which declined still further and closed c. 1693, at about the time of Sir Clement's death. Both Coster and Wayne continued to develop smelting techniques, establishing a new British industry in the smelting of copper with coal.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Created baronet 1661.
    Further Reading
    Rhys Jenkins, 1934, "The reverberatory furnace with coal fuel", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 34:67–81.
    —1943–4, "Copper smelting in England: Revival at the end of the seventeenth century", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 24:78–80.
    J.Morton, 1985, The Rise of the Modern Copper and Brass Industry: 1690 to 1750, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Birmingham, 87–106.
    JD

    Biographical history of technology > Clerke, Sir Clement

  • 60 Deville, Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire

    SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy
    [br]
    b. 11 March 1818 St Thomas, Virgin Islands
    d. 1 July 1881 Boulogne-sur-Seine, France
    [br]
    French chemist and metallurgist, pioneer in the large-scale production of aluminium and other light metals.
    [br]
    Deville was the son of a prosperous shipowner with diplomatic duties in the Virgin Islands. With his elder brother Charles, who later became a distinguished physicist, he was sent to Paris to be educated. He took his degree in medicine in 1843, but before that he had shown an interest in chemistry, due particularly to the lectures of Thenard. Two years later, with Thenard's influence, he was appointed Professor of Chemistry at Besançon. In 1851 he was able to return to Paris as Professor at the Ecole Normale Supérieure. He remained there for the rest of his working life, greatly improving the standard of teaching, and his laboratory became one of the great research centres of Europe. His first chemical work had been in organic chemistry, but he then turned to inorganic chemistry, specifically to improve methods of producing the new and little-known metal aluminium. Essentially, the process consisted of forming sodium aluminium trichloride and reducing it with sodium to metallic aluminium. He obtained sodium in sufficient quantity by reducing sodium carbonate with carbon. In 1855 he exhibited specimens of the metal at the Paris Exhibition, and the same year Napoleon III asked to see them, with a view to using it for breastplates for the Army and for spoons and forks for State banquets. With the resulting government support, he set up a pilot plant at Jarvel to develop the process, and then set up a small company, the Société d'Aluminium at Nan terre. This raised the output of this attractive and useful metal, so it could be used more widely than for the jewellery to which it had hitherto been restricted. Large-scale applications, however, had to await the electrolytic process that began to supersede Deville's in the 1890s. Deville extended his sodium reduction method to produce silicon, boron and the light metals magnesium and titanium. His investigations into the metallurgy of platinum revolutionized the industry and led in 1872 to his being asked to make the platinum-iridium (90–10) alloy for the standard kilogram and metre. Deville later carried out important work in high-temperature chemistry. He grieved much at the death of his brother Charles in 1876, and his retirement was forced by declining health in 1880; he did not survive for long.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    Deville published influential books on aluminium and platinum; these and all his publications are listed in the bibliography in the standard biography by J.Gray, 1889, Henri Sainte-Claire Deville: sa vie et ses travaux, Paris.
    Further Reading
    M.Daumas, 1949, "Henri Sainte-Claire Deville et les débuts de l'industrie de l'aluminium", Rev.Hist.Sci 2:352–7.
    J.C.Chaston, 1981, "Henri Sainte-Claire Deville: his outstanding contributions to the chemistry of the platinum metals", Platinum Metals Review 25:121–8.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Deville, Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire

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