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(1858-1861)

  • 1 Ellis and Ellis' Queen's Bench Reports

    Юридический термин: сборник решений Суда королевской скамьи (составители Т. Эллис и Ф. Эллис, 1858-1861), сборник решений Суда королевской скамьи, составители Т. Эллис и Ф. Эллис (1858-1861)

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > Ellis and Ellis' Queen's Bench Reports

  • 2 E.&E.

    сокр. от Ellis and Ellis' Queen's Bench Reports
    сборник решений Суда королевской скамьи, составители Т. Эллис и Ф. Эллис (1858-1861)

    Англо-русский юридический словарь > E.&E.

  • 3 El.&El.

    сокр. от Ellis and Ellis' Queen's Bench Reports
    сборник решений Суда королевской скамьи, составители Т. Эллис и Ф. Эллис (1858-1861)

    Англо-русский юридический словарь > El.&El.

  • 4 Sutton, Thomas

    [br]
    b. 1819 England
    d. 1875 Jersey, Channel Islands
    [br]
    English photographer and writer on photography.
    [br]
    In 1841, while studying at Cambridge, Sutton became interested in photography and tried out the current processes, daguerreotype, calotype and cyanotype among them. He subsequently settled in Jersey, where he continued his photographic studies. In 1855 he opened a photographic printing works in Jersey, in partnership with L.-D. Blanquart- Evrard, exploiting the latter's process for producing developed positive prints. He started and edited one of the first photographic periodicals, Photographic Notes, in 1856; until its cessation in 1867, his journal presented a fresher view of the world of photography than that given by its London-based rivals. He also drew up the first dictionary of photography in 1858.
    In 1859 Sutton designed and patented a wideangle lens in which the space between two meniscus lenses, forming parts of a sphere and sealed in a metal rim, was filled with water; the lens so formed could cover an angle of up to 120 degrees at an aperture of f12. Sutton's design was inspired by observing the images produced by the water-filled sphere of a "snowstorm" souvenir brought home from Paris! Sutton commissioned the London camera-maker Frederick Cox to make the Panoramic camera, demonstrating the first model in January 1860; it took panoramic pictures on curved glass plates 152×381 mm in size. Cox later advertised other models in a total of four sizes. In January 1861 Sutton handed over manufacture to Andrew Ross's son Thomas Ross, who produced much-improved lenses and also cameras in three sizes. Sutton then developed the first single-lens reflex camera design, patenting it on 20 August 1961: a pivoted mirror, placed at 45 degrees inside the camera, reflected the image from the lens onto a ground glass-screen set in the top of the camera for framing and focusing. When ready, the mirror was swung up out of the way to allow light to reach the plate at the back of the camera. The design was manufactured for a few years by Thomas Ross and J.H. Dallmeyer.
    In 1861 James Clerk Maxwell asked Sutton to prepare a series of photographs for use in his lecture "On the theory of three primary colours", to be presented at the Royal Institution in London on 17 May 1861. Maxwell required three photographs to be taken through red, green and blue filters, which were to be printed as lantern slides and projected in superimposition through three projectors. If his theory was correct, a colour reproduction of the original subject would be produced. Sutton used liquid filters: ammoniacal copper sulphate for blue, copper chloride for the green and iron sulphocyanide for the red. A fourth exposure was made through lemon-yellow glass, but was not used in the final demonstration. A tartan ribbon in a bow was used as the subject; the wet-collodion process in current use required six seconds for the blue exposure, about twice what would have been needed without the filter. After twelve minutes no trace of image was produced through the green filter, which had to be diluted to a pale green: a twelve-minute exposure then produced a serviceable negative. Eight minutes was enough to record an image through the red filter, although since the process was sensitive only to blue light, nothing at all should have been recorded. In 1961, R.M.Evans of the Kodak Research Laboratory showed that the red liquid transmitted ultraviolet radiation, and by an extraordinary coincidence many natural red dye-stuffs reflect ultraviolet. Thus the red separation was made on the basis of non-visible radiation rather than red, but the net result was correct and the projected images did give an identifiable reproduction of the original. Sutton's photographs enabled Maxwell to establish the validity of his theory and to provide the basis upon which all subsequent methods of colour photography have been founded.
    JW / BC

