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1 Gaston
Gaston -
2 Gaston
• Gaston -
3 Gaston Gaudio
s.Gastón Gaudio. -
4 Bouthoul, Gaston
перс.пол., межд. отн. Бутуль, Гастон (1899-; французский социолог и демограф; создал оригинальное направление теории международных отношений — полемологию; создал в 1951 г. Институт полемологии; наиболее известные произведения: "Мир" (1974) и "Отсроченное детоубийство" (1970); развивал свойственную французской политической науке антропологическо-структуралистскую традицию, считая основой войн коллективную агрессивность; агрессивность считал не естественным, а патологическим состоянием психики человека; исследовал факторы, вызывающие коллективную агрессивность; считал, что среди причин войны самые значимые — те, которые вытекают из структуры человеческих групп, имея в виду демографические и экономические структуры и считая, таки образом, долгосрочные и основные причины международных конфликтов конъюнктурными, единственное средство избежать которых — демографическое планирование; политические же причины международных конфликтов, т. е. вытекающие из соотношения сил в данный момент — второстепенны и случайны, согласно Бутулю)See: -
5 Lachaise, Gaston
[lǝˊʃez] [gɑ:sˊton] Лашез, Гастон (1882—1935), скульптор. Род. в Париже, в США с 1906. Больше всего известен скульптурами обнажённых женщинСША. Лингвострановедческий англо-русский словарь > Lachaise, Gaston
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6 Bousquet, Gaston du
[br]b. 20 August 1839 Paris, Franced. 24 March 1910 Paris, France[br]French locomotive engineer noted for the successful development of compound locomotives.[br]Bousquet spent his entire working life with the Northern Railway of France, reaching the position of Chief Engineer of Rolling Stock and Motive Power in 1890. In 1886 he was associated with Alfred de Glehn, technical head of locomotive builder Société Alsacienne de Constructions Mécaniques, in the building of a four-cylinder, four-crank, compound 2–2–2–0 partly derived from the work of F.W. Webb. In continuing association with de Glehn, Bousquet then designed a four-cylinder, compound 440 with the low-pressure cylinders beneath the smokebox and the high-pressure ones outside the frames; the first was completed in 1891. The details were well designed and the locomotive was the forerunner of a highly successful series. It was developed into 4–6–0, 4–4–2 and 4–6–2 types, and examples were used in quantity by all the principal French railways and by some in Germany, while G.J. Churchward brought three of the 4–4–2s to the Great Western Railway in England for comparison with his own locomotives. In 1905 Bousquet introduced an articulated 0–6–2+2–6–0 compound tank locomotive for freight trains: the two driving bogies supported a frame carrying boiler, tanks, etc. At the time of his death he was working on compound 4–6–4 locomotives.[br]Further ReadingJ.T.van Riemsdijk, 1970, "The compound locomotive (Part 1)", Transactions of the New comen Society 43; 1972, Part 2, Transactions of the New comen Society 44 (fully describes Bousquet's locomotives).See also: Mallet, Jules Théodore AnatolePJGR -
7 Planté, Raimond Louis Gaston
SUBJECT AREA: Electricity[br]b. 22 April 1834 Orthez, Franced. 21 May 1889 Paris, France[br]French physicist and inventor of a secondary electric cell from which was developed the widely used lead-acid storage battery.