correct+problem

1) наблюдение

- careful observation

2) соблюдение

- observation of the rules

3) (обыкновенно pl) данные исследований, данные наблюдений

- valuable observations

4) замечание

- foolish observation

1) положение; ситуация

2) условие || обусловливать, ставить условие

3) состояние || приводить в определённое состояние

4) кондиция || кондиционировать

5) pl обстановка, условия; режим

•

- a priori condition

- abnormal condition

- adjoint boundary conditions

- adjoint edge conditions

- admissibility condition

- angular condition

- annihilator condition

- antipole condition

- as-delivered condition

- associativity condition

- asymptotic condition

- asymptotically equivalent conditions

- bichain condition

- boiling condition

- boundary condition

- boundedness condition

- Chapman-Jouguet condition

- characteristic condition

- closure condition

- coerciveness condition

- compatible conditions

- complementing condition

- condition of adequacy

- condition of boundedness

- condition of cohesion

- condition of equilibrium

- condition of finitude

- condition of indecomposability

- condition of independence

- condition of measurability

- condition of regularity

- condition of stability

- condition of standardization

- conditions of loading

- conditions of observation

- conditions of truth

- cone condition

- congruence condition

- conjunctive condition

- conservative condition

- continuable initial conditions

- continuity condition

- contradictory condition

- controllability condition

- controlled condition

- convergence condition

- cooking condition

- coprimality condition

- corner condition

- correct condition

- cosine condition

- countability condition

- counter condition

- degeneracy condition

- degenerate condition

- degraded condition

- desired condition

- determinateness condition

- differentiability condition

- differential condition

- discontinuity conditions

- discontinuous condition

- disjunctive condition

- distinguishable condition

- distributed boundary conditions

- don't care condition

- duality condition

- dynamic conditions

- edge condition

- end conditions

- entry conditions

- equability condition

- equichain condition

- equilibrium condition

- equivalence condition

- equivalent conditions

- ergodicity condition

- essential boundary conditions

- experimental conditions

- extremum conditions

- final conditions

- finiteness condition

- fitting condition

- flame condition

- flow condition

- forcing condition

- formal condition

- free condition

- full-load conditions

- general condition

- generalized condition

- geometrical boundary conditions

- ground idling conditions

- growth condition

- high-altitude condition

- hold condition

- holonomic conditions

- homogeneous boundary conditions

- imposed condition

- impossible condition

- incidence conditions

- infinitary condition

- infinitesimal condition

- inhomogeneous boundary conditions

- insufficient condition

- integrability condition

- intricate meteorological conditions

- invariance condition

- irreducible inconsistency condition

- isomorphism condition

- isoperimetric conditions

- key condition

- least-squares condition

- limiting condition

- linearity condition

- local triviality condition

- logical condition

- marginal condition

- matched condition

- maximality condition

- maximum condition

- mild condition

- minimality condition

- minimax condition

- minimum condition

- mismatch condition

- mixing condition

- monotonicity condition

- natural boundary conditions

- necessary and sufficient condition

- necessary condition

- no-current condition

- nonholonomic conditions

- noninteracting conditions

- nontangency condition

- normal conditions

- normality condition

- normalization condition

- normalizing condition

- no-signal condition

- off-design condition

- one-sided condition

- open condition

- operable condition

- operating conditions

- operation condition

- optimality condition

- optimum condition

- orientability condition

- orthogonality condition

- orthonormality condition

- overload alarm condition

- perfect condition

- periodic condition

- periodicity condition

- positive condition

- postulated condition

- power conditions

- quadrilateral condition

- quiescent conditions

- race condition

- rank condition

- reasonable condition

- receive condition

- reduced power conditions

- redundant condition

- reference condition

- regular condition

- regular service conditions

- regularity condition

- relaxed condition

- reset conditions

- resolvent condition

- resonance condition

- restrictive condition

- rigid condition

- risky condition

- safety working conditions

- saturation condition

- self-adjoint conditions

- separable boundary conditions

- separated end conditions

- separation condition

- service condition

- service conditions

- sex condition

- shutdown condition