    Biographical history of technology > Sutton, Thomas

  • 5 Charleston

    I
    1) Город на юго-востоке штата Южная Каролина. Расположен на узком полуострове между эстуариями рек Эшли [ Ashley River] (первоначально находился только на ее западном берегу) и Купер [Cooper River] у входа в залив Атлантического океана. 96,6 тыс. жителей (2000). В МСА Чарлстон - Норт-Чарлстон [Charleston - North Charleston MSA (MSA)] 549 тыс. человек (2000). Административный центр [ county seat] округа Чарлстон [Charleston County]. Второй по величине город штата. Крупный порт на Атлантическом побережье; глубоководная гавань. Транспортный узел. Химическая промышленность (производство удобрений, красителей, синтетического волокна, нефтехимия), производство бумаги, сигар, судостроение, приборостроение. Курорт. Чарлстонский колледж [College of Charleston] (1770) - старейший муниципальный колледж США, Цитадель [ Citadel, The] (1842), Мединский университет Южной Каролины [Medical University of South Carolina] (1824), Чарлстонский университет Юга [Charleston Southern University] (1964), Технический колледж Трайдент [Trident Technical College] (1964). Основан в 1670 на западном берегу р. Эшли и назван Чарлз-Таун [Charles Towne] в честь английского короля Карла II. В 1680 поселение перенесено на полуостров и вскоре получило развитие как торговый центр и транспортный узел для продукции плантаций региона (хлопок, рис, индиго), став также крупным портом ввоза рабов. В 1722 назывался "Город и порт Чарльза" [Charles City and Port]. Уже к середине XVIII в. город был важным культурным центром; здесь была крупнейшая в колониях еврейская община, жили французские гугеноты. В 1775 здесь собирался провинциальный конгресс, провозгласивший создание штата Южная Каролина. Во время Войны за независимость [ War of Independence] горожане дважды отражали нападения англичан (в 1776 и в 1779), но в 1780 Чарлстон был захвачен и удерживался ими до 1782. Статус города и современное название с 1783. До 1790 был столицей штата. На город не распространялись ограничения, наложенные британскими властями на торговлю с США, и Чарлстон был главным зимним портом страны вплоть до начала англо-американской войны 1812-14 [ War of 1812]. Позднее усилилась зависимость экономики от монокультуры хлопка [ King Cotton], в финансовой сфере и торговле господствовали северяне. 20 декабря 1860 в городе был принят Ордонанс о сецесии Южной Каролины [ ordinance of secession]. В феврале 1865 после 19-месячной осады город был захвачен армией Союза [ Union Army]. Открытие фосфатных залежей (1867) стало важным источником промышленного развития Чарлстона. В 1886 город серьезно пострадал от землетрясения. Возрождение экономики было связано с созданием военно-морской верфи (1901) и развитием военной промышленности во время второй мировой войны. В 1989 ураган "Хьюго" [Hurricane Hugo] нанес серьезный ущерб Чарлстону. Закрытие военной судоверфи и военно-морской базы [ Charleston Naval Base] в апреле 1996 также негативно сказалось на городской экономике. Среди достопримечательностей - историческая часть города с разнообразной архитектурой, в том числе колониального периода, живописными двориками и садами (особенно в кварталах к югу от Маркет-стрит [Market Street]); фортификационные сооружения у Чарлстонской бухты [Charleston Harbor] форт Самтер [ Fort Sumter] (примерно в 5,5 км к юго-востоку от города), нападение на который 12 апреля 1861 стало первым сражением Гражданской войны [ Civil War], крепость Пинкни [Castle Pinckney] (1797), а также Форт Моултри [Fort Moultrie] на острове Салливана [Sullivans Island]; Художественный музей Гиббса [Gibbes Museum of Art], Чарлстонское библиотечное общество [Charleston Library Society] (1748), одна из первых библиотек в стране, Каролинская ассоциация искусств [Carolina Art Association] (1858). Чарлстонский музей [Charleston Museum] (1773) является старейшим в США. Много исторических памятников в пригороде. Место проведения известного ежегодного фестиваля искусств.
    2) Город в центральной части штата Западная Вирджиния. Расположен у слияния рек Канова [ Kanawha River] и Элк [Elk River], в Аллеганах [ Allegheny Mountains]. Столица штата Западная Вирджиния, административный центр округа Канова [Kanawha County]. 53,4 тыс. жителей (2000); крупнейший город штата. В МСА Чарлстон [Charleston MSA] 251,6 тыс. человек (2000). Крупный центр угольной и химической промышленности (производство пластмасс, минеральных удобрений), металлообрабатывающая промышленность, деревообработка. Торгово-промышленный центр района добычи битуминозного угля, нефти, газа. Аэропорт Йегера [Yeager Airport] в северо-восточном пригороде (назван в честь уроженца этих мест летчика-испытателя Ч. Йегера [ Yeager, Charles Elwood (Chuck)]). Чарлстонский университет [Charleston, University of] (1888; ранее назывался колледж Морриса Харви [Morris Harvey College]). Среди достопримечательностей - парк Кунскин [Coonskin Park], реставрированный особняк "Рассвет" [Sunrise] с планетарием и художественным музеем, здание Капитолия штата [State Capitol] (строительство завершено в 1932; архитектор К. Джилберт [ Gilbert, Cass]), особняк губернатора. Новый центр искусств и наук Западной Вирджинии [Center for the Arts and Sciences of West Virginia] включает музей штата, архивы, библиотеку, театр. Основан в 1788 как форт Ли [Fort Lee], построенный полковником Дж. Кленденином [Clendenin, George] по разрешению Т. Джефферсона [ Jefferson, Thomas]. Позднее район был заселен иммигрантами шотландско-ирландского происхождения [ Scotch-Irish] и выходцами из Германии. Поселение было названо Чарльз-Таун [Charles Town] в честь отца Кленденина (1794), а в 1819 получило современное название. Город лежал на пути миграции в долину р. Огайо [ Ohio River]. В начале 90-х годов XVIII в. интересы его жителей в законодательной ассамблее Вирджинии представлял знаменитый Д. Бун [ Boone, Daniel]. В первые десятилетия XIX в. был важным центром производства соли. В результате сражения за Чарлстон [Charleston, Battle of] во время Гражданской войны [ Civil War] 13 сентября 1862 город был оккупирован северянами. Получив статус города в 1870, Чарлстон был временной столицей штата в 1870-75; в 1885 был окончательно утвержден в качестве столицы.
    3) Город на востоке штата Иллинойс, на р. Эмбаррас [Embarrass River]. 21 тыс. жителей (2000). Административный центр округа Коулс [Coles County] (с 1830). Центр сельскохозяйственного района. Производство обуви. Основан в 1826 неким Б. Паркером [Parker, Benjamin] и назван в честь первого почтмейстера Чарлза Мортона [Morton, Charles]. Статус поселка [ village] с 1835, статус города [ city] с 1865. Городок служил местом адвокатской практики будущего президента А. Линкольна [ Lincoln, Abraham], здесь же в сентябре 1858 прошли его четвертые по счету дебаты с А. Дугласом [ Lincoln-Douglas Debates]. Университет Восточного Иллинойса [Eastern Illinois University] (1895). В пригороде парк к реконструкцией хижины семьи Линкольнов [Lincoln Log State Historic Site], парк штата Фокс-Ридж [Fox Ridge State Park], озеро Чарлстон [Lake Charleston].
    II
    Бальный танец, популярный в 1925-27, зародившийся среди негров г. Чарлстона, шт. Южная Каролина, где они составляют примерно одну треть населения. Музыкальный размер 4/4 с синкопированным ритмом. Вторая волна популярности - в 1960-70-х годах

