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  • 1 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 2 Introduction

       Portugal is a small Western European nation with a large, distinctive past replete with both triumph and tragedy. One of the continent's oldest nation-states, Portugal has frontiers that are essentially unchanged since the late 14th century. The country's unique character and 850-year history as an independent state present several curious paradoxes. As of 1974, when much of the remainder of the Portuguese overseas empire was decolonized, Portuguese society appeared to be the most ethnically homogeneous of the two Iberian states and of much of Europe. Yet, Portuguese society had received, over the course of 2,000 years, infusions of other ethnic groups in invasions and immigration: Phoenicians, Greeks, Celts, Romans, Suevi, Visigoths, Muslims (Arab and Berber), Jews, Italians, Flemings, Burgundian French, black Africans, and Asians. Indeed, Portugal has been a crossroads, despite its relative isolation in the western corner of the Iberian Peninsula, between the West and North Africa, Tropical Africa, and Asia and America. Since 1974, Portugal's society has become less homogeneous, as there has been significant immigration of former subjects from its erstwhile overseas empire.
       Other paradoxes should be noted as well. Although Portugal is sometimes confused with Spain or things Spanish, its very national independence and national culture depend on being different from Spain and Spaniards. Today, Portugal's independence may be taken for granted. Since 1140, except for 1580-1640 when it was ruled by Philippine Spain, Portugal has been a sovereign state. Nevertheless, a recurring theme of the nation's history is cycles of anxiety and despair that its freedom as a nation is at risk. There is a paradox, too, about Portugal's overseas empire(s), which lasted half a millennium (1415-1975): after 1822, when Brazil achieved independence from Portugal, most of the Portuguese who emigrated overseas never set foot in their overseas empire, but preferred to immigrate to Brazil or to other countries in North or South America or Europe, where established Portuguese overseas communities existed.
       Portugal was a world power during the period 1415-1550, the era of the Discoveries, expansion, and early empire, and since then the Portuguese have experienced periods of decline, decadence, and rejuvenation. Despite the fact that Portugal slipped to the rank of a third- or fourth-rate power after 1580, it and its people can claim rightfully an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions that assure their place both in world and Western history. These distinctions should be kept in mind while acknowledging that, for more than 400 years, Portugal has generally lagged behind the rest of Western Europe, although not Southern Europe, in social and economic developments and has remained behind even its only neighbor and sometime nemesis, Spain.
       Portugal's pioneering role in the Discoveries and exploration era of the 15th and 16th centuries is well known. Often noted, too, is the Portuguese role in the art and science of maritime navigation through the efforts of early navigators, mapmakers, seamen, and fishermen. What are often forgotten are the country's slender base of resources, its small population largely of rural peasants, and, until recently, its occupation of only 16 percent of the Iberian Peninsula. As of 1139—10, when Portugal emerged first as an independent monarchy, and eventually a sovereign nation-state, England and France had not achieved this status. The Portuguese were the first in the Iberian Peninsula to expel the Muslim invaders from their portion of the peninsula, achieving this by 1250, more than 200 years before Castile managed to do the same (1492).
       Other distinctions may be noted. Portugal conquered the first overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean in the early modern era and established the first plantation system based on slave labor. Portugal's empire was the first to be colonized and the last to be decolonized in the 20th century. With so much of its scattered, seaborne empire dependent upon the safety and seaworthiness of shipping, Portugal was a pioneer in initiating marine insurance, a practice that is taken for granted today. During the time of Pombaline Portugal (1750-77), Portugal was the first state to organize and hold an industrial trade fair. In distinctive political and governmental developments, Portugal's record is more mixed, and this fact suggests that maintaining a government with a functioning rule of law and a pluralist, representative democracy has not been an easy matter in a country that for so long has been one of the poorest and least educated in the West. Portugal's First Republic (1910-26), only the third republic in a largely monarchist Europe (after France and Switzerland), was Western Europe's most unstable parliamentary system in the 20th century. Finally, the authoritarian Estado Novo or "New State" (1926-74) was the longest surviving authoritarian system in modern Western Europe. When Portugal departed from its overseas empire in 1974-75, the descendants, in effect, of Prince Henry the Navigator were leaving the West's oldest empire.
       Portugal's individuality is based mainly on its long history of distinc-tiveness, its intense determination to use any means — alliance, diplomacy, defense, trade, or empire—to be a sovereign state, independent of Spain, and on its national pride in the Portuguese language. Another master factor in Portuguese affairs deserves mention. The country's politics and government have been influenced not only by intellectual currents from the Atlantic but also through Spain from Europe, which brought new political ideas and institutions and novel technologies. Given the weight of empire in Portugal's past, it is not surprising that public affairs have been hostage to a degree to what happened in her overseas empire. Most important have been domestic responses to imperial affairs during both imperial and internal crises since 1415, which have continued to the mid-1970s and beyond. One of the most important themes of Portuguese history, and one oddly neglected by not a few histories, is that every major political crisis and fundamental change in the system—in other words, revolution—since 1415 has been intimately connected with a related imperial crisis. The respective dates of these historical crises are: 1437, 1495, 1578-80, 1640, 1820-22, 1890, 1910, 1926-30, 1961, and 1974. The reader will find greater detail on each crisis in historical context in the history section of this introduction and in relevant entries.
       LAND AND PEOPLE
       The Republic of Portugal is located on the western edge of the Iberian Peninsula. A major geographical dividing line is the Tagus River: Portugal north of it has an Atlantic orientation; the country to the south of it has a Mediterranean orientation. There is little physical evidence that Portugal is clearly geographically distinct from Spain, and there is no major natural barrier between the two countries along more than 1,214 kilometers (755 miles) of the Luso-Spanish frontier. In climate, Portugal has a number of microclimates similar to the microclimates of Galicia, Estremadura, and Andalusia in neighboring Spain. North of the Tagus, in general, there is an Atlantic-type climate with higher rainfall, cold winters, and some snow in the mountainous areas. South of the Tagus is a more Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry, often rainless summers and cool, wet winters. Lisbon, the capital, which has a fifth of the country's population living in its region, has an average annual mean temperature about 16° C (60° F).
       For a small country with an area of 92,345 square kilometers (35,580 square miles, including the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and the Madeiras), which is about the size of the state of Indiana in the United States, Portugal has a remarkable diversity of regional topography and scenery. In some respects, Portugal resembles an island within the peninsula, embodying a unique fusion of European and non-European cultures, akin to Spain yet apart. Its geography is a study in contrasts, from the flat, sandy coastal plain, in some places unusually wide for Europe, to the mountainous Beira districts or provinces north of the Tagus, to the snow-capped mountain range of the Estrela, with its unique ski area, to the rocky, barren, remote Trás-os-Montes district bordering Spain. There are extensive forests in central and northern Portugal that contrast with the flat, almost Kansas-like plains of the wheat belt in the Alentejo district. There is also the unique Algarve district, isolated somewhat from the Alentejo district by a mountain range, with a microclimate, topography, and vegetation that resemble closely those of North Africa.
       Although Portugal is small, just 563 kilometers (337 miles) long and from 129 to 209 kilometers (80 to 125 miles) wide, it is strategically located on transportation and communication routes between Europe and North Africa, and the Americas and Europe. Geographical location is one key to the long history of Portugal's three overseas empires, which stretched once from Morocco to the Moluccas and from lonely Sagres at Cape St. Vincent to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is essential to emphasize the identity of its neighbors: on the north and east Portugal is bounded by Spain, its only neighbor, and by the Atlantic Ocean on the south and west. Portugal is the westernmost country of Western Europe, and its shape resembles a face, with Lisbon below the nose, staring into the
       Atlantic. No part of Portugal touches the Mediterranean, and its Atlantic orientation has been a response in part to turning its back on Castile and Léon (later Spain) and exploring, traveling, and trading or working in lands beyond the peninsula. Portugal was the pioneering nation in the Atlantic-born European discoveries during the Renaissance, and its diplomatic and trade relations have been dominated by countries that have been Atlantic powers as well: Spain; England (Britain since 1707); France; Brazil, once its greatest colony; and the United States.
       Today Portugal and its Atlantic islands have a population of roughly 10 million people. While ethnic homogeneity has been characteristic of it in recent history, Portugal's population over the centuries has seen an infusion of non-Portuguese ethnic groups from various parts of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. Between 1500 and 1800, a significant population of black Africans, brought in as slaves, was absorbed in the population. And since 1950, a population of Cape Verdeans, who worked in menial labor, has resided in Portugal. With the influx of African, Goan, and Timorese refugees and exiles from the empire—as many as three quarters of a million retornados ("returned ones" or immigrants from the former empire) entered Portugal in 1974 and 1975—there has been greater ethnic diversity in the Portuguese population. In 2002, there were 239,113 immigrants legally residing in Portugal: 108,132 from Africa; 24,806 from Brazil; 15,906 from Britain; 14,617 from Spain; and 11,877 from Germany. In addition, about 200,000 immigrants are living in Portugal from eastern Europe, mainly from Ukraine. The growth of Portugal's population is reflected in the following statistics:
       1527 1,200,000 (estimate only)
       1768 2,400,000 (estimate only)
       1864 4,287,000 first census
       1890 5,049,700
       1900 5,423,000
       1911 5,960,000
       1930 6,826,000
       1940 7,185,143
       1950 8,510,000
       1960 8,889,000
       1970 8,668,000* note decrease
       1980 9,833,000
       1991 9,862,540
       1996 9,934,100
       2006 10,642,836
       2010 10,710,000 (estimated)

