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1 barren capital
Экономика: мёртвый капитал -
2 barren capital
English-russian dctionary of contemporary Economics > barren capital
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3 barren capital
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4 barren
adjective1) (infertile) unfruchtbar2) (meagre, dull) nutzlos [Handlung, Arbeit]; mager [Ergebnis]; unfruchtbar [Periode, Beziehung]; fruchtlos [Diskussion]* * *['bærən](not able to produce crops, fruit, young etc: barren soil; a barren fruit-tree; a barren woman.) unfruchtbar- academic.ru/5592/barrenness">barrenness* * *bar·rena \barren landscape eine karge [o öde] [o kahle] Landschaft\barren money totes Kapitalto be \barren of results kaum Erfolg haben\barren years magere Jahre* * *['brən]1. adj1) unfruchtbar; land also karg2) (fig) years unfruchtbar, unproduktiv; discussion also fruchtlos; atmosphere also steril; style, subject trocken; topic unergiebiga government barren of new ideas — eine Regierung, der neue Ideen fehlen or die keinerlei neue Ideen hat
2. n barrens3. pl (esp US)Ödland nt* * *barren [ˈbærən]A adj (adv barrenly)1. unfruchtbar:a) steril (Mensch, Tier, Pflanze)b) öde, dürr, kahl, unproduktiv (Land)2. figa) öde, trocken, uninteressantb) seichtc) dürftig, armselig3. fig (geistig) unproduktiv (Phase etc):go through a barren spell eine Durststrecke durchmachen4. figa) leerb) arm (of an dat):his speech was barren of wit seiner Rede fehlte der oder jeglicher Witz5. nutzlos:barren capital WIRTSCH totes Kapital;a barren title ein leerer Titel6. milchlos (Kuh)B s meist pl US Ödland n* * *adjective1) (infertile) unfruchtbar2) (meagre, dull) nutzlos [Handlung, Arbeit]; mager [Ergebnis]; unfruchtbar [Periode, Beziehung]; fruchtlos [Diskussion]* * *adj.unfruchtbar adj. -
5 barren
a \barren landscape eine karge [o öde]; [o kahle] Landschaft2) ( producing no results) nutzlos, zwecklos;\barren capital totes Kapital;to be of \barren results kaum Erfolg haben;\barren years magere Jahre -
6 capital
1. n1) капитал, денежные средства и активы для финансирования деятельности компании; финансы, инвестируемые в бизнес3) столица
- account capital
- accumulated capital
- active capital
- actual capital
- added capital
- additional capital
- additional paid-in capital
- additional share capital
- adequate capital
- advanced capital
- aggregate capital
- agricultural capital
- applied capital
- associated capital
- authorized capital
- available capital
- bank capital
- banking capital
- barren capital
- basic capital
- bond capital
- borrowed capital
- business capital
- callable capital
- called capital
- called-up capital
- charter capital
- circulating capital
- commercial capital
- commodity capital
- constant capital
- consumed capital
- contributed capital
- current capital
- dead capital
- debenture capital
- debt capital
- declared capital
- depreciable capital
- disposable capital
- dormant capital
- durable capital
- employed capital
- endowment capital
- entrepreneur's capital
- equity capital
- expended capital
- farm capital
- fictitious capital
- financial capital
- fixed capital
- flight capital
- floating capital
- fluid capital
- foreign capital
- free capital
- free-floating capital
- frozen capital
- fully paid-up capital
- functioning capital
- gross working capital
- idle capital
- immobilized capital
- impaired capital
- individual capital
- industrial capital
- initial capital
- intangible capital
- intellectual capital
- interest-bearing capital
- international capital
- invested capital
- investment capital
- issued capital
- joint capital
- junior capital
- latent capital
- legal capital
- liquid capital
- live capital
- loan capital
- locked-in capital
- locked-up capital
- long-term capital
- mercantile capital
- merchant's capital
- monetary capital
- money capital
- moneyed capital
- monopoly capital
- negative working capital
- net capital
- net operating working capital
- net working capital
- nominal capital
- nonspecific capital