- side condition

- simplifying condition

- simulated conditions

- single-valuedness condition

- singularity condition

- small-signal condition

- smoothness condition

- split boundary condition

- stability condition

- stand-by conditions

- starting conditions

- stationary condition

- steady-state conditions

- steam condition

- storage conditions

- stringent condition

- strip condition

- strong condition

- submarginal economic condition

- submodel condition

- subsidiary condition

- supplementary condition

- symmetry condition

- temperature condition

- test condition

- transient condition

- transmit condition

- transversability condition

- triviality condition

- truth condition

- unacceptable condition

- uniform conditions

- uniqueness condition

- unsteady condition

- upper covering condition

- vacuous condition

- vector boundary conditions

- visual meteorological conditions

- Von Neumann condition

- weak condition

- weakened condition

- weather conditions

- working conditions

- zero initial condition

1) определение, дефиниция, формулировка

2) ясность, понятность

3) чёткость, резкость ( изображения)

•

- a priori definition

- abstract definition

- accepted definition

- algebraic definition

- ambiguous definition

- analytic definition

- arithmetic definition

- axiomatic definition

- classical definition

- clear definition

- complete definition

- concept definition

- conceptual definition

- conditional definition

- consistent definition

- constructive definition

- contextual definition

- definition of measure

- disjunctive definition

- dual definition

- effective definition

- elementary definition

- empirical definition

- essential definition

- explicative definition

- explicit definition

- false definition

- final definition

- first definition

- formal definition

- formally correct definition

- frequency definition

- functional definition

- general definition

- generic definition

- genetic definition

- geometrical definition

- heuristic definition

- ideal of definition

- implicit definition

- impredicative definition

- incomplete definition

- indirect definition

- inductive definition

- invariant definition

- local definition

- logical definition

- loose definition

- mathematical definition

- modulus of definition

- more precise definition

- natural definition

- negative definition

- nonfundamental definition

- nonpredicative definition

- numerical definition

- objective definition

- ostensive definition

- partial definition

- precise definition

- preliminary definition

- problem definition

- provisional definition

- recursive definition

- relative definition

- relative frequency definition

- semantic definition

- sequential definition

- set-theoretical definition

- subjective definition

- syntactic definition

- synthetic definition

- system definition

- tentative definition

- true definition

- truth definition

- unambiguous definition

- verbal definition

- working definition

deal

A n

1 ( agreement) gen accord m ; (in commerce, finance) affaire f ; (with friend, criminal) marché m ; the pay/OPEC deal l'accord salarial/de l'OPEC ; to make ou strike a deal with sb gen passer un accord avec qn ; ( in business) conclure une affaire avec qn ; to do a deal with faire un marché avec [friend, kidnapper, criminal] ; négocier une affaire avec [client, company] ; to do a deal ( in business) conclure une affaire ; (with friend, colleague) s'arranger ; ( with criminal) faire un marché ; to pull off a deal mener à bien une affaire ; it's a deal! marché conclu! ; the deal's off le marché est rompu ; it's no deal! pas question! ; a good deal une bonne affaire ; to get the best of a deal se tirer au mieux d'une affaire ; it's all part of the deal ( part of the arrangement) ça fait partie du marché ; (part of the price, package) c'est inclus dans le reste ; to be in on the deal être dans le coup ○ ;

2 ( sale) vente f ; cash/credit deal vente au comptant/à crédit ; property/arms deal vente immobilière/d'armes ;

3 (special offer, bargain) for the best deal(s) in ou on electrical goods come to Electrotech pour les meilleurs prix or les prix les plus bas en électroménager venez à Electrotech ; I got a good deal on a used Fiat j'ai fait une bonne affaire en achetant une Fiat d'occasion ;

4 ( amount) a great ou good deal beaucoup (of de) ; he's a good deal older than me il est beaucoup plus âgé que moi ; they have a great deal in common ils ont beaucoup de choses en commun ; she travels a great deal elle voyage beaucoup ; she means a great deal to me je l'aime beaucoup ; this job means a great deal to me ce travail est très important pour moi ;

5 ( treatment) to get a good/bad deal (from sb) être bien/mal traité (par qn) ; to give sb a fair deal agir loyalement envers qn ; he got a raw ou rotten deal il n'a vraiment pas eu de chance ;

6 Games ( in cards) donne f ; it's my deal c'est à moi de donner ;

7 ( timber) bois m blanc.