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Charleston

  • 6 Bright, Sir Charles Tilston

    SUBJECT AREA: Telecommunications
    [br]
    b. 8 June 1832 Wanstead, Essex, England
    d. 3 May 1888 Abbey Wood, London, England
    [br]
    English telegraph engineer responsible for laying the first transatlantic cable.
    [br]
    At the age of 15 years Bright left the London Merchant Taylors' School to join the two-year-old Electric Telegraph Company. By 1851 he was in charge of the Birmingham telegraph station. After a short time as Assistant Engineer with the newly formed British Telegraph Company, he joined his brother (who was Manager) as Engineer-in-Chief of the English and Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company in Liverpool, for which he laid thousands of miles of underground cable and developed a number of innovations in telegraphy including a resistance box for locating cable faults and a two-tone bell system for signalling. In 1853 he was responsible for the first successful underwater cable between Scotland and Ireland. Three years later, with the American financier Cyrus Field and John Brett, he founded and was Engineer-in-chief of the Atlantic Telegraph Company, which aimed at laying a cable between Ireland and Newfoundland. After several unsuccessful attempts this was finally completed on 5 August 1858, Bright was knighted a month later, but the cable then failed! In 1860 Bright resigned from the Magnetic Telegraph Company to set up an independent consultancy with another engineer, Joseph Latimer Clark, with whom he invented an improved bituminous cable insulation. Two years later he supervised construction of a telegraph cable to India, and in 1865 a further attempt to lay an Atlantic cable using Brunel's new ship, the Great Eastern. This cable broke during laying, but in 1866 a new cable was at last successfully laid and the 1865 cable recovered and repaired. The year 1878 saw extension of the Atlantic cable system to the West Indies and the invention with his brother of a system of neighbourhood fire alarms and even an automatic fire alarm.
    In 1861 Bright presented a paper to the British Association for the Advancement of Science on the need for electrical standards, leading to the creation of an organization that still exists in the 1990s. From 1865 until 1868 he was Liberal MP for Greenwich, and he later assisted with preparations for the 1881 Paris Exhibition.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Knighted 1858. Légion d'honneur. First President, Société Internationale des Electriciens. President, Society of Telegraph Engineers \& Electricians (later the Institution of Electrical Engineers) 1887.
    Bibliography
    1852, British patent (resistance box).
    1855, British patent no. 2,103 (two-tone bell system). 1878, British patent no. 3,801 (area fire alarms).
    1878, British patent no. 596 (automatic fire alarm).
    "The physical \& electrical effects of pressure \& temperature on submarine cable cores", Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers XVII (describes some of his investigations of cable characteristics).
    Further Reading
    C.Bright, 1898, Submarine Cables, Their History, Construction \& Working.
    —1910, The Life Story of Sir Charles Tilston Bright, London: Constable \& Co.
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Bright, Sir Charles Tilston