- nonwage capital
- official capital
- opening capital
- operating capital
- operating working capital
- ordinary capital
- original capital
- outside capital
- owned capital
- owners' capital
- ownership capital
- paid-in capital
- paid-up capital
- partner's capital
- partnership capital
- personified capital
- potential capital
- preference capital
- primary capital
- private capital
- privately owned capital
- production capital
- productive capital
- proprietary capital
- real capital
- redundant capital
- refugee capital
- registered capital
- released capital
- rented capital
- requisite capital
- reserve capital
- risk capital
- security capital
- seed capital
- senior capital
- share capital
- shareholder ownership capital
- short-term capital
- short-term working capital
- social capital
- social overhead capital
- specific capital
- spare capital
- speculative capital
- start-up capital
- state capital
- statutory capital
- stated capital
- stock capital
- stockholder ownership capital
- subscribed capital
- subscriber capital
- subsidiary capital
- sunk capital
- supplementary capital
- surplus capital
- temporary working capital
- tenant's capital
- tied up capital
- total social capital
- trading capital
- uncalled capital
- unemployed capital
- unpaid capital
- unproductive capital
- unrealized capital
- unwatered capital
- usury capital
- variable capital
- venture capital
- vested capital
- wage capital
- watered capital
- working capital
- capital of average composition
- capital of circulation
- capital of a company
- capital of a corporation
- capital of higher composition
- capital of lower composition
- capital locked up in land
- capital paid in full
- advance capital
- allocate capital
- attract capital
- attract foreign investment capital
- break into one's capital
- commit capital
- contribute capital
- convert into capital
- create capital from savings
- expend capital
- form capital
- freeze capital
- furnish capital
- increase capital
- increase the original capital
- inject fresh capital
- invest capital
- make capital by smth
- place capital
- procure capital
- provide capital
- put capital into a business
- put up capital
- raise capital
- recall capital
- recover capital
- regroup capital
- sink capital
- spend capital
- support with capital
- tie in capital
- tie up capital
- touch capital
- use capital
- water capital
- withdraw capital2. adjглавный, основной; капитальный
- capital gain
- capital lossEnglish-russian dctionary of contemporary Economics > capital
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7 capital
1.главный, основной; капитальный2.1) деньги, имущество и активы, используемые в бизнесе• -
8 sterile
adjective1) (germ-free) steril2) (barren, lit. or fig.) steril; (fig.) nutzlos [Tätigkeit]; fruchtlos [Diskussion, Gespräch]* * *1) ((of soil, plants, humans and other animals) unable to produce crops, seeds, children or young.) unfruchtbar2) (free from germs: A surgeon's equipment must be absolutely sterile.) steril•- academic.ru/70674/sterility">sterility- sterilize
- sterilise
- sterilization
- sterilisation* * *ster·ile[ˈsteraɪl, AM -rəl]adj inv2. AGR\sterile soil unfruchtbarer Boden\sterile environment sterile Umgebung\sterile until opened vakuumverpackt\sterile argument fruchtloser Streit\sterile campaign erfolglose Kampagne\sterile capital totes Kapital* * *['steraɪl]adj2) (= germ-free) steril, keimfrei; (fig) steril* * *1. MED steril, keimfrei2. BIOL unfruchtbar, steril (beide auch fig):3. fig fruchtlos (Diskussion etc):sterile capital totes Kapital4. fig leer, gedankenarm (Stil etc)5. fig unproduktiv (Schriftsteller etc)* * *adjective1) (germ-free) steril2) (barren, lit. or fig.) steril; (fig.) nutzlos [Tätigkeit]; fruchtlos [Diskussion, Gespräch]* * *adj.keimfrei adj.steril adj. -
9 dead
1. n собир. мёртвые, умершие, покойники2. n глухая пора3. n сл. горн. пустая порода4. a мёртвый; умерший; дохлыйdead scholastic style — мёртвый, схоластический стиль
dead ice — стоячий ледник, «мёртвый» лёд