[br]After a scientific training at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, Planté obtained an appointment as a Laboratory Assistant to Becquerel. Later, when he was employed as a chemist in the Parisian electroplating firm of Christofle et Cie, he carried out investigations into polarization in electrical cells, which led to his discovery of the lead-acid accumulator in 1859. This cell, with lead plates in an electrolyte of dilute sulphuric acid, had the characteristics of a storage device for electrical energy. Its performance was improved considerably if it was repeatedly charged and discharged, the active material being formed electrochemically from the lead of the plate itself. At the time of its discovery the Planté cell had little practical application and it was not until satisfactory dynamos were introduced that its commercial exploitation was possible. The cell was improved by Faure and later by Swan and others. The lead-acid cell became considerably important in the early days of electricity supply and later for electric traction and automobile use. The results of Planté's researches were communicated to the Academy of Sciences and published in various scientific periodicals. He devoted the last few years of his life to the study of atmospheric electricity.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsChevalier de la Légion d'honneur 1881. Société d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale Médaille d'Ampère.Bibliography1860, "Nouvelle Pile secondaire d'une grande puissance", Comptes rendus 50:640–2. See Recherches sur l'électricité, Paris, 1879.Further ReadingG.Wood Vinal, 1955, Storage Batteries, 4th edn, London (describes developments subsequent to Planté's work).E.W.Wade, 1902, Secondary Batteries, London.GWBiographical history of technology > Planté, Raimond Louis Gaston
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8 polemology
сущ.пол., межд. отн. полемология (исследование происхождения войн под социологическим и демографическим углом зрения; термин и создание нового научного направления принадлежит Г. Бутулю, создавшему в 1951 г. Институт полемологии; в настоящее время традиции полемологии развивают Д. Биго и Д. Эрман)See: -
9 Institute francaise de polemologie
орг.пол., межд. отн., франц. Французский институт полемологии (первое полемологическое научное учреждение; основано Г. Бутулем в 1951 г.; занимается исследованием проблем войны и мира, выпускает журнал "Война и мир")See:Англо-русский экономический словарь > Institute francaise de polemologie
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10 muffled
['mʌf(ə)ld]1) Общая лексика: заглушённый, закутанный, обёрнутый, обмотанный, укутанный, тоны сердца приглушены (http://www.co.gaston.nc.us/gemshp/training/HeartTones.htm), завёрнутый2) Музыка: приглушённый, приглушать -
11 muffled heart tones
1) Общая лексика: тоны сердца приглушены (http://www.co.gaston.nc.us/gemshp/training/HeartTones.htm)2) Медицина: приглушённые тоны (сердца) -
12 polemology
Soc. polémologie (ou science de la guerre) [discipline fondée dans les années 1940 par le sociologue français Gaston Bouthoul pour étudier le phénomène de la guerre sous tous ses aspects]English-French dictionary of law, politics, economics & finance > polemology
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13 Gastonia
Город на юго-западе штата Северная Каролина, на р. Катоба [ Catawba River], в районе Пидмонт [ Piedmont Plateau]. 66,2 тыс. жителей (2000). Входит в МСА [ MSA] Шарлотт - Гастония - Рок-Хилл (1,4 млн. жителей в 2000). Административный центр [ county seat] Один из крупнейших центров текстильного машиностроения и текстильной промышленности США. Основан в начале XVIII в., статус города с 1877. Назван в честь судьи и члена законодательного собрания штата У. Гастона [Gaston, William]. Среди достопримечательностей - Музей естественной истории и планетарий [Schiele Museum of Natural History and Planetarium]. В пригороде Колледж Бельмонт-Эбби [Belmont Abbey College] (1876). -
14 overspending
adj.1 que gasta demasiado, gastón, que gasta más de la cuenta.2 de gasto excesivo.s.1 gastos excesivos.2 gastos deficitarios.ger.gerundio del verbo: OVERSPEND -
15 Bibliografia