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Introduction

  • 3 Edison, Thomas Alva

    [br]
    b. 11 February 1847 Milan, Ohio, USA
    d. 18 October 1931 Glenmont
    [br]
    American inventor and pioneer electrical developer.
    [br]
    He was the son of Samuel Edison, who was in the timber business. His schooling was delayed due to scarlet fever until 1855, when he was 8½ years old, but he was an avid reader. By the age of 14 he had a job as a newsboy on the railway from Port Huron to Detroit, a distance of sixty-three miles (101 km). He worked a fourteen-hour day with a stopover of five hours, which he spent in the Detroit Free Library. He also sold sweets on the train and, later, fruit and vegetables, and was soon making a profit of $20 a week. He then started two stores in Port Huron and used a spare freight car as a laboratory. He added a hand-printing press to produce 400 copies weekly of The Grand Trunk Herald, most of which he compiled and edited himself. He set himself to learn telegraphy from the station agent at Mount Clements, whose son he had saved from being run over by a freight car.
    At the age of 16 he became a telegraphist at Port Huron. In 1863 he became railway telegraphist at the busy Stratford Junction of the Grand Trunk Railroad, arranging a clock with a notched wheel to give the hourly signal which was to prove that he was awake and at his post! He left hurriedly after failing to hold a train which was nearly involved in a head-on collision. He usually worked the night shift, allowing himself time for experiments during the day. His first invention was an arrangement of two Morse registers so that a high-speed input could be decoded at a slower speed. Moving from place to place he held many positions as a telegraphist. In Boston he invented an automatic vote recorder for Congress and patented it, but the idea was rejected. This was the first of a total of 1180 patents that he was to take out during his lifetime. After six years he resigned from the Western Union Company to devote all his time to invention, his next idea being an improved ticker-tape machine for stockbrokers. He developed a duplex telegraphy system, but this was turned down by the Western Union Company. He then moved to New York.
    Edison found accommodation in the battery room of Law's Gold Reporting Company, sleeping in the cellar, and there his repair of a broken transmitter marked him as someone of special talents. His superior soon resigned, and he was promoted with a salary of $300 a month. Western Union paid him $40,000 for the sole rights on future improvements on the duplex telegraph, and he moved to Ward Street, Newark, New Jersey, where he employed a gathering of specialist engineers. Within a year, he married one of his employees, Mary Stilwell, when she was only 16: a daughter, Marion, was born in 1872, and two sons, Thomas and William, in 1876 and 1879, respectively.
    He continued to work on the automatic telegraph, a device to send out messages faster than they could be tapped out by hand: that is, over fifty words per minute or so. An earlier machine by Alexander Bain worked at up to 400 words per minute, but was not good over long distances. Edison agreed to work on improving this feature of Bain's machine for the Automatic Telegraph Company (ATC) for $40,000. He improved it to a working speed of 500 words per minute and ran a test between Washington and New York. Hoping to sell their equipment to the Post Office in Britain, ATC sent Edison to England in 1873 to negotiate. A 500-word message was to be sent from Liverpool to London every half-hour for six hours, followed by tests on 2,200 miles (3,540 km) of cable at Greenwich. Only confused results were obtained due to induction in the cable, which lay coiled in a water tank. Edison returned to New York, where he worked on his quadruplex telegraph system, tests of which proved a success between New York and Albany in December 1874. Unfortunately, simultaneous negotiation with Western Union and ATC resulted in a lawsuit.
    Alexander Graham Bell was granted a patent for a telephone in March 1876 while Edison was still working on the same idea. His improvements allowed the device to operate over a distance of hundreds of miles instead of only a few miles. Tests were carried out over the 106 miles (170 km) between New York and Philadelphia. Edison applied for a patent on the carbon-button transmitter in April 1877, Western Union agreeing to pay him $6,000 a year for the seventeen-year duration of the patent. In these years he was also working on the development of the electric lamp and on a duplicating machine which would make up to 3,000 copies from a stencil. In 1876–7 he moved from Newark to Menlo Park, twenty-four miles (39 km) from New York on the Pennsylvania Railway, near Elizabeth. He had bought a house there around which he built the premises that would become his "inventions factory". It was there that he began the use of his 200- page pocket notebooks, each of which lasted him about two weeks, so prolific were his ideas. When he died he left 3,400 of them filled with notes and sketches.
    Late in 1877 he applied for a patent for a phonograph which was granted on 19 February 1878, and by the end of the year he had formed a company to manufacture this totally new product. At the time, Edison saw the device primarily as a business aid rather than for entertainment, rather as a dictating machine. In August 1878 he was granted a British patent. In July 1878 he tried to measure the heat from the solar corona at a solar eclipse viewed from Rawlins, Wyoming, but his "tasimeter" was too sensitive.
    Probably his greatest achievement was "The Subdivision of the Electric Light" or the "glow bulb". He tried many materials for the filament before settling on carbon. He gave a demonstration of electric light by lighting up Menlo Park and inviting the public. Edison was, of course, faced with the problem of inventing and producing all the ancillaries which go to make up the electrical system of generation and distribution-meters, fuses, insulation, switches, cabling—even generators had to be designed and built; everything was new. He started a number of manufacturing companies to produce the various components needed.
    In 1881 he built the world's largest generator, which weighed 27 tons, to light 1,200 lamps at the Paris Exhibition. It was later moved to England to be used in the world's first central power station with steam engine drive at Holborn Viaduct, London. In September 1882 he started up his Pearl Street Generating Station in New York, which led to a worldwide increase in the application of electric power, particularly for lighting. At the same time as these developments, he built a 1,300yd (1,190m) electric railway at Menlo Park.
    On 9 August 1884 his wife died of typhoid. Using his telegraphic skills, he proposed to 19-year-old Mina Miller in Morse code while in the company of others on a train. He married her in February 1885 before buying a new house and estate at West Orange, New Jersey, building a new laboratory not far away in the Orange Valley.
    Edison used direct current which was limited to around 250 volts. Alternating current was largely developed by George Westinghouse and Nicola Tesla, using transformers to step up the current to a higher voltage for long-distance transmission. The use of AC gradually overtook the Edison DC system.
    In autumn 1888 he patented a form of cinephotography, the kinetoscope, obtaining film-stock from George Eastman. In 1893 he set up the first film studio, which was pivoted so as to catch the sun, with a hinged roof which could be raised. In 1894 kinetoscope parlours with "peep shows" were starting up in cities all over America. Competition came from the Latham Brothers with a screen-projection machine, which Edison answered with his "Vitascope", shown in New York in 1896. This showed pictures with accompanying sound, but there was some difficulty with synchronization. Edison also experimented with captions at this early date.
    In 1880 he filed a patent for a magnetic ore separator, the first of nearly sixty. He bought up deposits of low-grade iron ore which had been developed in the north of New Jersey. The process was a commercial success until the discovery of iron-rich ore in Minnesota rendered it uneconomic and uncompetitive. In 1898 cement rock was discovered in New Village, west of West Orange. Edison bought the land and started cement manufacture, using kilns twice the normal length and using half as much fuel to heat them as the normal type of kiln. In 1893 he met Henry Ford, who was building his second car, at an Edison convention. This started him on the development of a battery for an electric car on which he made over 9,000 experiments. In 1903 he sold his patent for wireless telegraphy "for a song" to Guglielmo Marconi.
    In 1910 Edison designed a prefabricated concrete house. In December 1914 fire destroyed three-quarters of the West Orange plant, but it was at once rebuilt, and with the threat of war Edison started to set up his own plants for making all the chemicals that he had previously been buying from Europe, such as carbolic acid, phenol, benzol, aniline dyes, etc. He was appointed President of the Navy Consulting Board, for whom, he said, he made some forty-five inventions, "but they were pigeonholed, every one of them". Thus did Edison find that the Navy did not take kindly to civilian interference.
    In 1927 he started the Edison Botanic Research Company, founded with similar investment from Ford and Firestone with the object of finding a substitute for overseas-produced rubber. In the first year he tested no fewer than 3,327 possible plants, in the second year, over 1,400, eventually developing a variety of Golden Rod which grew to 14 ft (4.3 m) in height. However, all this effort and money was wasted, due to the discovery of synthetic rubber.
    In October 1929 he was present at Henry Ford's opening of his Dearborn Museum to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the incandescent lamp, including a replica of the Menlo Park laboratory. He was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal and was elected to the American Academy of Sciences. He died in 1931 at his home, Glenmont; throughout the USA, lights were dimmed temporarily on the day of his funeral.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Member of the American Academy of Sciences. Congressional Gold Medal.
    Further Reading
    M.Josephson, 1951, Edison, Eyre \& Spottiswode.
    R.W.Clark, 1977, Edison, the Man who Made the Future, Macdonald \& Jane.
    IMcN

    Biographical history of technology > Edison, Thomas Alva

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     ■ Sulloway, F. J. (1996). Born to rebel: Birth order, family dynamics, and creative lives. New York: Random House/Vintage Books.
     ■ Thorndike, E. L. (1906). Principles of teaching. New York: A. G. Seiler.
     ■ Thorndike, E. L. (1970). Animal intelligence: Experimental studies. Darien, CT: Hafner Publishing Co. (Originally published in 1911.)
     ■ Titchener, E. B. (1910). A textbook of psychology. New York: Macmillan.
     ■ Titchener, E. B. (1914). A primer of psychology. New York: Macmillan.
     ■ Toulmin, S. (1957). The philosophy of science. London: Hutchinson.
     ■ Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and semantic memory. In E. Tulving & W. Donaldson (Eds.), Organisation of memory. London: Academic Press.
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     ■ Turkle, S. (1984). Computers and the second self: Computers and the human spirit. New York: Simon & Schuster.
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    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Bibliography