5. a связанный со смертью6. a безжизненный; как у мертвеца7. a погибший, кончившийся8. a увядший; погибший9. a неодушевлённый, неживойdead matter — неживая материя; неорганическое вещество
10. a лишённый признаков жизни, бесплодный, пустой11. a онемевший, потерявший чувствительность12. a бесчувственный, безразличный; слепой или глухойdead to shame — бесстыдный, забывший всякий стыд
dead to all feelings — бесчувственный, чёрствый
dead key — слепая клавиша; немаркированная клавиша
13. a негодный, непригодный, утративший основное свойство или функцию, потерявший силуdead match — негодная, незагоревшаяся спичка
dead channel — слепой рукав реки; старица; заводь
the line has gone dead — линия отключилась, телефон отключился
14. a безвкусный15. a погасший, потухший16. a фальшивый, ложный17. a недействующий, вышедший из употребления; устаревший18. a вымерший, древний19. a тусклый20. a вялый, апатичный21. a оцепенелый22. a глухой; унылый, однообразный, скучныйdead season — мёртвый сезон; глухая пора
at dead of night, in the depth of night — в глухую полночь, глубокой ночью
23. a лишённый движения, неподвижный; недвижный, недвижимый, застывший24. a не двигающийся, стоящий на местеdead ball, ball out of play — мяч вне игры
dead band — зона нечувствительности; мертвая зона
25. a остановившийся; бездействующий26. a эмоц. -усил. полный, совершенный, глубокий, крайнийdead faint — глубокий обморок; потеря сознания
27. a эмоц. -усил. смертельно, ужасноto be dead with hunger — умирать с голоду; быть голодным как волк
28. a ком. убыточныйdead loss — чистая потеря, чистый убыток
29. a спорт. вышедший из игрыdead ball — мяч, который не засчитывается
30. a юр. лишённый прав; поражённый в правахdead load — собственный вес; вес конструкции
dead hand — «мёртвая рука», владение без права передачи
31. a физ. поглощающий звукинегодный; использованный
32. a горн. непроветриваемый33. a застойный; неподвижный34. a горн. пустой, не содержащий полезного ископаемого; непродуктивный35. a эл. не находящийся под напряжением, выключенныйDead Sea Apple — красивый, но гнилой плод
over my dead body! — через мой труп, ни за что на свете!; этому не бывать!
36. adv эмоц. -усил. до смерти, крайне; совершенноdead broke — обанкротившийся, разорившийся в пух и прах
dead drunk — мертвецки пьяный; в стельку пьяный
37. adv точно, ровно, прямо38. adv не двигаясь39. v диал. умирать40. v диал. терять силы41. v диал. охлаждаться42. v диал. губить, умерщвлять43. v диал. лишать жизненной силы, ослаблять, заглушатьСинонимический ряд:1. asleep (adj.) anaesthetised; anesthetized; apathetic; asleep; benumbed; bygone; callous; cold; cool; deceased; defunct; departed; exanimate; expired; frigid; gone; indifferent; insensible; insensitive; late; lost; numb; numbed; senseless; spiritless; stillborn; unanimated; unfeeling; vanished2. barren (adj.) arid; barren; infertile; inorganic; sterile3. deathly (adj.) corpselike; corpsy; deadened; deadly; deathful; deathlike; deathly4. dull (adj.) blind; dim; dull; flat; lackluster; lusterless; mat; muted5. ended (adj.) ended; extinct; extinguished; out; terminated6. entire (adj.) absolute; complete; entire; final; total; unconditional; utter7. exact (adj.) direct; exact; precise; straight; sure; unerring8. inert (adj.) inactive; inanimate; inert; low; sluggish; stagnant; torpid; wooden9. late (adj.) deceased; defunct; departed; late; lifeless; lost; vanished10. obsolete (adj.) disused; obsolete; outmoded; outworn; passe; superseded11. spent (adj.) exhausted; spent; tired; wearied; worn12. casualties (noun) casualties; deceased; fatalities13. directly (other) direct; directly; due; right; straight; straightly; undeviatinglyАнтонимический ряд:alive; animate; animated; being; bustling; continuing; crooked; devious; eager; enduring; existent; existing; fertile; fervid; indirect; survivors -
10 dead
[ded] 1. прил.1) мёртвый; умерший; дохлыйto shoot smb. dead — застрелить кого-л.
to play / sham dead — притворяться мёртвым
If there's danger, the animal will sham dead. — В случае опасности это животное притворяется мёртвым.