B vtr ( prét, pp dealt)

1 gen to deal a blow to sb/sth ou to deal sb/sth a blow lit, fig porter un coup à qn/qch (with avec) ;

2 Games ( also deal out) distribuer [cards] ; donner [hand].

C vi ( prét, pp dealt) Comm, Fin ( carry on business) [person, firm] être en activité ; ( operate on stock exchange) faire des opérations boursières ; to deal in être dans le commerce de [commodity, product, shares] ; we deal in software nous sommes dans le commerce des logiciels ; we don't deal in blackmail fig le chantage n'est pas notre affaire.

big deal ○ ! iron la belle affaire! iron ; it's no big deal ○ ( modestly) il n'y a pas de quoi en faire un plat ○ ; if I lose it's no big deal ○ si je perds ce n'est pas dramatique ; to make a big deal out of sth faire tout un plat ○ de qch.

■ deal out:

▶ deal out [sth], deal [sth] out

1 ( distribute) distribuer [money, profit, cards] ;

2 ( mete out) administrer [punishment, fine].

■ deal with:

▶ deal with [sth]

1 ( sort out) s'occuper de [complaint, emergency, matter, request, situation, work] ; faire face à [social problem] ; leave it to James, he'll deal with it laisse ça à James, il s'en occupera ; new measures to deal with vandalism de nouvelles mesures pour faire face au vandalisme ;

2 (consider, discuss) traiter de [topic, question, issue] ;

▶ deal with [sb]

1 (attend to, handle) s'occuper de [client, customer, patient, public, troublemaker] ; she's a difficult person to deal with elle est difficile (à vivre), elle n'est pas commode ; he did not deal fairly with us il n'a pas été correct avec nous ;

2 ( do business with) traiter avec [person, company, terrorist organization] ; [supplier] vendre à [public] ; [customer] se fournir chez [stockist].

present

A n

1 ( gift) cadeau m ; to give sb a present offrir un cadeau à qn ; to give sb sth as a present offrir qch à qn ;

2 the present ( now) le présent ; the past and the present le passé et le présent ; to live in the present vivre dans le présent or l'instant ; for the present pour le moment, pour l'instant ;

3 Ling ( also present tense) présent m ; in the present au présent.

B presents npl Jur présentes fpl.

C adj

1 ( attending) [person] présent ; all those present, everybody present toutes les personnes présentes, tous les présents ; half of those present la moitié des personnes présentes or des présents ; to be present at assister à ; to be present in [substance, virus] être présent dans [blood, wine, population] ; there are ladies present† il y a des dames dans l'assistance† ; present company excepted à l'exception des personnes ici présentes ; all present and correct! tous présents à l'appel! ;

2 ( current) [address, arrangement, circumstance, government, leadership, situation] actuel/-elle ; in the present climate fig dans le climat actuel ; up to the present day jusqu'à ce jour ; at the present time ou moment actuellement ; during the present year/decade pendant cette année/décennie ;

3 ( under consideration) [case, argument, issue] présent ; the present writer feels that l'auteur (de cet article) pense que ;

4 Ling [tense, participle] présent.

D at present adv phr ( at this moment) en ce moment ; ( nowadays) actuellement, à présent.

E vtr

1 ( raise) présenter [problem, challenge, obstacle, risk] ; offrir [chance, opportunity] ;

2 (proffer, show) présenter [tickets, documents, sight, picture] ; to present a cheque for payment présenter un chèque à l'encaissement ; to be presented with a choice/dilemma se trouver face à un choix/dilemme ; to be presented with a huge bill/with a splendid view se retrouver avec une énorme facture/devant un panorama splendide ;

3 ( submit for consideration) présenter [plan, report, figures, views, bill, case] ; présenter, soumettre [petition] ; fournir [evidence] ; to present sth to sb, to present sb with sth présenter qch à qn ;

4 ( formally give) remettre [bouquet, prize, award, certificate, cheque] ; présenter [apologies, respects, compliments] ; to present sth to sb, to present sb with sth remettre qch à qn ;

5 ( portray) présenter, représenter [person, situation] (as comme étant) ; to present sth in a good/different light présenter qch sous un jour favorable/différent ;

6 TV, Radio présenter [programme, broadcast, show] ; presented by présenté par ;

7 (put on, produce) donner [production, play, concert] ; présenter [exhibition, actor, star] ; we are proud to present Don Wilson nous sommes fiers de vous présenter Don Wilson ;

8 sout ( introduce) présenter ; may I present my son Piers? permettez-moi de vous présenter mon fils Piers ; to be presented at court être présenté à la Cour ;

9 Mil présenter [arms] ; present arms! présentez armes!

F vi Med [baby, patient] se présenter ; [symptom, humour, condition] apparaître.