  • 5 Newfield, Sam

    1899-1964
       Nacido Samuel Neufeld, hermano de Sigmund Neufeld, futuro jefe de produccion de PRC, dirige cortometrajes desde 1926, y largometrajes desde 1933. Probablemente el mas prolifico realizador norteamericano de la era sonora, dirigio, sobre todo, westerns. Por sus manos paso una parte importante de los viejos heroes del genero, en peliculas de una hora de duracion y argumentos eternamente repetidos. Solo leer su filmografia produce cierto vertigo. Establecerla rigurosamente es una tarea ardua, especialmente en lo relativo al orden cronologico estricto, por lo que en esta ocasion mas que en ninguna otra hay que entender que ese orden es susceptible de correccion. Utiliza los seudonimos de Peter Stewart y Sherman Scott. Se ha prescindido de tres aparentes largometrajes, situados al final de su carrera y obtenidos, cada uno de ellos, por super posicion de dos episodios del serial televisivo “Hawkeye and the Last of the Mohicans”. Aunque el nivel medio de los filmes de Sam Newfeld es realmente bajo, hay que citar dos curiosidades: Harlem on the Prairie (1937) esta interpretado integramente por negros, y The Terror of Tiny Town (1938), por enanos, que se mueven en decorados de tamano normal.
        Undercover Men. 1935. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Dominion. Charles Starrett, Adrienne Dore.
        Northern Frontier. 1935. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Ambassador. Kermit Maynard, Eleanor Hunt, LeRoy Mason.
        Code of the Mounted (Fiel a su consigna). 1935. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Ambassador. Kermit Maynard, Lilian Miles, Robert Warwick.
        Branded a Coward (El botin del rancho). 1935. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Supreme. Johnny Mack Brown, Billie Seward, Syd Taylor.
        Trails of the Wild. 1935. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Ambassador. Kermit Maynard, Billie Seward, Fuzzy Knight.
        Timber War. 1935. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Ambassador. Kermit Maynard, Lucille Lund, Lawrence Gray.
        Bulldog Courage. 1935. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Puritan. Tim McCoy, Joan Woodbury.
        Roarin’ Guns. 1936. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Puritan. Tim McCoy, Rosalinda Rice, Rex Lease.
        Border Caballero. 1936. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Puritan. Tim McCoy, Lois January, Ralph Byrd.
        Lightnin’ Bill Carson. 1936. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Puritan. Tim McCoy, Lois January, Rex Lease.
        Aces and Eights. 1936. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Puritan. Tim McCoy, Luana Walters, Rex Lease.
        The Lion’s Den. 1936. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Puritan. Tim McCoy, Joan Woodbury, Don Barclay.
        Ghost Patrol. 1936. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Puritan. Tim McCoy, Claudia Dell, Walter Miller.
        The Traitor. 1936. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Puritan. Tim McCoy, Frances Grant, Wally Wales.
        Roarin’ Lead (co-d.: Mack V. Wright). 1936. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Livingston, Ray Corrigan, Max Terhune, Christine Maple.
        Stormy Trails. 1936. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Colony (Grand National). Rex Bell, Lois Wilde, Lane Chandler.
        The Gambling Terror. 1937. 53 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Johnny Mack Brown, Iris Meredith, Horace Murphy.
        Lightnin’ Crandall. 1937. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Lois January, Frank LaRue.
        Trail of Vengeance. 1937. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Johnny Mack Brown, Iris Meredith.
        Melody of the Plains. 1937. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Spectrum. Fred Scott, Al St. John, Louise Small.
        Bar-Z Bad Men. 1937. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Johnny Mack Brown, Lois January.
        Guns in the Dark. 1937. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Johnny Mack Brown, Claire Rochelle, Syd Saylor.
        Gun Lords of Stirrup Basin. 1937. 53 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Louise Stanley, Frank LaRue.
        A Lawman Is Born. 1937. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Johnny Mack Brown, Iris Meredith, Al St. John.
        Doomed at Sundown. 1937. 53 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Lorraine Randall.
        Boothill Brigade. 1937. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Johnny Mack Brown, Claire Rochelle, Horace Murphy.
        Arizona Gunfighter. 1937. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Jean Carmen, Ted Adams.
        Ridin’ the Lone Trail. 1937. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Claire Rochelle, Charles King.
        Moonlight on the Range. 1937. 52 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Spectrum. Fred Scott, Al St. John, Lois January.
        The Fighting Deputy. 1937. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Spectrum. Fred Scott, Al St. John, Marjorie Beebe.
        The Colorado Kid. 1937. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Marion Weldon, Karl Hackett.
        Harlem on the Prairie (co-d.: Jed Buell). 1937. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Associated. Herbert Jeffries, Connie Harris.
        Paroled To Die. 1938. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Kathleen Eliot, Karl Hackett.
        The Ranger’s Roundup. 1938. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Spectrum (Stan Laurel Prod.) Fred Scott, Al St. John, Christine McIntyre.
        Thunder in the Desert. 1938. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Louise Stanley, Don Barclay.
        Code of the Rangers. 1938. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Concord (Monogram). Tim McCoy, Judith Ford, Rex Lease.
        The Feud Maker. 1938. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Marion Weldon, Karl Hackett.
        Knights of the Plains (Allende Rio Grande). 1938. 57 min. Blanco y Negro. Spectrum (Stan Laurel Prod.) Fred Scott, Al St. John, Marion Weldon.
        Songs and Bullets. 1938. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Spectrum (Stan Laurel Prod.) Fred Scott, Al St. John, Alice Ardell.
        Gunsmoke Trail. 1938. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Concord (Monogram). Jack Randall, Louise Stanley, Al St. John.
        Phantom Ranger. 1938. 54 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Concord (Mono gram). Tim McCoy, Suzanne Kaaren.
        Desert Patrol. 1938. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Marion Weldon, Rex Lease.
        Durango Valley Raiders. 1938. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bob Steele, Louise Stanley, Karl Hackett.
        Frontier Scout. 1938. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Fine Arts (Grand Natio nal). George Houston, Al St. John, Beth Marion.
        Lightning Carson Rides Again. 1938. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Victory. Tim McCoy, Joan Barclay, Ben Corbett.
        Six-Gun Trail. 1938. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Victory. Tim McCoy, Nora Lane, Ben Corbett.
        The Terror of Tiny Town. 1938. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Principal (Co lumbia). Billy Curtis, Little Billy Rhodes, Nita Krebs, Yvonne Moray.
        Trigger Pals. 1939. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Cinemart (Grand Natio nal). Art Jarrett, Lee Powell, Dorothy Faye, Al St. John.
        Six-Gun Rhythm. 1939. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Arcadia (Grand National). Tex Fletcher, Joan Barclay, Ralph Peters.
        Code of the Cactus. 1939. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Victory. Tim McCoy, Dorothy Short, Ben Corbett.
        Texas Wildcats. 1939. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Victory. Tim McCoy, Joan Barclay, Ben Corbett.
        Outlaw’s Paradise. 1939. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Victory. Tim McCoy, Joan Barclay, Ben Corbett.
        Straight Shooter. 1939. 54 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Victory. Tim McCoy, Julie Sheldon, Ben Corbett.
        Fighting Renegade. 1939. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Victory. Tim McCoy, Joyce Bryant, Ben Corbett.
        Trigger Fingers. 1939. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Victory. Tim McCoy, Jill Martin (Harley Wood), Ben Corbett.
        Fighting Mad. 1939. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. James Newill, Sally Blane, Benny Rubin, Dave O’Brien.
        Flaming Lead. 1939. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Colony. Ken Maynard, Eleanor Stewart, Dave O’Brien.
        The Sagebrush Family Trails West (Peter Stewart). 1940. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bobby Clark, Nina Guilbert, Earle Hodgins.
        Texas Renegades (Peter Stewart). 1940. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Tim McCoy, Nora Lane, Harry Harvey.
        Death Rides the Range. 1940. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Colony. Ken Maynard, Fay McKenzie, Raph Peters.
        Frontier Crusader (Peter Stewart). 1940. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Tim McCoy, Dorothy Short, Lou Fulton.
        Billy the Kid Outlawed (Peter Stewart). 1940. 52 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bob Steele, Al St. John, Louise Currie.
        Gun Code (Peter Stewart). 1940. 54 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Tim McCoy, Inna Gest, Lou Fulton.
        Marked Men (Sherman Scott). 1940. 66 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Warren Hull, Isabel Jewell.
        Arizona Gang Busters (Peter Stewart). 1940. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Tim McCoy, Pauline Haddon, Lou Fulton.
        Billy the Kid in Texas (Peter Stewart). 1940. 52 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bob Steele, Terry Walker, Al St. John.
        Riders of Black Mountain (Peter Stewart). 1940. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Tim McCoy, Pauline Haddon, Ralph Peters, Rex Lease.
        Billy the Kid’s Gun Justice (Peter Stewart). 1940. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bob Steele, Louise Currie, Al St. John.
        The Lone Rider Rides On. 1941. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. George Houston, Hillary Brooke, Al St. John.
        Billy the Kid’s Range War (Peter Stewart). 1941. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bob Steele, Joan Barclay, Al St. John.
        The Lone Rider Crosses the Rio/Across the Border. 1941. 63 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. George Houston, Roquell Verrin, Al St. John.
        Outlaws of the Rio Grande (Peter Stewart). 1941. 63 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Tim McCoy, Virginia Carpenter, Ralph Peters.
        Billy the Kid’s Fighting Pals (Sherman Scott). 1941. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bob Steele, Phyllis Adair, Al St. John.
        The Lone Rider in Ghost Town. 1941. 64 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. George Houston, Alaine Brandes, Al St. John.
        Billy the Kid in Santa Fe (Sherman Scott). 1941. 66 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bob Steele, Al St. John, Rex Lease.
        The Texas Marshal (Paul Stewart). 1941. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Tim McCoy, Kay Leslie, Art Davis, Dave O’Brien.
        The Lone Rider in Frontier Fury. 1941. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. George Houston, Hillary Brooke, Al St. John.
        The Lone Rider Ambushed. 1941. 67 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. George Houston, Maxine Leslie, Al St. John.
        Billy the Kid Wanted (Sherman Scott). 1941. 64 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Choti Sherwood, Al St. John.
        The Lone Rider Fights Back. 1941. 64 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. George Houston, Dorothy Short, Al St. John.
        Billy the Kid’s Round-Up (Sherman Scott). 1941. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Joan Barclay, Al St. John.
        Texas Manhunt (Peter Stewart). 1942. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bill Boyd, Art Davis, Julie Duncan, Lee Powell.
        The Lone Rider and the Bandit. 1942. 54 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. George Houston, Al St. John, Vickie Lester.
        Raiders of the West (Peter Stewart). 1942. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bill Boyd, Art Davis, Virginia Carroll, Lee Powell.
        Billy the Kid Trapped (Sherman Scott). 1942. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Anne Jeffreys.
        The Lone Rider in Cheyenne. 1942. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. George Houston, Al St. John, Ella Neal.
        Rolling Down the Great Divide (Peter Stewart). 1942. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bill Boyd, Art Davis, Wanda McKay, Lee Powell.
        Billy the Kid’s Smoking Guns (Sherman Scott). 1942. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Joan Barclay.
        Texas Justice. 1942. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. George Houston, Al St. John, Wanda McKay.
        Tumbleweed Trail (Peter Stewart). 1942. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bill Boyd, Art Davis, Marjorie Manners, Lee Powell.
        Law and Order (Sherman Scott). 1942. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Wanda McKay.
        Prairie Pals (Peter Stewart). 1942. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bill Boyd, Art Davis, Esther Estrella, Lee Powell.
        Border Roundup. 1942. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. George Hous ton, Al St. John, Patricia Knox.
        Along the Sundown Trail (Peter Stewart). 1942. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Bill Boyd, Art Davis, Julie Duncan, Lee Powell.
        Sheriff of Sage Valley (Sherman Scott). 1962. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Maxine Leslie.
        The Mysterious Rider. 1942. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Caroline Burke.
        Outlaws of Boulder Pass. 1942. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. George Houston, Al St. John, Marjorie Manners.
        Overland Stagecoach. 1942. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Robert Livingston, Al St. John, Julie Duncan.
        The Kid Rides Again (Sherman Scott). 1943. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Iris Meredith.
        Wild Horse Rustlers. 1943. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Robert Livingston, Al St. John, Lane Chandler, Linda Johnson.
        Fugitive of the Plains. 1943. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Maxine Leslie.
        Death Rides the Plains. 1943. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Robert Livingston, Al St. John, Nica Doret.
        Western Cyclone. 1943. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Marjorie Manners.
        Wolves of the Range. 1943. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Robert Livingston, Al St. John, Frances Gladwyn.
        Cattle Stampede. 1943. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Frances Gladwin.
        The Renegade. 1943. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Lois Ranson.
        Blazing Frontier. 1943. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Marjorie Manners.
        Raiders of Red Gap. 1943. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Robert Livingston, Al St. John, Myrna Dell.
        The Devil Riders. 1943. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Patti McCarthy.
        Frontier Outlaws. 1944. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Frances Gladwin.
        Thundering Gunslingers. 1944. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Frances Gladwin.
        Valley of Vengeance. 1944. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Evelyn Finley.
        The Drifter. 1944. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Carol Parker.
        Fuzzy Settles Down. 1944. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Patti McCarthy.
        Rustler’s Hideout. 1944. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Patti McCarthy.
        Wild Horse Phantom. 1944. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Elaine Morley.
        Oath of Vengeance. 1944. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Mady Lawrence.
        His Brother’s Ghost. 1945. 54 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John.
        Shadows of Death. 1945. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Donna Dax.
        Gangster’s Den. 1945. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Sydney Logan.
        Stagecoach Outlaws. 1945. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Frances Gladwin.
        Border Badmen. 1945. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Lorraine Miller.
        Fighting Bill Carson. 1945. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Kay Hugues.
        Prairie Rustlers. 1945. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Evelyn Finley.
        Ligthning Raiders. 1946. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Mady Lawrence.
        Gentlemen with Guns. 1946. 52 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Patricia Knox.
        Terrors on Horseback. 1946. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Patti McCarthy.
        Ghost of Hidden Valley. 1946. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Jean Carlin.
        Prairie Badmen. 1946. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Patricia Knox.
        Overland Riders. 1946. 54 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Patti McCarthy.
        Outlaws of the Plains. 1946. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Buster Crabbe, Al St. John, Patti McCarthy.
        Western Pacific Agent. 1950. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Lippert. Kent Taylor, Sheila Ryan, Robert Lowery.
        Three Desperate Men. 1951. 69 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Lippert. Preston Foster, Virginia Grey, Jim Davis.
        Skipalong Rosenbloom. 1951. 72 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Eagle Lion Classics (UA). Max Rosenbloom, Jackie Coogan, Hillary Brooke.
        Outlaw Women (co-d.: Ron Ormond). 1952. 75 minutos. Cinecolor. Howco (Lippert). Marie Windsor, Richard Rober.
        Last of the Desperados. 1955. 71 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Associated. James Craig, Margia Dean, Jim Davis.
        The Wild Dakotas. 1956. 71 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Associated. Bill Williams, Coleen Gray, Jim Davis.
        The Three Outlaws. 1956. 74 minutos. Blanco y Negro. SuperScope. Asso ciated. Neville Brand, Alan Hale, Jr., Lillian Molieri, Jeanne Carmen.
        Frontier Gambler. 1956. 70 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Associated. John Bromfield, Coleen Gray, Jim Davis, Margia Dean.
        Wolf Dog. 1958. 69 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RegalScope. Regal (Fox). Jim Davis, Allison Hayes.
        Flaming Frontier. 1958. 70 minutos. Blanco y Negro. RegalScope. Regal (Fox). Bruce Bennett, Paisley Maxwell, Jim Davis.