The doctor pronounced him dead on arrival at the hospital. — Когда его доставили в больницу, врач констатировал смерть.
Pale and unconscious, he looked more dead than alive. — Он лежал без сознания; его бледное лицо казалось безжизненным.
Ant:2) изживший себя, погибший, кончившийсяThe old custom is dead. — Этот старый обычай уже не соблюдают.
3) сухой; высохший, увядший ( о растениях)4) отмерший ( о частях или органах)5) связанный с умершим, связанный со смертьюdead house — мертвецкая, морг
6) потерявший чувствительность, онемевшийMy fingers are dead. — У меня онемели пальцы.
7) разг. смертельно усталый, измотанныйto be (half) dead — быть измотанным, без сил
to be dead on one's feet — валиться с ног от усталости.
Syn:8) тупой, непрерывный (о боли - в отличие от резкой, внезапной)Syn:9) безжизненный, вялый, безразличный ( о человеке)10) юр. лишённый прав, поражённый в правах11) неживой, безжизненный; неодушевлённыйScientists believe that Mercury is a dead planet. — Учёные полагают, что Меркурий - мёртвая планета.
Syn:12) бесплодный; неплодородный ( о почве)Syn:13) горн. пустой, не содержащий полезных ископаемых15) потухший, погасшийSyn:16) эл. неподсоединённый17) тусклый, бесцветныйSyn:18) заглушённый, приглушённый, без обертоновSyn:19) неподвижный; стоячийThe town is dead in the winter. — Зимой жизнь в городе замирает.
Syn:20) горн. непроветриваемый, невентилируемый, с застойным воздухом21) неисправный, недействующий, неработающийThe battery was dead and the car wouldn't start. — Аккумулятор сел, и машина никак не заводилась.
Syn:22) неэффективный, непродуктивный; неиспользуемыйSyn:23) разг. необитаемый, нежилой ( о доме)I dislike dead places and would rather look at a prosperous mill than a beautiful ruin. — Мне не нравятся заброшенные здания, вид процветающей фабрики обрадовал бы меня больше, чем прекрасные руины.
24) воен. мёртвый, непростреливаемый25) полный, абсолютный; резкий, внезапныйdead faint — полная потеря сознания, глубокий обморок
There was a dead pause. — Наступило гробовое молчание.
dead loss — чистый убыток; неудачник
Syn:26) разг. обречённыйIf the boss finds out about it, I am dead. — Если босс об этом узнает, мне конец.
Syn:27) тех. мёртвый, неподвижныйdead point / centre — мёртвая точка ( крайнее положение поршня в цилиндре поршневой машины)
28) уверенный, точный, безошибочныйThe arrow hit the dead centre of the target. — Стрела попала точно в яблочко.
Syn:29) спорт.а) вышедший из игры ( о мяче)б) расположенный настолько близко от лунки, что может быть точно загнан в неё последующим ударом ( о мяче в гольфе)30) полигр. использованный, ненужный••dead air — тлв. тишина, молчание диктора ( во время трансляции в эфир)
dead leaf — авиа падение листом
dead marines, dead men — разг. пустые винные бутылки
dead presidents — амер.; разг. банкноты
over my dead body — только через мой труп; ни за что на свете
as dead as a doornail (as mutton, as a nit) — без каких-л. признаков жизни
dead above the ears — амер.; разг. тупой, глупый
wouldn't be caught / seen dead — разг. ни за что на свете
to be dead and buried / gone — лежать в могиле; оставаться в (далёком) прошлом
to be dead to the world — находиться без сознания; крепко спать; быть мертвецки, в стельку пьяным
to flog / beat a dead horse — заниматься бесполезным делом, зря тратить силы, напрасно стараться
- be dead in the water- dead meat
- dead season 2. сущ.1)а) покойник, мертвецб) ( the dead) употр. с гл. во мн. умершие, покойники2) глухая пора (время полной тишины, темноты, холода)dead of night — глубокая ночь, глухая полночь
3) горн. пустая порода ( особенно выброшенная или наваленная в процессе работы)4) разг. не востребованное адресатом или не доставленное письмо••3. нареч.1) абсолютно, полностьюto be dead sure / certain — быть абсолютно уверенным
Syn:2) точно, ровно; прямоdead on time — вовремя, с точностью до секунды
dead ahead — мор. прямо по носу, по курсу
Syn:3) брит.; разг. очень, чрезвычайноYou were dead lucky to get that job. — Тебе чертовски повезло, что тебя взяли на эту работу.