  • 7 Laird, John

    SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping
    [br]
    b. 1805 (?) Greenock, Scotland
    d. 26 October 1874 Birkenhead, England
    [br]
    Scottish pioneer of large-scale iron shipbuilding.
    [br]
    When only 5 years old, Laird travelled with his family to Merseyside, where his father William Laird was setting up a ship-repair yard. Fourteen years later his father established the Birkenhead Ironworks for ship and engine repairs, which in later years was to achieve great things with John Laird at the helm. John Laird trained as a solicitor, but instead of going into practice he joined the family business. Between 1829 and 1832 they built three iron barges for inland use in Ireland; this form of construction had become less of a novelty and followed the example set by Thomas Wilson in 1819, but Laird was fired with enthusiasm for this mode of construction. New iron ships followed in rapid succession, with two of especial note: the paddle steamer Lady Lansdown of 1833, which was dismantled and later re-erected on the river Shannon, becoming one of Britain's first "knock-down" contracts; and the early steamer Robert F.Stockton, which had a double Ericsson screw propeller and the first iron transverse watertight bulkheads. With the good name of the shipyard secure, they received orders from MacGregor Laird (John Laird's younger brother) for iron ships for the West African trade. This African connection was to grow and the yard's products were to include the Ma Roberts for Dr David Livingstone. Being of steel and with constant groundings on African rivers, this craft only lasted 18 months in steady operation. In 1858 a new yard dedicated to iron construction was opened at Monk's Ferry. In 1861 John Laird was returned as the first Member of Parliament for Birkenhead and his sons took over the day-to-day affairs of the business. Laird was to suffer acute embarrassment by questions at Westminster over the building in the Birkenhead Works of the United States Confederate raider Alabama in 1862. In 1874 he suffered serious injuries in a riding accident; his health declined and he died later that year.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1858, with Fairbairn, Forrester, Lang and Sea-ward, Steam Navigation, Vessels of Iron and Wood, the Steam Engine, etc. 2 vols, London: Weale.
    FMW

    Biographical history of technology > Laird, John

  • 8 Tournachon, Gaspard Félix (Nadar)

    [br]
    b. 1820
    d. 1910 Paris, France
    [br]
    French photographer and photographic innovator, pioneer of balloon photography.
    [br]
    He began his photographic career as a daguerreotypist and at an early date called himself "Nadar", the name by which he was known for the rest of his life. Between 1855 and 1858 he made captive balloon ascents with the idea of producing a topographic map of Paris from aerial photographs. Nadar was also one of the first photographers to take successful photographs with the aid of artificial illuminants; using Bunsen batteries to power electric arc lamps, he was able to take views of the underground catacombs in Paris during 1861 and 1862. This exercise captured the imagination of the Paris public, and Nadar's work was widely acclaimed. In December 1863 he exhibited portraits taken by electric light, and later used magnesium illuminants to photograph underground canal construction. For many years Nadar practised as a photographer with his son Paul, a relationship that was sometimes stormy. Paul eventually took the name Nadar for himself and was, in turn, to become one of France's most celebrated photographers.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    29 October 1858, British patent no. 2,425 (balloon photography).
    Further Reading
    J.M.Eder, 1945, History of Photography, trans. E.Epstean, New York.
    H.Gernsheim and A.Gernsheim, 1969, The History of Photography, rev. edn, London.
    JW

    Biographical history of technology > Tournachon, Gaspard Félix (Nadar)