    English-Spanish dictionary of western films > Newfield, Sam

  • 6 Wellman, William A.

    1896-1975
       Nacido en Brookline, Massachusetts, William A Well man deja los estudios secundarios para jugar como profesional en un equipo de hockey sobre hielo. Con posterioridad, lo encontramos alistado en la Legion Extranjera Fran cesa y, durante la Primera Guerra Mundial, como as de la aviacion. Despues de un encuentro accidental con Douglas Fairbanks entra en el mundo del cine. Pronto, en 1923, empieza a dirigir, sobre todo westerns, hasta que su pelicula Alas (Wings, 1927), en la que tiene ocasion de plasmar, casi de modo autobiografico, sus conocimientos del universo de la aviacion, le proporciona un enorme exito y, por anadidura, el primer Oscar a la Mejor Pelicula.
       En los anos treinta es el responsable de filmes violentos y controvertidos como The Public Enemy (1931). Wellman es uno de los ilustres pioneros de Hollywood, y de nuevo, ese personaje es alguien importante en el mundo del western. Cultivo con brillantez la comedia (La reina de Nueva York, Nothing Sacred, 1937), el genero belico (Lafayette Escadrille, 1958), el filme de aventuras (Beau Geste, 1939) y el drama (Ha nacido una estrella, A Star is Born, 1937), primera version del clasico que volveria a rodar, en los anos cincuenta, George Cukor. Pero tal vez es en el western donde Wellman se encuentra mas a gusto, contribuyendo a su historia y tambien a su mitologia con algunas impresionantes peliculas que se encuentran entre lo mejor que nunca se ha hecho dentro del genero, como The Ox-Bow Incident y Cielo amarillo.
       La primera, oscura, tenebrosa, reflexiva, pone al espectador, y tambien a los personajes del drama, frente a la realidad de un linchamiento, la vieja ley del oeste que en esta ocasion se trata de trascender; un amargo y austero final resuena en nuestros oidos como si de un viento helado se tratase. Cielo amarillo, por su parte, nos cautiva con sus ecos shakespeareanos; al fin y al cabo, no deja de ser una transposicion de “La tempestad” al mundo inclemente del desierto, que encierra en su interior una ciudad fantasma como si fuera una isla. No conviene olvidar, tampoco, Caravana de mujeres, pelicula de permanente actualidad, pero es que tambien Mas alla del Missouri, a pesar de su aparente sencillez, es un modelo de renovacion narrativa.
        The Call of the Wild (La llamada de la selva). 1935. 95 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Fox. Clark Gable, Loretta Young, Jack Oakie, Reginald Owen.
        Robin Hood of El Dorado (Joaquin Murrieta). 1936. 86 minutos. Blanco y Negro. MGM. Warner Baxter, Ann Loring, Bruce Cabot.
        The Great Man’s Lady (Una gran senora). 1942. 90 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. Barbara Stanwyck, Joel McCrea, Brian Donlevy.
        The Ox-Bow Incident. 1943. 75 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Fox. Henry Fonda, Dana Andrews, Mary Beth Hugues, Anthony Quinn.
        Buffalo Bill (Aventuras de Buffalo Bill). 1944. 90 minutos. Technicolor. Fox. Joel McCrea, Maureen O’Hara, Linda Darnell.
        Yellow Sky (Cielo amarillo). 1948. 98 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Fox. Gregory Peck, Richard Widmark, Ann Baxter.
        Across the Wide Missouri (Mas alla del Missouri). 1951. 78 minutos. Technicolor. MGM. Clark Gable, Ricardo Montalban, John Hodiak, Maria Elena Marques.
        Westward the Women (Caravana de mujeres). 1952. 116 minutos. Blanco y Negro. MGM. Robert Taylor, Denise Darcel, Hope Emerson, John McIntire.
        Track of the Cat. 1954. 102 minutos. Warnercolor. CinemaScope. Wayne-Fellows (WB). Robert Mitchum, Teresa Wright.

    English-Spanish dictionary of western films > Wellman, William A.

  • 7 Afonso V, King

    (r. 1446-1481)
       Born in 1432, the son of King D. Duarte I and D. Leonor of Aragon, Afonso was only six years old when his father died suddenly and a succession crisis and consequent civil strife began. His mother fled into exile in Castile, where she died in 1445. He attained his majority in 1446. In the 1450s, King Afonso presided over more Portuguese expansion in Morocco by the capture of more Moroccan cities, but progress down the western African coast was delayed by the king's intervention in Iberian royal politics in Castile. His ambitions in Spain were thwarted after his loss of the battle of Toro to Castilian forces in 1476. In the 1470s, the king encouraged Portuguese exploration, trade, and colonization in western Africa, including settlement in the islands of São Tomé and Príncipe in the Bight of Biafra. The king died in 1481, and as a member of the Aviz dynasty, he became known in the history of Portugal as "O Africano" ("the African") and had one of the longest reigns in Portuguese history.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Afonso V, King

  • 8 north

    1. noun
    1) (direction) Norden, der

    the north — Nord (Met., Seew.)

    in/to[wards]/from the north — im/nach/von Norden

    to the north of — nördlich von; nördlich (+ Gen.)