■ ADAMS, Les, y RAYNEY, Buck. Shoot’em-Ups. The Complete Reference Guide to Westerns of the Sound Era. New Rochelle, New York: Arlington House, 1978.■ ANDERSON, Lindsay. About John Ford. Londres: Plexus, 1981.■ ARESTE, Jose Maria. Pero….donde esta Willy? En busca de William Wyler. Madrid: Rialp, 1998.■ ASTRE, Georges-Albert, y HOARAU, Albert Patrick. Univers du western. Paris: Seghers, 1973.■ BELLIDO LOPEZ, Adolfo y NUNEZ SABIN, Pedro. Budd Boetticher. Un caminante solitario. Valencia: Filmoteca de la Generalitat, 1995.■ BINH, N.T. Joseph L. Mankiewicz. Madrid: Catedra, 1994.■ BOGDANOVICH, Peter (entrevistador). John Ford. Madrid: Fundamentos, 1983.■ BOGDANOVICH, Peter. Fritz Lang en America. Madrid: Fundamentos, 1984.■ BOUINEAU, Jean-Marc, CHARLOT, Alain, y FRIMBOIS, Jean-Pierre. Les 100 chefs-d’oeuvre du western. Alleur (Belgique): Marabout, 1989.■ BOURGET, Jean-Loup. John Ford. Paris: Rivages, 1990.■ BOURGOIN, Stephane. Roger Corman.Paris: Edilig, 1983.■ BOURGOIN, Stephane. Richard Fleischer. Paris: Edilig, 1986.■ BOURGOIN, Stephane y MERIGEAU, Pascal. Serie B. Paris: Edilig, 1983.■ BRANSON, Clark. Howard Hawks. A Jungian Study. Santa Barbara: Capa Press, 1987.■ BRION, Patrick. Richard Brooks. Paris: Chene, 1986.■ BUSCOMBE, Edward (ed.). The BFI Companion to the Western. London: Andre Deutsch/BFI Publishing, 1988.■ BUSCOMBE, Edward. Stagecoach. Londres, BFI, 1992.■ CASAS, Quim. El western. El genero americano. Barcelona: Paidos, 1994.■ CASAS, Quim. John Ford. El arte y la leyenda. Barcelona: Dirigido por, 1989.■ CASAS, Quim. Howard Hawks. La comedia de la vida. Barcelona: Dirigido por, 1998.■ CASAS, Quim. Fritz Lang. Madrid: Catedra, 1991.■ CHARLOT, Alain, FRIMBOIS, Jean-Pierre, y BOUINEAU, Jean-Marc. Les 100 chefs-d’oeuvre du western. Alleur (Belgique): Marabout, 1989.■ CIMENT, Gilles (director). John Huston. Paris: Positif-Rivages, 1988.■ CIMENT, Michel (entrevistador). Elia Kazan por Elia Kazan. Madrid: Fundamentos, 1987.COCCHI, John. The Westerns. A Picture Quiz Book. New York: Dover, 1976.COMA, Javier. Diccionario del western clasico. Barcelona: Plaza y Janes, 1992.COMAS, Angel. Lo esencial de Anthony Mann. Madrid: T & B, 2004.CORMAN, Roger (con Jim Jerome). How I Made a Hundred Movies in Hollywood and Never Lost a Dime. New York: Random House, 1990.CUEVAS, Efren. Elia Kazan. Madrid: Catedra, 2000.DIXON, Wheeler W. The “B” Directors. A Biographical Directory. Metuchen, New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1985.DUMONT, Herve. Robert Siodmak. El maestro del cine negro. Madrid-San sebastian: Filmoteca Espanola, 1987.DUMONT, Herve. William Dieterle. Antifascismo y compromiso romantico. San Sebastian-Madrid: Filmoteca Espanola, 1994.DURGNAT, Raymond, y SIMMON, Scott. King Vidor, American. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.EDWARDS, Anne. The De Milles. An American Family. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1988.ERICE, Victor y OLIVER, Jos. Nicholas Ray y su tiempo. Madrid: Filmoteca Espanola, 1986.FAGEN, Herb. The Encyclopedia of Westerns. Facts on File, 2003.FERNANDEZ-SANTOS, Angel. Mas alla del Oeste. Madrid: Ed. El Pais, 1988.FETROW, Alan G. Sound Films, 1927-1939. A United States Filmography. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 1992.FINLEY, Joel W. The Movie Directors Story. Londres: Octopus, 1985.FRENCH, Philip. Westerns. Aspects of a Movie Genre. New York: The Viking Press, 1973.FRIMBOIS, Jean-Pierre, BOUINEAU, Jean-Marc, y CHARLOT, Alain. Les 100 chefs d’oeuvre du western. Alleur (Belgique): Marabout, 1989.GALLAGHER, Tag. John Ford. The Man and His Films. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986.GARFIELD, Brian. Western Films. A Complete Guide. New York: Da Capo, 1982.GEIST, Kenneth L. Pictures Will Talk. The Life & Films of Joseph L. Mankiewicz. New York: Scribner, 1978.GIULIANI, Pierre. Raoul Walsh. Paris: Edilig, 1986.GRIVEL, Daniele, y LACOURBE, Roland. Robert Wise. Paris: Edilig, 1985.HARDY, Phil. The Western. London: Aurum Press, Revised Edition, 1991.HAUSTRATE, Gaston. Arthur Penn. La vida se mueve. Valladolid: 39 Semana Internacional de Cine, 1994.HENRIET, G, y MAUDUY, J. Geographies du western. Une nation en marche. Paris: Nathan, 1989.HEREDERO, Carlos F. Sam Peckinpah. Madrid: Ediciones JC, 1982.HILLIER, Jim y WOLLEN, Peter (editores). Howard Hawks. American Artist. Londres: BFI, 1996.HITT, Jim. The American West from Fiction (1823-1976) into Film (1909-1986). Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 1990.HOARAU, Albert-Patrick, y ASTRE, Georges-Albert. Univers du western. Paris: Seghers, 1973.HOLLAND, Ted. B Western Actors Encyclopedia. Facts, Photos and Filmographies for More than 250 Familiar Faces. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 1989.HURTADO, Jose A y LOSILLA, Carlos. Richard Fleischer, entre el cielo y el infierno..Valencia: Filmoteca de la Generalitat Valenciana, 1997.HUSTON, John. A libro abierto. Madrid: Espasa Calpe, 1986.JENSEN, Paul M. Fritz Lang. Madrid: JC, 1990.KAZAN, Elia. Mi vida. Madrid: Temas de Hoy, 1990.LACOURBE, Roland, y GRIVEL, Daniele. Robert Wise. Paris: Edilig, 1985.LARDIN, Ruben. Sam Peckinpah. Hermano perro. Valencia: Midons, 1988.LEEMAN, Sergio. Robert Wise on His Films. Los Angeles: Silman-James, 1995.LEUTRAT, Jean-Louis. Le Western. Archeologie d’un genre. Lyon: Presses Universitaires de Lyon, 1987.LEUTRAT, Jean-Louis. L’Alliance brisee. Le Western des annees 1920. Lyon: Presses Universitaires de Lyon, 1985.LEUTRAT, Jean-Louis. John Ford. La Prisonniere du desert. Paris: Adam Biro, 1990.LEUTRAT, J.-L., y LIANDRAT-GUIGUES, S. Les Cartes de l’ouest. Un genre cinematographique: le western. Paris: Armand Colin, 1990.LIANDRAT-GUIGUES, S, y LEUTRAT, J.-L. Les Cartes de l’ouest. Un genre cinematographique. Le western. Paris: Armand Colin, 1990.LOSILLA, Carlos y HURTADO, Jose A. Richard Fleischer, entre el cielo y el infierno. Valencia: Filmoteca de la Generalitat Valenciana, 1997.MAUDUY, J, y HENRIET, G. Geographies du western. Une nation en marche. Paris: Nathan, 1989.McBRIDE, Joseph y WILMINGTON, Michael. John Ford. Madrid: JC, 1984.McBRIDE, Joseph (entrevistador). Hawks segun Hawks. Madrid: Akal, 1988.McCARTY, John. The Films of John Huston. Secaucus: Citadel, 1987.McGEE, Mark Thomas. Roger Corman. The Best of the Cheap Acts. Jefferson: McFarland, 1988.McGOWAN, John J. J.P. McGowan. Biography of a Hollywood Pioneer. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 2005.MEMBA, Javier. La serie B. Madrid: T & B, 2006.MENDEZ-LEITE VON HAFE, Fernando. Fritz Lang. Barcelona: Daimon, 1980.MERIDA, Pablo. Michael Curtiz. Madrid: Catedra, 1996.MERIGEAU, Pascal y BOURGOIN, Stephane. Serie B. Paris: Edilig, 1983.MERIKAETXEBARRIA, Anton. Raoul Walsh…a lo largo del sendero. San Sebastian: Ttarttalo, 1996.NASH, Jay Robert, y ROSS, Stanley Ralph. The Motion Picture Guide. 1927-1983. Cinebooks, 1985NUNEZ SABIN, Pedro y BELLIDO LOPEZ, Adolfo. Budd Boetticher. Un caminante solitario. Valencia: Filmoteca de la Generalitat, 1995.OKUDA, Ted. Grand National, Producers Releasing Company, and Screen Guild/Lippert. Complete Filmographies with Studio Histories. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 1989.OLIVER, Jos y ERICE, Victor. Nicholas Ray y su tiempo. Madrid: Filmoteca Espanola, 1986.PARISH, James Robert, y PITTS, Michael R. The Great Western Pictures. Metuchen, New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1976.PARISH, James Robert, y PITTS, Michael R. The Great Western Pictures II. Metuchen, New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1988.PITTS, Michael R., y PARISH, James Robert. The Great Western Pictures. Metuchen, New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1976.PITTS, Michael R., y PARISH, James Robert. The Great Western Pictures II. Metuchen, New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1988.PLACE, J.A. The Western Films of John Ford. Secaucus: Citadel, 1974.PLACE, J.A. The Non-Western Films of John Ford. Secaucus: Citadel, 1979.RAINEY, Buck, y ADAMS, Les. Shoot’em-Ups. The Complete Reference Guide to Westerns of the Sound Era. New Rochelle, New York: Arlington House, 1978.REEMES, Dana M. Directed by Jack Arnold. Jefferson: McFarland, 1988.RIEUPEYROUT, Jean-Louis. La grande aventure du western. Du Far West a Hollywood (1894-1963). Paris: Ed, du Cerf, 1964.ROMERO GUILLEN, Maria Dolores. Las mujeres en el cine americano de Fritz Lang. Zaragoza: Mira, 2000.ROOS, Stanley Ralph, y NASH, Jay Robert. The Motion Picture Guide. 