G v refl

1 to present oneself se présenter (as comme étant ; at à ; for pour) ; to learn how to present oneself apprendre à mettre en avant ses qualités ;

2 to present itself [opportunity, thought] se présenter.

there is no time like the present il ne faut jamais remettre au lendemain ce que l'on peut faire le jour même.

all right

1 adjective

(a) (adequate) (assez) bien, pas mal;

∎ the film was all right le film n'était pas mal;

∎ the money is all right, but it could be better le salaire est correct, mais ça pourrait être mieux

(b) (in good health) en bonne santé; (safe) sain et sauf;

∎ I hope they'll be all right on their own j'espère qu'ils sauront se débrouiller tout seuls;

∎ are you all right? (are you well?) ça va?; (did you hurt yourself?) ça va?, vous ne vous êtes pas blessé?; ironic tu ne te sens pas bien?;

∎ she's had an accident, but she's all right elle a eu un accident mais ça va;

∎ he was quite ill, but he's all right now il a été assez malade, mais ça va ou il est rétabli maintenant;

∎ do you think the car will be all right? tu crois que ça ira avec la voiture?

(c) (indicating agreement, approval)

∎ is it all right if they come too? ça va s'ils viennent aussi?;

∎ it's all right (no problem) ça va; (no matter) ça ne fait rien, ce n'est pas grave;

∎ I've come to see if everything is all right je suis venu voir si tout va bien;

∎ is everything all right, Madam? (in shop, restaurant etc) tout va bien, madame?;

∎ British familiar it'll be all right on the night tu verras, tout se passera bien^□ ;

∎ it's all right by me moi, ça me va;

∎ it's all right for YOU to laugh! tu peux rire, moi, ça ne m'amuse pas!

(d) (pleasant) bien, agréable; (nice-looking) chouette;

∎ the boss is all right le patron est bien ou n'est pas trop mal;

∎ she's all right elle est pas mal

(e) (financially etc) à l'aise, tranquille;

∎ I'll see that you're all right je veillerai à ce que vous ne manquiez de rien;

∎ I'm all right until Monday ça ira jusqu'à lundi;

∎ are you all right for cash/cigarettes? tu as assez de liquide/de cigarettes?

2 adverb

(a) (well, adequately) bien;

∎ the radio works all right la radio marche bien;

∎ they're doing all right (progressing well) ça va (pour eux); (succeeding in career, life) ils se débrouillent bien;

∎ everything went off all right tout a bien marché

(b) (without doubt)

∎ it's rabies all right c'est bien la rage;

∎ he was listening all right ça, pour écouter, il écoutait

3 exclamation

(indicating agreement, understanding) entendu!, d'accord!; (indicating approval) c'est ça!, ça va!; (indicating impatience) ça va!, ça suffit!; (indicating change or continuation of activity) bon!; American (expressing great enthusiasm) génial!;

∎ all right, all right, I'm coming! (expressing irritation) oui, oui, j'arrive!

exact [ɪg'zækt]

1 adjective

(a) (accurate, correct) exact, juste;

∎ it's an exact copy (picture) c'est fidèle à l'original; (document) c'est une copie conforme ou textuelle;

∎ she told me the exact opposite elle m'a dit exactement le contraire;

∎ that's the exact problem c'est précisément le problème;

∎ those were her exact words ce furent ses propres paroles, voilà ce qu'elle a dit textuellement

(b) (precise → amount, idea, value) exact, précis; (→ directions, place, time) précis;

∎ is it 5 o'clock? - 5:03 to be exact est-il 5 heures? - 5 heures 03 plus exactement ou précisément;

∎ I'm 35 and 2 days to be exact j'ai exactement 35 ans et 2 jours;

∎ she likes music, or to be exact, classical music elle aime la musique, ou plus précisément la musique classique;

∎ can you be more exact? pouvez-vous préciser?;

∎ we need exact details il nous faut des précisions;

∎ familiar the exact same dress exactement la même robe^□

(c) (meticulous → work) rigoureux, précis; (→ mind) rigoureux; (→ instrument) de précision

2 transitive verb

(a) (demand → money) extorquer

(b) (insist upon → obedience, discipline) exiger

►► exact sciences sciences fpl exactes;

the inability of some computer systems to recognize the year 2000 as a date. The millennium bug arose from the computer programming practice of using two digits to represent a year. It was thought that this could cause great problems when digital clocks turned from 1999 to 2000, because computers would read 00 and cease to function. The millennium bug was thought to affect any business system that used electronically generated date information. Speculation on what would happen sparked fears of global disaster. Much work was conducted in the late 1990s in order to correct the problem and systems that did not have the bug were referred to as Y2K-compliant, Y2K being shorthand for Year 2000. In the event, the anticipated disaster did not occur.