    2) usu.

    North — (part lying to the north) Norden, der

    from the North — aus dem Norden

    2. adjective
    nördlich; Nord[wind, -fenster, -küste, -grenze, -tor]
    3. adverb
    nordwärts; nach Norden

    north of — nördlich von; nördlich (+ Gen.)

    * * *
    [no:Ɵ] 1. noun
    1) (the direction to the left of a person facing the rising sun, or any part of the earth lying in that direction: He faced towards the north; The wind is blowing from the north; I used to live in the north of England.) der Norden
    2) ((also N) one of the four main points of the compass.) der Norden
    2. adjective
    1) (in the north: on the north bank of the river.) nördlich
    2) (from the direction of the north: a north wind.) Nord-...
    3. adverb
    (towards the north: The stream flows north.) nördlich
    - academic.ru/50438/northerly">northerly
    - northern
    - northerner
    - northernmost
    - northward
    - northwards
    - northward
    - northbound
    - north-east / north-west     4. adverb
    (towards the north-east or north-west: The building faces north-west.) nordöstlich, nordwestlich
    - north-easterly / north-westerly
    - north-eastern / north-western
    - the North Pole
    * * *
    [nɔ:θ, AM nɔ:rθ]
    I. n no pl
    1. (direction) Norden m
    ▪ in the \north im Norden
    ▪ to the \north nach Norden [hin]
    magnetic/true \north magnetischer Nordpol/geographische Nordrichtung
    2. (region)
    ▪ the N\north BRIT (North England) Nordengland nt; AM der Norden, die Nordstaaten pl
    II. adj inv nördlich, Nord-
    \north coast/side/wind Nordküste f/-seite f/-wind m
    \north of Manchester nördlich von Manchester
    \north part nördlicher Teil
    \north Vietnam Nordvietnam nt
    III. adv inv nordwärts; ( fig fam: upwards) nach oben
    compared to last year our sales figures have gone \north im Vergleich zum letzten Jahr sind unsere Verkaufzahlen gestiegen
    ▪ up \north ( fam) im Norden
    to drive \north in nördliche Richtung fahren
    * * *
    [nɔːɵ]
    1. n
    1) Norden m

    in/from the north — im/aus dem Norden

    to the north of — nördlich von, im Norden von

    to veer/go to the north — in nördliche Richtung or nach Norden drehen/gehen

    the wind is in the north — es ist Nordwind

    the North (of Scotland/England) — Nordschottland/-england nt

    2) (US HIST)

    the North — der Norden, die Nordstaaten pl

    2. adj attr
    Nord-
    3. adv
    (= towards North) nach Norden, gen Norden (liter), nordwärts (liter, Naut); (MET) in nördliche Richtung
    * * *
    north [nɔː(r)θ]
    A s
    1. Norden m:
    in the north of im Norden von (od gen);
    to the north of → C 3;
    from the north aus dem Norden
    2. auch North Norden m, nördlicher Landesteil:
    the North of Germany Norddeutschland n;
    a) Br Nordengland n,
    b) US der Norden, die Nordstaaten pl
    3. poet Nord(wind) m
    B adj nördlich, Nord…
    C adv
    1. nach Norden, nordwärts
    2. obs aus dem Norden (besonders Wind)
    3. north of nördlich von (od gen): → border A 4
    n. abk
    1. natus, born geb.
    3. LING nominative Nom.
    4. noon
    5. north N
    6. northern nördl.
    7. note
    8. noun Subst.
    9. number Nr.
    N abk
    2. PHYS newton N
    3. north N
    4. northern nördl.
    5. noun Subst.
    N. abk
    1. National (Nationalist)
    2. Navy
    3. north N
    4. northern nördl.
    No. abk
    1. north N
    2. northern nördl.
    3. number Nr.
    * * *
    1. noun
    1) (direction) Norden, der

    the north — Nord (Met., Seew.)

    in/to[wards]/from the north — im/nach/von Norden

    to the north of — nördlich von; nördlich (+ Gen.)

    2) usu.
    2. adjective
    nördlich; Nord[wind, -fenster, -küste, -grenze, -tor]
    3. adverb
    nordwärts; nach Norden

    north of — nördlich von; nördlich (+ Gen.)

    * * *
    adj.
    nördlich adj. n.
    Norden m.

    English-german dictionary > north

  • 9 Kristofferson, Kris

    (р. 1936) Кристофферсон, Крис
    Певец и актер, исполнитель музыки в стиле кантри [ country and western music]. Снимался в фильмах: "Алиса здесь больше не живет" ["Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore"] (1975), "И родилась звезда" ["A Star Is Born"] (1976), "Врата рая" ["Heaven's Gate"] (1980), "Тысячелетие" ["Millennium"] (1989), "Первоначальное намерение" ["Original Intent"] (1992), в телефильме "Америка" ["Amerika"] (1987) и др.

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Kristofferson, Kris

  • 10 idea

    [aɪ'dɪə]
    n
    1) мысль, идея

    We are all for the idea. — Мы все за эту идею.

    A good idea came to my mind. — Мне в голову пришла хорошая идея.

    An idea crossed my mind. — У меня промелькнула мысль.

    The idea never occurred to me. /The idea never entered my head/mind. — Мне такая мысль никогда не приходила в голову.

    It is a poor idea. — Это неудачный план.

    What is the big/great idea? — Это еще зачем? /Что это вам взбрело в голову?

    Once this key idea had been found the plan was rapidly developed. — План получил быстрое развитие, как только была определена ключевая идея.

    They caught up the idea of the club. — Они подхватили идею создания клуба.

    After the European war the idea of a League of Nations was born. — Идея об организации Лиги Наций родилась после войны.

    - good idea
    - brilliant idea
    - foolish idea
    - not a bad idea
    - vague ideas
    - sound idea
    - gloomy idea
    - absurd idea
    - excellent idea
    - fleeting idea
    - borrowed ideas
    - same idea
    - main idea of the book
    - idea of becoming an engineer
    - idea at the back of her mind
    - idea of going into the mountains
    - very idea of a possible accident
    - exchange of ideas
    - chain of ideas
    - man of one idea
    - man of ideas
    - based on the idea
    - under the influence of a fixed idea
    - understand the idea
    - strike up of a bright idea
    - carry big ideas to a successful conclusion
    - assimilate easily the ideas of others
    - convey one's ideas
    - learn to express one's ideas clearly
    - express one's ideas in writing
    - put one's ideas into writing
    - collect one's ideas
    - put one's ideas into practice
    - carry out one's long-cherished idea
    - be dominated by one idea
    - suggest the idea
    - oppose the idea
    - reject the idea
    - assimilate idea
    - absorb idea
    - give up drop the idea
    - discredit idea
    - grasp the idea
    - follow smb's ideas
    - entertain ideas
    - interchange ideas
    - fight for an idea
    - start smb on an idea
    - hit upon an idea
    - grope for an idea
    - turn over an idea in one's mind
    - communicate ideas to one another
    - conform to the idea
    - carry an idea to absurdity
    - lead ideas in another direction
    - dismiss the idea from one's mind
    - owe the idea to smb
    - idea meets with the lively approval
    - idea haunts smb's mind
    - ideas crowded
    - idea gets clearer
    - ideas get confused
    2) представление, понимание, понятие

    Have you any idea of the time? — Знаете ли вы, сколько сейчас времени? /У вас есть представление о том, сколько сейчас времени?

    We have a very different idea of the country. — Мы себе совершенно иначе представляем эту страну.

    That is not my idea of duty. — У меня совсем другое понятие о долге.

    Some idea may be gathered from these facts. — По этим фактам можно составить некоторое представление.

    It does not convey a correct idea. — Это не дает правильного представления/правильной картины.

    - abstract ideas
    - idea of freedom
    - idea of democracy
    - have an idea about smth
    - have no idea about smth
    - have a general idea
    - have an idea where...
    - give an idea of smth
    - give a good idea of smth
    - introduce new ideas
    - give birth to a great number of new ideas
    - have some idea of chemistry
    - have a poor idea of smb's abilities
    - have an exaggerated idea of one's own importance
    - do smth with the idea of becoming an artist
    - form an idea
    - without any idea of the whole matter
    3) (обыкновенно pl) воззрения, мировоззрение, взгляды, концепция, убеждения, теория, мнение

    He was exiled for his political ideas. — Его сослали за его политические взгляды/убеждения.

    I have strict ideas about smoking. — У меня вполне определенное мнение/отношение о курении.

    - leading ideas
    - current ideas on raising children
    - have of progressive ideas
    - have old-fashioned ideas
    - absorb Western ideas
    - have definite ideas on every subject
    - form a complete idea about smth
    - enlarge man's ideas of the universe
    - force one's ideas on smb
    - contradict generally accepted ideas
    - arrange ideas for presentation
    - ideas have spread from West to East
    - man with no ideas about politics
    - tell me your ideas on the subject
    •
    USAGE:
    for idea 1.; See habit, n

    English-Russian combinatory dictionary > idea

  • 11 Barton, Charles T.