Syn: -
11 hardscrabble
['hɑːdˌskræb(ə)l]прил.1) достающийся с трудом, изматывающий, тяжёлыйThey led hardscrabble lives. — Им приходилось несладко.
Most inhabitants scratched out a living from hardscrabble farming. (Ron Chernow, Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller, Sr.) — Местные жители, в основном, добывали свой хлеб тяжёлым сельским трудом. (Рон Черноу. "Титан: жизнь сэра Джона Рокфеллера")
Syn:2) малопроизводительный, малоплодородный; скудный, бедныйThey are prostitutes, girls from the hardscrabble provinces who have come to sell sex in the moneyed capital. — Они – проститутки, девушки из нищей провинции, приехавшие торговать своим телом в богатую столицу.
I remember it being green and humid, nothing like this hardscrabble land. (Elmore Leonard, Cuba Libre) — Я помню эту страну зелёной, омытой дождями, а не такой, как сейчас, бедной и бесплодной. (Элмор Леонард. "Свободная Куба")
Syn: -
12 money
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13 rank
1. n ряд2. n воен. шеренгаto break the ranks — выходить из строя; расходиться
rank off — выступать в поход; уходить шеренгами, строем
3. n воен. армия; военная служба4. n воен. рядовой и сержантский составrank and file — рядовой состав; рядовые; солдаты
5. n воен. порядок; стройное расположение6. n воен. звание; чин; достоинство; должность, служебное положение; рангthe rank of admiral — звание адмирала ; адмиральский чин
minister of State with Cabinet rank — государственный министр, член кабинета
7. n воен. категория, разряд, класс8. n воен. высокое положение9. n воен. мат. ранг10. n воен. стоянка таксиcab rank — стоянка такси, экипажей
11. n воен. горизонтальная линия12. v строить в шеренгу; выстраивать в ряд13. v строиться в шеренгу; выстраиваться в ряд14. v проходить шеренгамиto rank past — дефилировать; проходить торжественным маршем
15. v мат. ранжировать, располагать в порядке возрастания или убыванияhis name will be ranked with the great names of history — его имя будет причислено к величайшим именам в истории
to rank second to none — занимать первое место, не иметь себе равных
to rank as a citizen — иметь статус гражданина, пользоваться правами гражданства
Keats will always rank with the greatest English poets — Китс всегда будет считаться одним из величайших английских поэтов
the rank and file actors are tutored and parroted by author or by stage-manager — рядовых актёров натаскивает автор или режиссёр
16. v амер. занимать более высокое положение; быть старшимrank with — иметь то же значение; что и; занимать то же место
17. v амер. занимать высокое положениеyour behaviour is not congruous with your social rank — ваше поведение не вяжется с вашим общественным положением
18. a буйный, пышный, роскошный; чрезмерно разросшийся19. a заросший20. a с. -х. тучный, плодородный21. a прогорклый, испорченный, тухлый, зловонныйrank smell — зловоние, вонь
to grow rank — прогоркнуть, протухнуть, испортиться
22. a эмоц. -усил. отвратительный, гнусный23. a эмоц. -усил. явный, сущий; отъявленныйrank nonsense — явная чепуха; сущий вздор
24. a эмоц. -усил. грубый, циничный, похабныйСинонимический ряд:1. egregious (adj.) arrant; capital; egregious; flagrant; glaring; gross2. heavy (adj.) dense; grown; heavy; lush; overabundant; overgrown; profuse; thick3. luxuriant (adj.) abundant; exuberant; luxuriant; over-abundant; tall; vigorous; vigourous4. malodorous (adj.) fetid; frowsy; funky; fusty; gamy; high; malodorous; mephitic; mouldy; musty; nidorous; noisome; offensive; olid; pungent; putrid; rancid; reeking; reeky; repellent; repulsive; rotten; smelly; stale; stenchful; stenchy; stinking; stinky; strong; whiffy5. obscene (adj.) barnyard; coarse; corrupt; crude; crusty; dirty; fescennine; filthy; foul; indecent; nasty; obscene; paw; profane; raunchy; rocky; scatological; scurrilous; smutty; vulgar6. rampant (adj.) rampant7. utter (adj.) absolute; all-fired; black; blamed; blank; blankety-blank; blasted; bleeding; blessed; blighted; blinding; blithering; blue; complete; confounded; consummate; crashing; dad-blamed; dad-blasted; dad-burned; damned; dang; darn; dashed; deuced; doggone; double-distilled; durn; entire; excessive; extravagant; sheer; utter8. eminence (noun) dignity; distinction; eminence; nobility; pedigree; reputation9. membership (noun) body; membership; rank