SUBJECT AREA: Chemical technology, Land transport

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Goodyear entered his father's country hardware business before setting up his own concern in Philadelphia. While visiting New York, he noticed in the window of the Roxburgh India Rubber Company a rubber life-preserver. Goodyear offered to improve its inflating valve, but the manager, impressed with Goodyear's inventiveness, persuaded him to tackle a more urgent problem, that of seeking a means of preventing rubber from becoming tacky and from melting or decomposing when heated. Goodyear tried treatments with one substance after another, without success. In 1838 he started using Nathaniel M.Hayward's process of spreading sulphur on rubber. He accidentally dropped a mass of rubber and sulphur on to a hot stove and noted that the mixture did not melt: Goodyear had discovered the vulcanization of rubber. More experiments were needed to establish the correct proportions for a uniform mix, and eventually he was granted his celebrated patent no. 3633 of 15 June 1844. Goodyear's researches had been conducted against a background of crippling financial difficulties and he was forced to dispose of licences to vulcanize rubber at less than their real value, in order to pay off his most pressing debts.

Goodyear travelled to Europe in 1851 to extend his patents. To promote his process, he designed a spectacular exhibit for London, consisting of furniture, floor covering, jewellery and other items made of rubber. A similar exhibit in Paris in 1855 won him the Grande Médaille d'honneur and the Croix de la Légion d'honneur from Napoleon III. Patents were granted to him in all countries except England. The improved properties of vulcanized rubber and its stability over a much wider range of temperatures greatly increased its applications; output rose from a meagre 31.5 tonnes a year in 1827 to over 28,000 tonnes by 1900. Even so, Goodyear profited little from his invention, and he bequeathed to his family debts amounting to over $200,000.

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SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

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Heathcote was the son of a small farmer who became blind, obliging the family to move to Long Whatton, near Loughborough, c.1790. He was apprenticed to W.Shepherd, a hosiery-machine maker, and became a frame-smith in the hosiery industry. He moved to Nottingham where he entered the employment of an excellent machine maker named Elliott. He later joined William Caldwell of Hathern, whose daughter he had married. The lace-making apparatus they patented jointly in 1804 had already been anticipated, so Heathcote turned to the problem of making pillow lace, a cottage industry in which women made lace by arranging pins stuck in a pillow in the correct pattern and winding around them thread contained on thin bobbins. He began by analysing the complicated hand-woven lace into simple warp and weft threads and found he could dispense with half the bobbins. The first machine he developed and patented, in 1808, made narrow lace an inch or so wide, but the following year he made much broader lace on an improved version. In his second patent, in 1809, he could make a type of net curtain, Brussels lace, without patterns. His machine made bobbin-net by the use of thin brass discs, between which the thread was wound. As they passed through the warp threads, which were arranged vertically, the warp threads were moved to each side in turn, so as to twist the bobbin threads round the warp threads. The bobbins were in two rows to save space, and jogged on carriages in grooves along a bar running the length of the machine. As the strength of this fabric depended upon bringing the bobbin threads diagonally across, in addition to the forward movement, the machine had to provide for a sideways movement of each bobbin every time the lengthwise course was completed. A high standard of accuracy in manufacture was essential for success. Called the "Old Loughborough", it was acknowledged to be the most complicated machine so far produced. In partnership with a man named Charles Lacy, who supplied the necessary capital, a factory was established at Loughborough that proved highly successful; however, their fifty-five frames were destroyed by Luddites in 1816. Heathcote was awarded damages of £10,000 by the county of Nottingham on the condition it was spent locally, but to avoid further interference he decided to transfer not only his machines but his entire workforce elsewhere and refused the money. In a disused woollen factory at Tiverton in Devonshire, powered by the waters of the river Exe, he built 300 frames of greater width and speed. By continually making inventions and improvements until he retired in 1843, his business flourished and he amassed a large fortune. He patented one machine for silk cocoon-reeling and another for plaiting or braiding. In 1825 he brought out two patents for the mechanical ornamentation or figuring of lace. He acquired a sound knowledge of French prior to opening a steam-powered lace factory in France. The factory proved to be a successful venture that lasted many years. In 1832 he patented a monstrous steam plough that is reputed to have cost him over £12,000 and was claimed to be the best in its day. One of its stated aims was "improved methods of draining land", which he hoped would develop agriculture in Ireland. A cable was used to haul the implement across the land. From 1832 to 1859, Heathcote represented Tiverton in Parliament and, among other benefactions, he built a school for his adopted town.