1927-1983. Cinebooks, 1985.SANCHEZ BIOSCA, Vicente (coordinador). Mas alla de la duda. El cine de Fritz Lang. Valencia: Universitat de Valencia,1992.SIEGEL, Don. A Siegel Film. An Autobiopraphy. London: Faber and Faber, 1993.SIMMON, Scott, y DURGNAT, Raymond. King Vidor, American. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.SIMMONS, Garner. Peckinpah. A Portrait in Montage. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982.STOWELL, Peter. John Ford. Boston: Twayne, 1986.TCHERNIA, Pierre. 80 grands succes du Western. Casterman, 1989.THOMPSON, Frank T. William A. Wellman. San Sebastian: Filmoteca Espanola, 1993.URKIJO, Francisco javier. Sam Peckinpah. Madrid: Catedra, 1995.VARIOS. John Ford. Madrid: Fimoteca espanola, 1991.VARIOS. King Vidor. San Sebastian: Nosferatu, n. 31, 2004.VARIOS. Sam Fuller. San Sebastian: Nosferatu, n. 12, 1993.VARIOS. Jacques Tourneur. Paris: Camera/Stylo, 1986.VEILLON, Olivier-Rene. Le cinema americain. Les annees trente. Paris: Du Seuil, 1986.VEILLON, Olivier-Rene. Le cinema americain. Les annees cinquante. Paris: Du Seuil, 1984.VEILLON, Olivier-Rene. Le cinema americain. Les annees quatre-vingt. Paris: Du Seuil, 1988.WALSH, Raoul. Un demi-siecle a Hollywood. Memoires d’un cineaste. Paris: Calmann-Levy, 1976)WILMINGTON, Michael y McBRIDE, Joseph. John Ford. Madrid: JC, 1984.WOLLEN, Peter y HILLIER, Jim (editores). Howard Hawks. American Artist. Londres: BFI, 1996.WOOD, Robin. Howard Hawks. Madrid: JC, 1982.ZINNEMANN, Fred. A Life in the Movies. New York: Scribner, 1992.ZUMALDE, Imanol. Paisajes del odio. El dispositivo espacial de Centauros del desierto. Valencia: Universitat de Valencia, 1995. -
16 Spelling and punctuation
This table presents a useful way of clarifying difficulties when you are spelling names etc.A comme Anatole means A for Anatole, and so on.When spelling aloud…A A comme AnatoleB B comme BertheC C comme Célestinç c cédilleD D comme DésiréE E comme Eugèneé e accent aiguè e accent graveê e accent circonflexeë e trémaF F comme FrançoisG G comme GastonH H comme HenriI I comme IrmaJ J comme JosephK K comme KléberL L comme LouisM M comme MarcelN N comme NicolasO O comme OscarP P comme PierreQ Q comme QuintalR R comme RaoulS S comme SuzanneT T comme ThérèseU U comme UrsuleV V comme VictorW W comme WilliamX X comme XavierY Y comme YvonneZ Z comme ZoéSpellingcapital B= B majusculesmall b= b minusculeit has got a capital B= cela s’écrit avec un B majusculein small letters= en minusculesdouble t= deux tdouble n= deux napostrophe= apostrophed apostrophe= d apostrophehyphen= trait d’unionrase-mottes has got a hyphen= rase-mottes s’écrit avec un trait d’unionDictating punctuation. point or un point ( full stop), virgule ( comma): deux points ( colon); point-virgule ( semicolon)! point d’exclamation† ( exclamation mark)? point d’interrogation† ( interrogation mark)à la ligne ( new paragraph)( ouvrez la parenthèse ( open brackets)) fermez la parenthèse ( close brackets)() entre parenthèses ( in brackets)[] entre crochets ( in square brackets)- tiret ( dash)… points de suspension ( three dots)« ou " ouvrez les guillemets ( open inverted commas)» ou " fermez les guillemets ( close inverted commas)«» ou "" entre guillemets ( in inverted commas)The use of inverted commas in FrenchIn novels and short stories, direct speech is punctuated differently from English:The inverted commas lie on the line, e.g.«Tiens, dit-elle, en ouvrant les rideaux, les voilà!»‡This example also shows that the inverted commas are not closed after each stretch of direct speech. In modern texts they are often omitted altogether (though this is still sometimes frowned on):Il l’interrogea:- Vous êtes arrivé quand?- Pourquoi cette question? Je n’ai rien fait de mal.- C’est ce que nous allons voir.Note the short dash in this case that introduces each new speaker. Even if inverted commas had been used in the above dialogue, they would have been opened before vous and closed after voir, and not used at other points.English-style inverted commas are used in French to highlight words in a text:Le ministre a voulu "tout savoir" sur la question.† Note that, unlike English, French has a space before ! and ? and: and ;, e.g. Jamais !, Pourquoi ? etc. This is not usual, however, in dictionaries, where it would take up too much room.‡ Single inverted commas are not much used in French. -