and file10. order (noun) alignment; arrangement; array; bracket; calibre; class; degree; estate; grade; order; seniority11. row (noun) column; echelon; file; line; queue; range; row; series; string; tier12. status (noun) cachet; capacity; character; consequence; division; footing; level; place; position; prestige; quality; situation; standing; state; station; stature; status13. group (verb) align; arrange; array; assort; class; classify; dispose; distribute; evaluate; grade; group; line up; marshal; order; organise; range; rate; sort; systematise14. precede (verb) outrank; precede15. rate (verb) categorise; class; classify; grade; pigeon-hole; place; rateАнтонимический ряд:barren; disconnection; disorder; disorganize; hiatus; intermission; meanness; solution -
14 unproductive
a непродуктивный; непроизводительныйСинонимический ряд:1. fruitless (adj.) arid; barren; childless; dead; desert; dry; fruitless; hardscrabble; impotent; infertile; sterile; unbearing; unfertile; unfruitful; unprolific2. futile (adj.) abortive; bootless; futile; ineffective; ineffectual; unavailable; unavailing; unprevailing; useless; vain -
15 Introduction
Portugal is a small Western European nation with a large, distinctive past replete with both triumph and tragedy. One of the continent's oldest nation-states, Portugal has frontiers that are essentially unchanged since the late 14th century. The country's unique character and 850-year history as an independent state present several curious paradoxes. As of 1974, when much of the remainder of the Portuguese overseas empire was decolonized, Portuguese society appeared to be the most ethnically homogeneous of the two Iberian states and of much of Europe. Yet, Portuguese society had received, over the course of 2,000 years, infusions of other ethnic groups in invasions and immigration: Phoenicians, Greeks, Celts, Romans, Suevi, Visigoths, Muslims (Arab and Berber), Jews, Italians, Flemings, Burgundian French, black Africans, and Asians. Indeed, Portugal has been a crossroads, despite its relative isolation in the western corner of the Iberian Peninsula, between the West and North Africa, Tropical Africa, and Asia and America. Since 1974, Portugal's society has become less homogeneous, as there has been significant immigration of former subjects from its erstwhile overseas empire.Other paradoxes should be noted as well. Although Portugal is sometimes confused with Spain or things Spanish, its very national independence and national culture depend on being different from Spain and Spaniards. Today, Portugal's independence may be taken for granted. Since 1140, except for 1580-1640 when it was ruled by Philippine Spain, Portugal has been a sovereign state. Nevertheless, a recurring theme of the nation's history is cycles of anxiety and despair that its freedom as a nation is at risk. There is a paradox, too, about Portugal's overseas empire(s), which lasted half a millennium (1415-1975): after 1822, when Brazil achieved independence from Portugal, most of the Portuguese who emigrated overseas never set foot in their overseas empire, but preferred to immigrate to Brazil or to other countries in North or South America or Europe, where established Portuguese overseas communities existed.Portugal was a world power during the period 1415-1550, the era of the Discoveries, expansion, and early empire, and since then the Portuguese have experienced periods of decline, decadence, and rejuvenation. Despite the fact that Portugal slipped to the rank of a third- or fourth-rate power after 1580, it and its people can claim rightfully an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions that assure their place both in world and Western history. These distinctions should be kept in mind while acknowledging that, for more than 400 years, Portugal has generally lagged behind the rest of Western Europe, although not Southern Europe, in social and economic developments and has remained behind even its only neighbor and sometime nemesis, Spain.Portugal's pioneering role in the Discoveries and exploration era of the 15th and 16th centuries is well known. Often noted, too, is the Portuguese role in the art and science of maritime navigation through the efforts of early navigators, mapmakers, seamen, and fishermen. What