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   1) The Book of Nature Is Written in the Language of Mathematics

   Philosophy is written in that great book, the universe, which is always open, right before our eyes. But one cannot understand this book without first learning to understand the language and to know the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and the characters are triangles, circles, and other figures. Without these, one cannot understand a single word of it, and just wanders in a dark labyrinth. (Galileo, 1990, p. 232)

   2) Arranging Speech so as to Reply Appropriately

   It never happens that it [a nonhuman animal] arranges its speech in various ways in order to reply appropriately to everything that may be said in its presence, as even the lowest type of man can do. (Descartes, 1970a, p. 116)

   3) No Other Animal Has the Language Capacity of the Human

   It is a very remarkable fact that there are none so depraved and stupid, without even excepting idiots, that they cannot arrange different words together, forming of them a statement by which they make known their thoughts; while, on the other hand, there is no other animal, however perfect and fortunately circumstanced it may be, which can do the same. (Descartes, 1967, p. 116)

   4) Human Beings Do Not Live Only in the World of Objects

   Human beings do not live in the object world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication or reflection. The fact of the matter is that the "real world" is to a large extent unconsciously built on the language habits of the group.... We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation. (Sapir, 1921, p. 75)

   5) Language Powerfully Conditions All Our Thinking

   It powerfully conditions all our thinking about social problems and processes.... No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same worlds with different labels attached. (Sapir, 1985, p. 162)

   6) A List of Language Games

   [A list of language games, not meant to be exhaustive:]

   Giving orders, and obeying them- Describing the appearance of an object, or giving its measurements- Constructing an object from a description (a drawing)Reporting an eventSpeculating about an eventForming and testing a hypothesisPresenting the results of an experiment in tables and diagramsMaking up a story; and reading itPlay actingSinging catchesGuessing riddlesMaking a joke; and telling it

   Solving a problem in practical arithmeticTranslating from one language into another

   LANGUAGE Asking, thanking, cursing, greeting, and praying-. (Wittgenstein, 1953, Pt. I, No. 23, pp. 11 e-12 e)

   7) Language Constrains Certain Modes of Interpretation

   We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages.... The world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... No individual is free to describe nature with absolute impartiality but is constrained to certain modes of interpretation even while he thinks himself most free. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 153, 213-214)

   8) We Dissect Nature in Accordance with Our Native Languages

   We dissect nature along the lines laid down by our native languages.

   The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... We are thus introduced to a new principle of relativity, which holds that all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar or can in some way be calibrated. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 213-214)

   9) The Forms of a Person's Thoughts Are Controlled by Unperceived Patterns of His Own Language

   The forms of a person's thoughts are controlled by inexorable laws of pattern of which he is unconscious. These patterns are the unperceived intricate systematizations of his own language-shown readily enough by a candid comparison and contrast with other languages, especially those of a different linguistic family. (Whorf, 1956, p. 252)

    10) The Analysis of Certain Types of Utterances

   It has come to be commonly held that many utterances which look like statements are either not intended at all, or only intended in part, to record or impart straightforward information about the facts.... Many traditional philosophical perplexities have arisen through a mistake-the mistake of taking as straightforward statements of fact utterances which are either (in interesting non-grammatical ways) nonsensical or else intended as something quite different. (Austin, 1962, pp. 2-3)

    11) The Dictionary of a Language Is a System of Concepts

   In general, one might define a complex of semantic components connected by logical constants as a concept. The dictionary of a language is then a system of concepts in which a phonological form and certain syntactic and morphological characteristics are assigned to each concept. This system of concepts is structured by several types of relations. It is supplemented, furthermore, by redundancy or implicational rules..., representing general properties of the whole system of concepts.... At least a relevant part of these general rules is not bound to particular languages, but represents presumably universal structures of natural languages. They are not learned, but are rather a part of the human ability to acquire an arbitrary natural language. (Bierwisch, 1970, pp. 171-172)