17 G
Ⅰ.G1, g1 [dʒi:]∎ two g's deux g;∎ G for George ≃ G comme Gaston∎ G clef clef f de sol;∎ in G minor en sol mineurⅡ.G2∎ he earns 50G a year il gagne cinquante mille dollars par anⅢ.G3 -
18 Brotan, Johann
SUBJECT AREA: Railways and locomotives[br]b. 24 June 1843 Kattau, Bohemia (now in the Czech Republic)d. 20 November 1923 Vienna, Austria[br]Czech engineer, pioneer of the watertube firebox for steam locomotive boilers.[br]Brotan, who was Chief Engineer of the main workshops of the Royal Austrian State Railways at Gmund, found that locomotive inner fireboxes of the usual type were both expensive, because the copper from which they were made had to be imported, and short-lived, because of corrosion resulting from the use of coal with high sulphur content. He designed a firebox of which the side and rear walls comprised rows of vertical watertubes, expanded at their lower ends into a tubular foundation ring and at the top into a longitudinal water/steam drum. This projected forward above the boiler barrel (which was of the usual firetube type, though of small diameter), to which it was connected. Copper plates were eliminated, as were firebox stays.The first boiler to incorporate a Brotan firebox was built at Gmund under the inventor's supervision and replaced the earlier boiler of a 0−6−0 in 1901. The increased radiantly heated surface was found to produce a boiler with very good steaming qualities, while the working pressure too could be increased, with consequent fuel economies. Further locomotives in Austria and, experimentally, elsewhere were equipped with Brotan boilers.Disadvantages of the boiler were the necessity of keeping the tubes clear of scale, and a degree of structural weakness. The Swiss engineer E. Deffner improved the latter aspect by eliminating the forward extension of the water/steam drum, replacing it with a large-diameter boiler barrel with the rear section of tapered wagon-top type so that the front of the water/steam drum could be joined directly to the rear tubeplate. The first locomotives to be fitted with this Brotan-Deffner boiler were two 4−6−0s for the Swiss Federal Railways in 1908 and showed very favourable results. However, steam locomotive development ceased in Switzerland a few years later in favour of electrification, but boilers of the Brotan-Deffner type and further developments of it were used in many other European countries, notably Hungary, where more than 1,000 were built. They were also used experimentally in the USA: for instance, Samuel Vauclain, as President of Baldwin Locomotive Works, sent his senior design engineer to study Hungarian experience and then had a high-powered 4−8−0 built with a watertube firebox. On stationary test this produced the very high figure of 4,515 ihp (3,370 kW), but further development work was frustrated by the trade depression commencing in 1929. In France, Gaston du Bousquet had obtained good results from experimental installations of Brotan-Deffner-type boilers, and incorporated one into one of his high-powered 4−6−4s of 1910. Experiments were terminated suddenly by his death, followed by the First World War, but thirty-five years later André Chapelon proposed using a watertube firebox to obtain the high pressure needed for a triple-expansion, high-powered, steam locomotive, development of which was overtaken by electrification.[br]Further ReadingG.Szontagh, 1991, "Brotan and Brotan-Deffner type fireboxes and boilers applied to steam locomotives", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 62 (an authoritative account of Brotan boilers).PJGR -