    1902-1981
       Sus primeros anos los ocupa en labores de actor de vodevil. Aprende el oficio de realizador de James Cruze, que le da la alternativa en 1934, con Amor en ruta, modesta pelicula de serie basada en una obra de Zane Grey. Su labor como director, con casi noventa peliculas en su haber, entre cine y television, fue anodina, destacando eso si por su eficacia como gestor, lo que hizo que le fueran encomendados muchos proyectos en los que no se deseaba gastar demasiado dinero. Lo mejor de si mismo lo dio en la comedia, genero al que se dedico preferentemente a partir de los anos 40. Trabajo con alguna asiduidad para la pareja Bud Abbott-Lou Costello, manteniendo una importante relacion personal con el segundo de ellos. Su ultimo western estrenado, Zorro, the Avenger (1960), es una sintesis de 6 episodios de la serie televisiva que, con el mismo titulo, produjo Walt Disney. Excepcionalmente se incluye aqui, debido a la labor de sintesis realizada, que la aproxima a una obra de creacion genuina.
        Wagon Wheels (Amor en ruta). 1934. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. Randolph Scott, Gail Patrick.
        Rocky Mountain Mystery. 1935. 63 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. Randolph Scott, Charles Sale, Ann Sheridan.
        Nevada (Nevada). 1935. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. Buster Crabbe, Kathleen Burke.
        Forlorn River. 1937. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. Buster Crabbe, June Martel.
        Thunder Trail. 1937. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. Gilbert Roland, Charles Bickford, Marsha Hunt.
        Born to the West. 1937. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Paramount. John Wayne, Marsha Hunt, Johnny Mack Brown.
        Out West with the Peppers. 1940. 63 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Columbia. Edith Fellows, Dorothy Ann Seese.
        Shut My Big Mouth. 1942. 71 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Columbia. Victor Jory, Fritz Feld, Lloyd Bridges, Adele Mara, Joe E. Brown.
        The Wistful Widow of Wagon Gap. 1947. 78 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Universal. Bud Abbott, Lou Costello, Marjorie Main.
        Zorro, the Avenger. 1960. Blanco y Negro. Walt Disney. Guy Williams, Charles Korvin.

    English-Spanish dictionary of western films > Barton, Charles T.

  • 12 Beaudine, William

    1892-1970
       Este clasico de Hollywood, prolifico y polifacetico, di rigio casi 300 filmes, repartidos equitativamente en tre mudo y sonoro. Es tan dificil encontrar una pelicula brillante dirigida por el como encontrar otra que sea deleznable. Abarca todos los generos y to das las tendencias. Apreciado por su rapidez y economia, Mister “Una toma”, como se le conocia, se ocupo, in evitablemente, del western, en el que construyo una obra breve, tal vez gris, pero mas interesante de lo que los titulos, los actores y el supuesto alcance de los filmes podria hacer suponer, si excluimos de esta obra ciertas rarezas crepusculares que le llevaron a asociar a algunos de los mas celebres bandidos de la mitologia del salvaje oeste con los monstruos que lanzo a la fama cinematografica la Universal.
        Gas House Kids Go West. 1947. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. PRC. Carl Switzer, Benny Bartlett, Rudy Wissler.
        Bowery Buckaroos. 1947. 66 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Leo Gorcey, Huntz Hall, Julie Briggs.
        Trail of the Yukon (William X. Crowley). 1949. 69 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Kirby Grant, Suzanne Dalbert, Bill Edwards.
        Tough Assignment. 1949. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Lippart. Don Barry, Marjorie Steele, Steve Brodie.
        Jiggs and Maggie Out West. 1950. 66 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Monogram. Joe Yule, Tim Ryan, Renie Riano.
        Rodeo. 1952. 70 minutos. Cinecolor. Monogram. John Archer, Jane Nigh, Wallace Ford.
        Born to the Saddle. 1953. 73 minutos. Trucolor. Independent. Chuck Courtney, Donald Woods, Dolores Prest.
        Yukon Vengeance. 1954. 68 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Allied. Kirby Grant, Monte Hale, Mary Ellen Kay.
        Westward Ho the Wagons. 1956. 90 minutos. Technicolor. Walt Disney. Fess Parker, Kathleen Crowley, Jeff York.
        Ten Who Dared. 1960. 92 minutos. Technicolor. Walt Disney. Brian Keith, James Drury.
        Billy the Kid versus Dracula. 1965. 72 minutos. Pathecolor. Embassy. Chuck Courtney, John Carradine, Melinda Plowman.
        Jesse James Meets Frankenstein’s Daughter. 1966. 82 minutos. Pathecolor. Embassy. John Lupton, Cal Bolder, Narda Onyx.

    English-Spanish dictionary of western films > Beaudine, William

  • 13 Gama, Vasco da

    (1468?-1524)
       Navigator, conqueror, and fleet commander of the Portuguese ships that discovered the sea route to India in 1497-98. Born in Sines and trained in navigation, Vasco da Gama was named commander of four—by today's standards very small—vessels, which left the Tagus from Belém on 8 July 1497. The fleet sailed via the Cape Verde Islands down the African coast and passed the Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, on 18 November 1497. After cruising up the coast of East Africa, Vasco da Gama's ships reached Mombasa and then Melinde, where a friendly sultan permitted an Indian Ocean pilot to assist da Gama in the voyage east to the west coast of what became Portuguese India. The Portuguese reached Calicut, India, on 18 May 1498. Vasco da Gama's missions were to discover the route to India, tap into the spice markets of Asia, and contact and make treaties with Christian rulers there.
       Perhaps the greatest of Portugal's discoverers and sea explorers, da Gama accomplished these missions, although liaison with Christian princes proved illusory; Portugal broke the spice monopoly of the Venetian-Asian system and began the process of prying open Asia to Western trade, conquest, and empire.
       The first of da Gama's ships returned to Lisbon in July 1499, and da Gama himself returned later in the summer. In the age of exploration, in a different league even than Christopher Columbus's first voyage to the West Indies, da Gama's feat stands unequaled: the distance from Portugal to India by the most direct route around the Cape of Good Hope was 16,000 kilometers (10,000 miles) by sea under severe conditions typical of the age of sail. The entire round trip took two years, and out of about 170 crew members only 55 returned to Lisbon. King Manuel I showered the navigator-commander with honors. Da Gama made another voyage to Calicut (1502-04) and died in government service in India in 1524. Along with other famous navigator-conquerors of the Age of Discoveries, as well as the national epic poet Luís de Camões, Vasco da Gama is buried in the Jerônimos Monastery.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Gama, Vasco da

  • 14 Gulbenkian, Calouste Sarkis

    (1869-1955)
       Armenian oil tycoon, philanthropist, and art connoisseur-collector who settled in Portugal in World War II and whose donated wealth forms the basis for the Gulbenkian Foundation, situated in Lisbon. Born in Scutari, Turkey, when it was part of the Ottoman Empire, Calouste Gulben-kian made a huge fortune and became one of Europe's wealthiest individuals through investment in Iraqi petroleum. While the oil business and investments were his work, the appreciation and collection of rare art represented his passion. During the 1920s and 1930s, he purchased a rich collection of Western and Oriental art. Some of it was loaned to great museums in London and Washington, and some of it was displayed in his mansion in Paris on Avenue d'lena.
       Gulbenkian's life and the fate of his possessions were changed by the fortunes of World War II and by his residence in Portugal. In April 1942, Gulbenkian fled Vichy France and settled in Portugal. Between his arrival and his death in July 1955, he made dispositions of his possessions and wealth, which have had an almost incalculable impact on Portugal's arts, culture, science, and education. After declining to build a museum for his unmatched art collection either in London or Washington, D.C., Gulbenkian decided to build such a home in Portugal and to endow an international foundation in Lisbon. Since his death in 1955 and inauguration of the foundation headquarters in the late 1960s, a museum and a contemporary arts museum have opened, and Portuguese and other Lusophone arts and science circles have greatly benefited.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Gulbenkian, Calouste Sarkis