    12) Talk about the Evolution of the Language Capacity is Beside the Point

   In studying the evolution of mind, we cannot guess to what extent there are physically possible alternatives to, say, transformational generative grammar, for an organism meeting certain other physical conditions characteristic of humans. Conceivably, there are none-or very few-in which case talk about evolution of the language capacity is beside the point. (Chomsky, 1972, p. 98)

    13) The Development of Language

   [It is] truth value rather than syntactic well-formedness that chiefly governs explicit verbal reinforcement by parents-which renders mildly paradoxical the fact that the usual product of such a training schedule is an adult whose speech is highly grammatical but not notably truthful. (R. O. Brown, 1973, p. 330)

    14) Sentential and Conceptual Levels in Language

   he conceptual base is responsible for formally representing the concepts underlying an utterance.... A given word in a language may or may not have one or more concepts underlying it.... On the sentential level, the utterances of a given language are encoded within a syntactic structure of that language. The basic construction of the sentential level is the sentence.

   The next highest level... is the conceptual level. We call the basic construction of this level the conceptualization. A conceptualization consists of concepts and certain relations among those concepts. We can consider that both levels exist at the same point in time and that for any unit on one level, some corresponding realizate exists on the other level. This realizate may be null or extremely complex.... Conceptualizations may relate to other conceptualizations by nesting or other specified relationships. (Schank, 1973, pp. 191-192)

    15) Linguistic Realities Have Not Yet Been Captured by Theoretical Models

   The mathematics of multi-dimensional interactive spaces and lattices, the projection of "computer behavior" on to possible models of cerebral functions, the theoretical and mechanical investigation of artificial intelligence, are producing a stream of sophisticated, often suggestive ideas.

   But it is, I believe, fair to say that nothing put forward until now in either theoretic design or mechanical mimicry comes even remotely in reach of the most rudimentary linguistic realities. (Steiner, 1975, p. 284)

    16) The Final Steps to Human Language

   The step from the simple tool to the master tool, a tool to make tools (what we would now call a machine tool), seems to me indeed to parallel the final step to human language, which I call reconstitution. It expresses in a practical and social context the same understanding of hierarchy, and shows the same analysis by function as a basis for synthesis. (Bronowski, 1977, pp. 127-128)

    17) The Inadequacy of Formal Linguistic Models for Ordinary Language Usage

    t is the language donn eґ in which we conduct our lives.... We have no other. And the danger is that formal linguistic models, in their loosely argued analogy with the axiomatic structure of the mathematical sciences, may block perception.... It is quite conceivable that, in language, continuous induction from simple, elemental units to more complex, realistic forms is not justified. The extent and formal "undecidability" of context-and every linguistic particle above the level of the phoneme is context-bound-may make it impossible, except in the most abstract, meta-linguistic sense, to pass from "pro-verbs," "kernals," or "deep deep structures" to actual speech. (Steiner, 1975, pp. 111-113)

    18) When a Language Is an Abstract Machine

   A higher-level formal language is an abstract machine. (Weizenbaum, 1976, p. 113)

    19) Metaphor and Metonymy Underpin the Formation of Linguistic Signs

   Jakobson sees metaphor and metonymy as the characteristic modes of binarily opposed polarities which between them underpin the two-fold process of selection and combination by which linguistic signs are formed.... Thus messages are constructed, as Saussure said, by a combination of a "horizontal" movement, which combines words together, and a "vertical" movement, which selects the particular words from the available inventory or "inner storehouse" of the language. The combinative (or syntagmatic) process manifests itself in contiguity (one word being placed next to another) and its mode is metonymic. The selective (or associative) process manifests itself in similarity (one word or concept being "like" another) and its mode is metaphoric. The "opposition" of metaphor and metonymy therefore may be said to represent in effect the essence of the total opposition between the synchronic mode of language (its immediate, coexistent, "vertical" relationships) and its diachronic mode (its sequential, successive, lineal progressive relationships). (Hawkes, 1977, pp. 77-78)

    20) Language and the Analysis of Nature

   It is striking that the layered structure that man has given to language constantly reappears in his analyses of nature. (Bronowski, 1977, p. 121)

    21) Correspondence Rules for Mapping Old Theory into Subsets of New Theory

   First, [an ideal intertheoretic reduction] provides us with a set of rules"correspondence rules" or "bridge laws," as the standard vernacular has it-which effect a mapping of the terms of the old theory (T o) onto a subset of the expressions of the new or reducing theory (T n). These rules guide the application of those selected expressions of T n in the following way: we are free to make singular applications of their correspondencerule doppelgangers in T o....