19 Electricity
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20 Giffard, Baptiste Henry Jacques (Henri)
[br]b. 8 February 1825 Paris, Franced. 14 April 1882 Paris, France[br]French pioneer of airships and balloons, inventor of an injector for steam-boiler feedwater.[br]Giffard entered the works of the Western Railway of France at the age of 16 but became absorbed by the problem of steam-powered aerial navigation. He proposed a steam-powered helicopter in 1847, but he then turned his attention to an airship. He designed a lightweight coke-burning, single-cylinder steam engine and boiler which produced just over 3 hp (2.2 kW) and mounted it below a cigar-shaped gas bag 44 m (144 ft) in length. A triangular rudder was fitted at the rear to control the direction of flight. On 24 September 1852 Giffard took off from Paris and, at a steady 8 km/h (5 mph), he travelled 28 km (17 miles) to Trappes. This can be claimed to be the first steerable lighter-than-air craft, but with a top speed of only 8 km/h (5 mph) even a modest headwind would have reduced the forward speed to nil (or even negative). Giffard built a second airship, which crashed in 1855, slightly injuring Giffard and his companion; a third airship was planned with a very large gas bag in order to lift the inherently heavy steam engine and boiler, but this was never built. His airships were inflated by coal gas and refusal by the gas company to provide further supplies brought these promising experiments to a premature end.As a draughtsman Giffard had the opportunity to travel on locomotives and he observed the inadequacies of the feed pumps then used to supply boiler feedwater. To overcome these problems he invented the injector with its series of three cones: in the first cone (convergent), steam at or below boiler pressure becomes a high-velocity jet; in the second (also convergent), it combines with feedwater to condense and impart high velocity to it; and in the third (divergent), that velocity is converted into pressure sufficient to overcome the pressure of steam in the boiler. The injector, patented by Giffard, was quickly adopted by railways everywhere, and the royalties provided him with funds to finance further experiments in aviation. These took the form of tethered hydrogen-inflated balloons of successively larger size. At the Paris Exposition of 1878 one of these balloons carried fifty-two passengers on each tethered "flight". The height of the balloon was controlled by a cable attached to a huge steam-powered winch, and by the end of the fair 1,033 ascents had been made and 35,000 passengers had seen Paris from the air. This, and similar balloons, greatly widened the public's interest in aeronautics. Sadly, after becoming blind, Giffard committed suicide; however, he died a rich man and bequeathed large sums of money to the State for humanitarian an scientific purposes.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsCroix de la Légion d'honneur 1863.Bibliography1860, Notice théorique et pratique sur l'injecteur automoteur.1870, Description du premier aérostat à vapeur.Further ReadingDictionnaire de biographie française.Gaston Tissandier, 1872, Les Ballons dirigeables, Paris.—1878, Le Grand ballon captif à vapeur de M. Henri Giffard, Paris.W.de Fonvielle, 1882, Les Ballons dirigeables à vapeur de H.Giffard, Paris. Giffard is covered in most books on balloons or airships, e.g.: Basil Clarke, 1961, The History of Airships, London. L.T.C.Rolt, 1966, The Aeronauts, London.Ian McNeill (ed.), 1990, An Encyclopaedia of the History of Technology, London: Routledge, pp. 575 and 614.J.T.Hodgson and C.S.Lake, 1954, Locomotive Management, Tothill Press, p. 100.PJGR / JDSBiographical history of technology > Giffard, Baptiste Henry Jacques (Henri)
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