  • 15 Salazar, Antônio de Oliveira

    (1889-1970)
       The Coimbra University professor of finance and economics and one of the founders of the Estado Novo, who came to dominate Western Europe's longest surviving authoritarian system. Salazar was born on 28 April 1889, in Vimieiro, Beira Alta province, the son of a peasant estate manager and a shopkeeper. Most of his first 39 years were spent as a student, and later as a teacher in a secondary school and a professor at Coimbra University's law school. Nine formative years were spent at Viseu's Catholic Seminary (1900-09), preparing for the Catholic priesthood, but the serious, studious Salazar decided to enter Coimbra University instead in 1910, the year the Braganza monarchy was overthrown and replaced by the First Republic. Salazar received some of the highest marks of his generation of students and, in 1918, was awarded a doctoral degree in finance and economics. Pleading inexperience, Salazar rejected an invitation in August 1918 to become finance minister in the "New Republic" government of President Sidónio Pais.
       As a celebrated academic who was deeply involved in Coimbra University politics, publishing works on the troubled finances of the besieged First Republic, and a leader of Catholic organizations, Sala-zar was not as modest, reclusive, or unknown as later official propaganda led the public to believe. In 1921, as a Catholic deputy, he briefly served in the First Republic's turbulent congress (parliament) but resigned shortly after witnessing but one stormy session. Salazar taught at Coimbra University as of 1916, and continued teaching until April 1928. When the military overthrew the First Republic in May 1926, Salazar was offered the Ministry of Finance and held office for several days. The ascetic academic, however, resigned his post when he discovered the degree of disorder in Lisbon's government and when his demands for budget authority were rejected.
       As the military dictatorship failed to reform finances in the following years, Salazar was reinvited to become minister of finances in April 1928. Since his conditions for acceptance—authority over all budget expenditures, among other powers—were accepted, Salazar entered the government. Using the Ministry of Finance as a power base, following several years of successful financial reforms, Salazar was named interim minister of colonies (1930) and soon garnered sufficient prestige and authority to become head of the entire government. In July 1932, Salazar was named prime minister, the first civilian to hold that post since the 1926 military coup.
       Salazar gathered around him a team of largely academic experts in the cabinet during the period 1930-33. His government featured several key policies: Portuguese nationalism, colonialism (rebuilding an empire in shambles), Catholicism, and conservative fiscal management. Salazar's government came to be called the Estado Novo. It went through three basic phases during Salazar's long tenure in office, and Salazar's role underwent changes as well. In the early years (1928-44), Salazar and the Estado Novo enjoyed greater vigor and popularity than later. During the middle years (1944—58), the regime's popularity waned, methods of repression increased and hardened, and Salazar grew more dogmatic in his policies and ways. During the late years (1958-68), the regime experienced its most serious colonial problems, ruling circles—including Salazar—aged and increasingly failed, and opposition burgeoned and grew bolder.
       Salazar's plans for stabilizing the economy and strengthening social and financial programs were shaken with the impact of the civil war (1936-39) in neighboring Spain. Salazar strongly supported General Francisco Franco's Nationalist rebels, the eventual victors in the war. But, as the civil war ended and World War II began in September 1939, Salazar's domestic plans had to be adjusted. As Salazar came to monopolize Lisbon's power and authority—indeed to embody the Estado Novo itself—during crises that threatened the future of the regime, he assumed ever more key cabinet posts. At various times between 1936 and 1944, he took over the Ministries of Foreign Affairs and of War (Defense), until the crises passed. At the end of the exhausting period of World War II, there were rumors that the former professor would resign from government and return to Coimbra University, but Salazar continued as the increasingly isolated, dominating "recluse of São Bento," that part of the parliament's buildings housing the prime minister's offices and residence.
       Salazar dominated the Estado Novo's government in several ways: in day-to-day governance, although this diminished as he delegated wider powers to others after 1944, and in long-range policy decisions, as well as in the spirit and image of the system. He also launched and dominated the single party, the União Nacional. A lifelong bachelor who had once stated that he could not leave for Lisbon because he had to care for his aged mother, Salazar never married, but lived with a beloved housekeeper from his Coimbra years and two adopted daughters. During his 36-year tenure as prime minister, Salazar engineered the important cabinet reshuffles that reflect the history of the Estado Novo and of Portugal.
       A number of times, in connection with significant events, Salazar decided on important cabinet officer changes: 11 April 1933 (the adoption of the Estado Novo's new 1933 Constitution); 18 January 1936 (the approach of civil war in Spain and the growing threat of international intervention in Iberian affairs during the unstable Second Spanish Republic of 1931-36); 4 September 1944 (the Allied invasion of Europe at Normandy and the increasing likelihood of a defeat of the Fascists by the Allies, which included the Soviet Union); 14 August 1958 (increased domestic dissent and opposition following the May-June 1958 presidential elections in which oppositionist and former regime stalwart-loyalist General Humberto Delgado garnered at least 25 percent of the national vote, but lost to regime candidate, Admiral Américo Tomás); 13 April 1961 (following the shock of anticolonial African insurgency in Portugal's colony of Angola in January-February 1961, the oppositionist hijacking of a Portuguese ocean liner off South America by Henrique Galvão, and an abortive military coup that failed to oust Salazar from office); and 19 August 1968 (the aging of key leaders in the government, including the now gravely ill Salazar, and the defection of key younger followers).
       In response to the 1961 crisis in Africa and to threats to Portuguese India from the Indian government, Salazar assumed the post of minister of defense (April 1961-December 1962). The failing leader, whose true state of health was kept from the public for as long as possible, appointed a group of younger cabinet officers in the 1960s, but no likely successors were groomed to take his place. Two of the older generation, Teotónio Pereira, who was in bad health, and Marcello Caetano, who preferred to remain at the University of Lisbon or in private law practice, remained in the political wilderness.
       As the colonial wars in three African territories grew more costly, Salazar became more isolated from reality. On 3 August 1968, while resting at his summer residence, the Fortress of São João do Estoril outside Lisbon, a deck chair collapsed beneath Salazar and his head struck the hard floor. Some weeks later, as a result, Salazar was incapacitated by a stroke and cerebral hemorrhage, was hospitalized, and became an invalid. While hesitating to fill the power vacuum that had unexpectedly appeared, President Tomás finally replaced Salazar as prime minister on 27 September 1968, with his former protégé and colleague, Marcello Caetano. Salazar was not informed that he no longer headed the government, but he never recovered his health. On 27 July 1970, Salazar died in Lisbon and was buried at Santa Comba Dão, Vimieiro, his village and place of birth.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Salazar, Antônio de Oliveira

  • 16 Women

       A paradox exists regarding the equality of women in Portuguese society. Although the Constitution of 1976 gave women full equality in rights, and the right to vote had already been granted under Prime Minister Marcello Caetano during the Estado Novo, a gap existed between legal reality and social practice. In many respects, the last 30 years have brought important social and political changes with benefits for women. In addition to the franchise, women won—at least on paper—equal property-owning rights and the right of freedom of movement (getting passports, etc.). The workforce and the electorate afforded a much larger role for women, as more than 45 percent of the labor force and more than 50 percent of the electorate are women. More women than ever attend universities, and they play a larger role in university student bodies. Also, more than ever before, they are represented in the learned professions. In politics, a woman served briefly as prime minister in 1979-80: Maria de Lourdes Pintasilgo. Women are members of government cabinets ("councils"); women are in the judicial system, and, in the late 1980s, some 25 women were elected members of parliament (Assembly of the Republic). Moreover, women are now members of the police and armed forces, and some women, like Olympic marathoner Rosa Mota, are top athletes.
       Portuguese feminists participated in a long struggle for equality in all phases of life. An early such feminist was Ana de Castro Osório (1872-1935), a writer and teacher. Another leader in Portugal's women's movement, in a later generation, was Maria Lamas (18931983). Despite the fact that Portugal lacked a strong women's movement, women did resist the Estado Novo, and some progress occurred during the final phase of the authoritarian regime. In the general elections of 1969, women were granted equal voting rights for the first time. Nevertheless, Portuguese women still lacked many of the rights of their counterparts in other Western European countries. A later generation of feminists, symbolized by the three women writers known as "The Three Marias," made symbolic protests through their sensational writings. In 1972, a book by the three women writers, all born in the late 1930s or early 1940s (Maria Isabel Barreno, Maria Teresa Horta, and Maria Velho da Costa), was seized by the government and the authors were arrested and put on trial for their writings and outspoken views, which included the assertion of women's rights to sexual and reproductive freedom.
       The Revolution of 25 April 1974 overthrew the Estado Novo and established in law, if not fully in actual practice in society, a full range of rights for women. The paradox in Portuguese society was that, despite the fact that sexual equality was legislated "from the top down," a gap remained between what the law said and what happened in society. Despite the relatively new laws and although women now played a larger role in the workforce, women continued to suffer discrimination and exclusion. Strong pressures remained for conformity to old ways, a hardy machismo culture continued, and there was elitism as well as inequality among classes. As the 21st century commenced, women played a more prominent role in society, government, and culture, but the practice of full equality was lacking, and the institutions of the polity, including the judicial and law enforcement systems, did not always carry out the law.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Women

  • 17 under

    under ['ʌndə(r)]
    (a) (beneath, below) sous;
    ∎ the newspaper was under the chair/cushion le journal était sous la chaise/le coussin;
    ∎ the pantry is under the stairs le garde-manger est sous l'escalier;
    ∎ I can't see anything under it je ne vois rien (en) dessous;
    ∎ put it under that mettez-le là-dessous;
    ∎ there is a coat of paint under the wallpaper il y a une couche de peinture sous le papier peint;
    ∎ the body was lying under a sheet le cadavre était étendu sous un drap;
    ∎ he wore a white shirt under his jacket il portait une chemise blanche sous sa veste;
    ∎ he pulled a wallet from under his jersey il a sorti un portefeuille de sous son pull;
    ∎ he was carrying a paper under his arm il portait un journal sous le bras;
    ∎ hold your hand under the tap mettez votre main sous le robinet;
    ∎ stand under my umbrella mettez-vous sous mon parapluie;
    ∎ we took shelter under a tree nous nous sommes abrités sous un arbre;
    ∎ to be born under Aries/Leo être né sous le signe du Bélier/du Lion;
    ∎ it can only be seen under a microscope on ne peut le voir qu'au microscope;
    ∎ we had to crawl under the barbed wire on a dû passer sous les barbelés en rampant;
    ∎ you have to crawl under it il faut ramper dessous;
    ∎ the tunnel ran under the sea le tunnel passait sous la mer;
    ∎ she was swimming under water/under the bridge elle nageait sous l'eau/sous le pont;
    ∎ it's unlucky to walk under a ladder ça porte malheur de passer sous une échelle
    (b) (less than) moins de, au-dessous de;
    ∎ under £7,000 moins de 7000 livres;
    ∎ everything is under £5 tout est à moins de 5 livres;
    ∎ is she under 16? est-ce qu'elle a moins de 16 ans?;
    ∎ children under ten les enfants au-dessous ou de moins de dix ans;
    ∎ in under ten minutes en moins de dix minutes
    (c) (weighed down by) sous le poids de;
    ∎ he staggered under his heavy load il chancelait sous le poids de son lourd chargement;
    ∎ figurative to sink under the weight of one's debts sombrer sous le poids de ses dettes
    ∎ we had to work under appalling conditions on a dû travailler dans des conditions épouvantables;
    ∎ she was murdered under strange circumstances elle a été tuée dans d'étranges circonstances;
    ∎ under the circumstances vu les circonstances
    ∎ under duress/threat sous la contrainte/la menace
    (f) Medicine sous;
    ∎ under sedation/treatment sous calmants/traitement
    (g) (directed, governed by) sous (la direction de);
    ∎ he studied under Fox il a été l'élève de Fox;
    ∎ she has two assistants under her elle a deux assistants sous ses ordres;
    ∎ Music the Bristol Chamber Orchestra under Martin Davenport l'orchestre de (musique de) chambre de Bristol sous la direction de Martin Davenport;
    ∎ I served under General White j'ai servi sous le général White;
    ∎ the book describes Uganda under Amin le livre décrit l'Ouganda sous (le régime d')Amin Dada;
    ∎ to come under (the authority of) the Home Office relever du ministère de l'Intérieur;
    ∎ under her management, the firm prospered sous sa direction, l'entreprise a prospéré;
    ∎ under fascism, many groups were outlawed sous le régime fasciste, de nombreux groupes furent interdits
    (h) (according to) conformément à, en vertu de, selon;
    ∎ under the new law, all this will change avec la nouvelle loi, tout cela va changer;
    ∎ under the new law, elections will be held every four years en vertu de ou selon la nouvelle loi, les élections auront lieu tous les quatre ans;
    ∎ under the Emergency Powers Act conformément à la loi instituant l'état d'urgence;
    ∎ under this system, the President has little real power dans ce système, le Président a peu de pouvoir véritable;
    ∎ under (the terms of) his will/the agreement selon (les termes de) son testament/l'accord
    (i) (in the process of) en cours de;
    ∎ under construction en cours de construction;
    ∎ the matter is under consideration/discussion on est en train d'étudier/de discuter la question
    ∎ under wheat/barley en blé/orge
    ∎ you'll find the book under philosophy vous trouverez le livre sous la rubrique philosophie;
    ∎ you'll find my number under Magee vous trouverez mon numéro sous Magee;
    ∎ she writes under the name of Heidi Croft elle écrit sous le nom de Heidi Croft;
    ∎ few singers perform under their own name peu de chanteurs gardent leur vrai nom
    (a) (below ground, water, door etc)
    ∎ to slide or to slip under se glisser dessous;
    ∎ to pass under passer dessous;
    ∎ to stay under (under water) rester sous l'eau
    (b) Medicine (anaesthetized) sous l'effet de l'anesthésie
    (c) (less → in age, price)
    ∎ you have to be 16 or under to enter il faut avoir 16 ans ou moins pour se présenter;
    ∎ items at £20 and under des articles à 20 livres et au-dessous
    ✾ Play 'Under Milk Wood' Thomas 'Au bois lacté'
    ✾ Book 'Under Western Eyes' Conrad 'Sous les yeux de l'Occident'
    ✾ Book ✾ Film 'Under the Volcano' Lowry, Huston 'Au-dessous du volcan'