   Second, and equally important, a successful reduction ideally has the outcome that, under the term mapping effected by the correspondence rules, the central principles of T o (those of semantic and systematic importance) are mapped onto general sentences of T n that are theorems of Tn. (P. Churchland, 1979, p. 81)

    22) The Inclusion of Non- linguistic Factors in a Theory of Grammar

   If non-linguistic factors must be included in grammar: beliefs, attitudes, etc. [this would] amount to a rejection of the initial idealization of language as an object of study. A priori such a move cannot be ruled out, but it must be empirically motivated. If it proves to be correct, I would conclude that language is a chaos that is not worth studying.... Note that the question is not whether beliefs or attitudes, and so on, play a role in linguistic behavior and linguistic judgments... [but rather] whether distinct cognitive structures can be identified, which interact in the real use of language and linguistic judgments, the grammatical system being one of these. (Chomsky, 1979, pp. 140, 152-153)

    23) Language Is Inevitably Influenced by Specific Contexts of Human Interaction

   Language cannot be studied in isolation from the investigation of "rationality." It cannot afford to neglect our everyday assumptions concerning the total behavior of a reasonable person.... An integrational linguistics must recognize that human beings inhabit a communicational space which is not neatly compartmentalized into language and nonlanguage.... It renounces in advance the possibility of setting up systems of forms and meanings which will "account for" a central core of linguistic behavior irrespective of the situation and communicational purposes involved. (Harris, 1981, p. 165)

    24) The Genetic Blueprints of Language

   By innate [linguistic knowledge], Chomsky simply means "genetically programmed." He does not literally think that children are born with language in their heads ready to be spoken. He merely claims that a "blueprint is there, which is brought into use when the child reaches a certain point in her general development. With the help of this blueprint, she analyzes the language she hears around her more readily than she would if she were totally unprepared for the strange gabbling sounds which emerge from human mouths. (Aitchison, 1987, p. 31)

    25) Languages Are Machines

   Looking at ourselves from the computer viewpoint, we cannot avoid seeing that natural language is our most important "programming language." This means that a vast portion of our knowledge and activity is, for us, best communicated and understood in our natural language.... One could say that natural language was our first great original artifact and, since, as we increasingly realize, languages are machines, so natural language, with our brains to run it, was our primal invention of the universal computer. One could say this except for the sneaking suspicion that language isn't something we invented but something we became, not something we constructed but something in which we created, and recreated, ourselves. (Leiber, 1991, p. 8)

[΄eksəsaiz] n վարժություն, մարզանք. do/write/ correct exercise կատ ա րել/գրել/ ուղղել վարժությունը. do exercises վարժանք կատա րել. remedial exercise բուժական մարմնա մարզու թյուն. breathing exercise շնչառական վար ժություն. take exercise զբոսնել, քայլել, շարժվել. take little exercise քիչ շարժվել. military exercise ռզմ. զին վորա կան զորաշարժ. exercise book վարժու թյուն ների տետր. exercise of rights իրավունքների իրա կանա ցում

[΄eksəsaiz] v մարզ(վ)ել. քայլել, շարժ վել exercise the dog/horse շանը/ձիուն մար զել/ քայլեցնել. exercise more ավելի շատ զբոս նել/քայլել. (ցուցաբերել, օգտագործել, կիրառել) exercise selfcontrol/patience ինքնատի րա պե տում/ համ բերություն ցուցաբերել. exercise judicial power դատական իշխանություն իրականացնել. exercise one’s rights իրավունքներից օգտվել. exercise one’s authority իշխանություն կիրառել. exercise influence ազդեցություն գործել. (զբաղեցնել, հուզել, անհանգստացնել) be exercised about smn’s future անհանգստանալ մեկի ապագայով. the problem exerciseing minds ուղեղներ զբաղեցնող պրոբլեմ