are often forgotten are the country's slender base of resources, its small population largely of rural peasants, and, until recently, its occupation of only 16 percent of the Iberian Peninsula. As of 1139—10, when Portugal emerged first as an independent monarchy, and eventually a sovereign nation-state, England and France had not achieved this status. The Portuguese were the first in the Iberian Peninsula to expel the Muslim invaders from their portion of the peninsula, achieving this by 1250, more than 200 years before Castile managed to do the same (1492).Other distinctions may be noted. Portugal conquered the first overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean in the early modern era and established the first plantation system based on slave labor. Portugal's empire was the first to be colonized and the last to be decolonized in the 20th century. With so much of its scattered, seaborne empire dependent upon the safety and seaworthiness of shipping, Portugal was a pioneer in initiating marine insurance, a practice that is taken for granted today. During the time of Pombaline Portugal (1750-77), Portugal was the first state to organize and hold an industrial trade fair. In distinctive political and governmental developments, Portugal's record is more mixed, and this fact suggests that maintaining a government with a functioning rule of law and a pluralist, representative democracy has not been an easy matter in a country that for so long has been one of the poorest and least educated in the West. Portugal's First Republic (1910-26), only the third republic in a largely monarchist Europe (after France and Switzerland), was Western Europe's most unstable parliamentary system in the 20th century. Finally, the authoritarian Estado Novo or "New State" (1926-74) was the longest surviving authoritarian system in modern Western Europe. When Portugal departed from its overseas empire in 1974-75, the descendants, in effect, of Prince Henry the Navigator were leaving the West's oldest empire.Portugal's individuality is based mainly on its long history of distinc-tiveness, its intense determination to use any means — alliance, diplomacy, defense, trade, or empire—to be a sovereign state, independent of Spain, and on its national pride in the Portuguese language. Another master factor in Portuguese affairs deserves mention. The country's politics and government have been influenced not only by intellectual currents from the Atlantic but also through Spain from Europe, which brought new political ideas and institutions and novel technologies. Given the weight of empire in Portugal's past, it is not surprising that public affairs have been hostage to a degree to what happened in her overseas empire. Most important have been domestic responses to imperial affairs during both imperial and internal crises since 1415, which have continued to the mid-1970s and beyond. One of the most important themes of Portuguese history, and one oddly neglected by not a few histories, is that every major political crisis and fundamental change in the system—in other words, revolution—since 1415 has been intimately connected with a related imperial crisis. The respective dates of these historical crises are: 1437, 1495, 1578-80, 1640, 1820-22, 1890, 1910, 1926-30, 1961, and 1974. The reader will find greater detail on each crisis in historical context in the history section of this introduction and in relevant entries.LAND AND PEOPLEThe Republic of Portugal is located on the western edge of the Iberian Peninsula. A major geographical dividing line is the Tagus River: Portugal north of it has an Atlantic orientation; the country to the south of it has a Mediterranean orientation. There is little physical evidence that Portugal is clearly geographically distinct from Spain, and there is no major natural barrier between the two countries along more than 1,214 kilometers (755 miles) of the Luso-Spanish frontier. In climate, Portugal has a number of microclimates similar to the microclimates of Galicia, Estremadura, and Andalusia in neighboring Spain. North of the Tagus, in general, there is an Atlantic-type climate with higher rainfall, cold winters, and some snow in the mountainous areas. South of the Tagus is a more Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry, often rainless summers and cool, wet winters. Lisbon, the capital, which has a fifth of the country's population living in its region, has an average annual mean temperature about 16° C (60° F).For a small country with an area of 92,345 square kilometers (35,580 square miles, including the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and the Madeiras), which is about the size of the state of Indiana in the United States, Portugal has a remarkable diversity of regional topography and scenery. In some respects, Portugal resembles an island within the peninsula, embodying a unique fusion of European and non-European cultures, akin to Spain yet apart. Its geography is a study in contrasts, from the flat, sandy coastal plain, in some places unusually wide for Europe, to the mountainous Beira districts or provinces north of the Tagus, to the snow-capped mountain range of the Estrela, with its unique ski area, to the rocky, barren, remote Trás-os-Montes district bordering Spain. There are extensive forests in central and northern Portugal that contrast with the flat, almost Kansas-like plains of the wheat belt in the Alentejo district. There is also the unique Algarve district, isolated somewhat from the Alentejo district by a mountain range, with a microclimate, topography, and vegetation that resemble closely those of North Africa.Although Portugal is small, just 563 kilometers (337 miles) long and from 129 to 209 kilometers (80 to 125 miles) wide, it is strategically located on transportation and communication routes between Europe and North Africa, and the Americas and Europe. Geographical location is one key to the long history of Portugal's three overseas empires, which stretched once from Morocco to the Moluccas and from lonely Sagres at Cape St. Vincent to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is essential to emphasize the identity of its neighbors: on the north and east Portugal is bounded by Spain, its only neighbor, and by the Atlantic Ocean on the south and west. Portugal is the westernmost country of Western Europe, and its shape resembles a face, with Lisbon below the nose, staring into theAtlantic. No part of Portugal touches the Mediterranean, and its Atlantic orientation has been a response in part to turning its back on Castile and Léon (later Spain) and exploring, traveling, and trading or working in lands beyond the peninsula. Portugal was the pioneering nation in the Atlantic-born European discoveries during the Renaissance, and its diplomatic and trade relations have been dominated by countries that have been Atlantic powers as well: Spain; England (Britain since 1707); France; Brazil, once its greatest colony; and the United States.Today Portugal and its Atlantic islands have a population of roughly 10 million people. While ethnic homogeneity has been characteristic of it in recent history, Portugal's population over the centuries has seen an infusion of non-Portuguese ethnic groups from various parts of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. Between 1500 and 1800, a significant population of black Africans, brought in as slaves, was absorbed in the population. And since 1950, a population of Cape Verdeans, who worked in menial labor, has resided in Portugal. With the influx of African, Goan, and Timorese refugees and exiles from the empire—as many as three quarters of a million retornados ("returned ones" or immigrants from the former empire) entered Portugal in 1974 and 1975—there has been greater ethnic diversity in the Portuguese population. In 2002, there were 239,113 immigrants legally residing in Portugal: 108,132 from Africa; 24,806 from Brazil; 15,906 from Britain; 14,617 from Spain; and 11,877 from Germany. In addition, about 200,000 immigrants are living in Portugal from eastern Europe, mainly from Ukraine. The growth of Portugal's population is reflected in the following statistics:1527 1,200,000 (estimate only)1768 2,400,000 (estimate only)1864 4,287,000 first census1890 5,049,7001900 5,423,0001911 5,960,0001930 6,826,0001940 7,185,1431950 8,510,0001960 8,889,0001970 8,668,000* note decrease1980 9,833,0001991 9,862,5401996 9,934,1002006 10,642,8362010 10,710,000 (estimated)
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