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > under

  • 18 Juran, Joseph Moses

    (b. 1904) Gen Mgt
    Romanian-born engineer and consultant. Introduced ideas on total quality management to Japan and later, like W. Edwards Deming, to the West. Juran’s methods, first published in Quality Control Handbook (1951), center on building a customerfocused organization through planning, control and improvement, and good people management.
         Juran trained as an electrical engineer, worked for Western Electric in the 1920s, becoming quality manager at their Chicago plant, and later went to work for AT&T. In 1953, he made his first visit to Japan, where he spent two months observing Japanese practices and training managers and engineers in what he called managing for quality. For the next quarter of a century, Juran continued to give seminars on the subject of quality throughout the world. In 1979 he founded the Juran Institute to spread and facilitate the implementation of quality management programs worldwide.

    The ultimate business dictionary > Juran, Joseph Moses

  • 19 De Forest, Lee

    [br]
    b. 26 August 1873 Council Bluffs, Iowa, USA
    d. 30 June 1961 Hollywood, California, USA
    [br]
    American electrical engineer and inventor principally known for his invention of the Audion, or triode, vacuum tube; also a pioneer of sound in the cinema.
    [br]
    De Forest was born into the family of a Congregational minister that moved to Alabama in 1879 when the father became President of a college for African-Americans; this was a position that led to the family's social ostracism by the white community. By the time he was 13 years old, De Forest was already a keen mechanical inventor, and in 1893, rejecting his father's plan for him to become a clergyman, he entered the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University. Following his first degree, he went on to study the propagation of electromagnetic waves, gaining a PhD in physics in 1899 for his thesis on the "Reflection of Hertzian Waves from the Ends of Parallel Wires", probably the first US thesis in the field of radio.
    He then joined the Western Electric Company in Chicago where he helped develop the infant technology of wireless, working his way up from a modest post in the production area to a position in the experimental laboratory. There, working alone after normal working hours, he developed a detector of electromagnetic waves based on an electrolytic device similar to that already invented by Fleming in England. Recognizing his talents, a number of financial backers enabled him to set up his own business in 1902 under the name of De Forest Wireless Telegraphy Company; he was soon demonstrating wireless telegraphy to interested parties and entering into competition with the American Marconi Company.
    Despite the failure of this company because of fraud by his partners, he continued his experiments; in 1907, by adding a third electrode, a wire mesh, between the anode and cathode of the thermionic diode invented by Fleming in 1904, he was able to produce the amplifying device now known as the triode valve and achieve a sensitivity of radio-signal reception much greater than possible with the passive carborundum and electrolytic detectors hitherto available. Patented under the name Audion, this new vacuum device was soon successfully used for experimental broadcasts of music and speech in New York and Paris. The invention of the Audion has been described as the beginning of the electronic era. Although much development work was required before its full potential was realized, the Audion opened the way to progress in all areas of sound transmission, recording and reproduction. The patent was challenged by Fleming and it was not until 1943 that De Forest's claim was finally recognized.
    Overcoming the near failure of his new company, the De Forest Radio Telephone Company, as well as unsuccessful charges of fraudulent promotion of the Audion, he continued to exploit the potential of his invention. By 1912 he had used transformer-coupling of several Audion stages to achieve high gain at radio frequencies, making long-distance communication a practical proposition, and had applied positive feedback from the Audion output anode to its input grid to realize a stable transmitter oscillator and modulator. These successes led to prolonged patent litigation with Edwin Armstrong and others, and he eventually sold the manufacturing rights, in retrospect often for a pittance.
    During the early 1920s De Forest began a fruitful association with T.W.Case, who for around ten years had been working to perfect a moving-picture sound system. De Forest claimed to have had an interest in sound films as early as 1900, and Case now began to supply him with photoelectric cells and primitive sound cameras. He eventually devised a variable-density sound-on-film system utilizing a glow-discharge modulator, the Photion. By 1926 De Forest's Phonofilm had been successfully demonstrated in over fifty theatres and this system became the basis of Movietone. Though his ideas were on the right lines, the technology was insufficiently developed and it was left to others to produce a system acceptable to the film industry. However, De Forest had played a key role in transforming the nature of the film industry; within a space of five years the production of silent films had all but ceased.
    In the following decade De Forest applied the Audion to the development of medical diathermy. Finally, after spending most of his working life as an independent inventor and entrepreneur, he worked for a time during the Second World War at the Bell Telephone Laboratories on military applications of electronics.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Institute of Electronic and Radio Engineers Medal of Honour 1922. President, Institute of Electronic and Radio Engineers 1930. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Edison Medal 1946.
    Bibliography
    1904, "Electrolytic detectors", Electrician 54:94 (describes the electrolytic detector). 1907, US patent no. 841,387 (the Audion).
    1950, Father of Radio, Chicago: WIlcox \& Follett (autobiography).
    De Forest gave his own account of the development of his sound-on-film system in a series of articles: 1923. "The Phonofilm", Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 16 (May): 61–75; 1924. "Phonofilm progress", Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 20:17–19; 1927, "Recent developments in the Phonofilm", Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 27:64–76; 1941, "Pioneering in talking pictures", Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 36 (January): 41–9.
    Further Reading
    G.Carneal, 1930, A Conqueror of Space (biography).
    I.Levine, 1964, Electronics Pioneer, Lee De Forest (biography).
    E.I.Sponable, 1947, "Historical development of sound films", Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 48 (April): 275–303 (an authoritative account of De Forest's sound-film work, by Case's assistant).
    W.R.McLaurin, 1949, Invention and Innovation in the Radio Industry.
    C.F.Booth, 1955, "Fleming and De Forest. An appreciation", in Thermionic Valves 1904– 1954, IEE.
    V.J.Phillips, 1980, Early Radio Detectors, London: Peter Peregrinus.
    KF / JW

    Biographical history of technology > De Forest, Lee

  • 20 Parker, George Safford

    SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing
    [br]
    b. 1 November 1863 Shullsberg, Wisconsin, USA
    d. 19 July 1937 USA
    [br]
    American perfector of the fountain pen and founder of the Parker Pen Company.
    [br]
    Parker was born of English immigrant stock and grew up on his parents' farm in Iowa. He matriculated at Upper Iowa University and then joined the Valentine School of Telegraphy at Jamesville, Wisconsin: within a year he was on the staff. He supplemented his meagre school-master's pay by selling fountain pens to his students. He found that the pens needed constant attention, and his students were continually bringing them back to him for repair. The more he sold, the more he repaired. The work furnished him, first, with a detailed knowledge of the design and construction of the fountain pen and then with the thought that he could make a better pen himself. He gave up his teaching career and in 1888 began experimenting. He established his own company and in the following year he registered his first patent. The Parker Pen Company was formally incorporated on 8 March 1892.
    In the following years he patented many improvements, including the Lucky Curve pen and ink-feed system, patented in 1894. That was the real breakthrough for Parker and the pen was an immediate success. It solved the problem that had bedevilled the fountain pen before and since, by incorporating an ink-feed system that ensured a free and uniform flow of ink to where it was wanted, the nib, and not to other undesirable places.
    Parker established a reputation for manufacturing high-quality pens that looked good and worked well and reliably. The pens were in demand worldwide and the company grew.
    During the First World War, Parker introduced the Trench Pen for use on the Western Front. A tablet of pigment was inserted in a blind cap at the end of the pen. When this tablet was placed in the barrel and the barrel was filled with water, the pen was ready for use.
    Later developments included the Duofold pen, designed and launched in 1920. It had an enlarged ink capacity, a red barrel and a twentyfive-year guarantee on the nib. It became immensely popular with the public and was the flagship product throughout the 1920s and early 1930s, until the Vacumatic was launched in 1933.
    Parker handed over control of the company to this two sons, Kenneth and Russell, during the 1920s, remaining President until his retirement in 1933.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    Obituary, 1937, Jamesville Gazette 19 July (an appreciation by the architect Frank Lloyd Wright was published simultaneously). No biography has appeared, but Parker gave details of his career in an article in Systems
    Review, October 1926.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Parker, George Safford

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