  • 9 Fairbairn, Sir Peter

    SUBJECT AREA: Textiles
    [br]
    b. September 1799 Kelso, Roxburghshire, Scotland
    d. 4 January 1861 Leeds, Yorkshire, England
    [br]
    British inventor of the revolving tube between drafting rollers to give false twist.
    [br]
    Born of Scottish parents, Fairbairn was apprenticed at the age of 14 to John Casson, a mill-wright and engineer at the Percy Main Colliery, Newcastle upon Tyne, and remained there until 1821 when he went to work for his brother William in Manchester. After going to various other places, including Messrs Rennie in London and on the European continent, he eventually moved in 1829 to Leeds where Marshall helped him set up the Wellington Foundry and so laid the foundations for the colossal establishment which was to employ over one thousand workers. To begin with he devoted his attention to improving wool-weaving machinery, substituting iron for wood in the construction of the textile machines. He also worked on machinery for flax, incorporating many of Philippe de Girard's ideas. He assisted Henry Houldsworth in the application of the differential to roving frames, and it was to these machines that he added his own inventions. The longer fibres of wool and flax need to have some form of support and control between the rollers when they are being drawn out, and inserting a little twist helps. However, if the roving is too tightly twisted before passing through the first pair of rollers, it cannot be drawn out, while if there is insufficient twist, the fibres do not receive enough support in the drafting zone. One solution is to twist the fibres together while they are actually in the drafting zone between the rollers. In 1834, Fairbairn patented an arrangement consisting of a revolving tube placed between the drawing rollers. The tube inserted a "middle" or "false" twist in the material. As stated in the specification, it was "a well-known contrivance… for twisting and untwisting any roving passing through it". It had been used earlier in 1822 by J. Goulding of the USA and a similar idea had been developed by C.Danforth in America and patented in Britain in 1825 by J.C. Dyer. Fairbairn's machine, however, was said to make a very superior article. He was also involved with waste-silk spinning and rope-yarn machinery.
    Fairbairn later began constructing machine tools, and at the beginning of the Crimean War was asked by the Government to make special tools for the manufacture of armaments. He supplied some of these, such as cannon rifling machines, to the arsenals at Woolwich and Enfield. He then made a considerable number of tools for the manufacture of the Armstrong gun. He was involved in the life of his adopted city and was elected to Leeds town council in 1832 for ten years. He was elected an alderman in 1854 and was Mayor of Leeds from 1857 to 1859, when he was knighted by Queen Victoria at the opening of the new town hall. He was twice married, first to Margaret Kennedy and then to Rachel Anne Brindling.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Knighted 1858.
    Bibliography
    1834, British patent no. 6,741 (revolving tube between drafting rollers to give false twist).
    Further Reading
    Dictionary of National Biography.
    Obituary, 1861, Engineer 11.
    W.English, 1969, The Textile Industry, London (provides a brief account of Fairbairn's revolving tube).
    C.Singer (ed.), 1958, A History of Technology, Vols IV and V, Oxford: Clarendon Press (provides details of Fairbairn's silk-dressing machine and a picture of a large planing machine built by him).
    RLH

    Biographical history of technology > Fairbairn, Sir Peter

  • 10 dime novel

    ист
    грошовый роман (букв "десятицентовый роман")
    Название, закрепившееся за дешевыми популярными изданиями (первоначально - в серийных желтых обложках), выходившими массовым тиражом и рассчитанными на невзыскательного читателя. В 1858 Э. Бидл [Beadle, Erastus F.] с партнерами основал издательскую компанию "Бидл энд Адамс" [Beadle and Adams Co.], которая поначалу выпускала сборники песен и анекдотов, а с 1860 перешла к выпуску книжек о жизни пионеров Дикого Запада [ Wild West], о войне с индейцами и т.п. Особую популярность эти книжки получили среди солдат во время Гражданской войны 1861-65 [ Civil War]. Вскоре публикацией такого рода литературы стали заниматься многие издательства, так как это приносило большие прибыли. В виде "десятицентовиков" выпускались также "пиратские" издания английской и переводной литературы

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > dime novel

  • 11 Lecompton Constitution

    ист
    Конституция Территории Канзас [Kansas Territory], принятая сторонниками рабства в г. Лекомптоне в 1857. Способствовала затягиванию решения вопроса о вхождении Канзаса в состав Союза [ Union] вплоть до 1861. Против нее выступила Партия свободного штата [ Free State party], и по инициативе сенатора С. Дугласа [ Douglas, Stephen Arnold] в 1858 был проведен референдум, на котором она подавляющим большинством голосов была отвергнута и заменена Уайандоттской конституцией [ Wyandotte Constitution] (1859), которая в качестве конституции штата [ state constitution] действует до сих пор

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Lecompton Constitution

  • 12 Lincoln, Abraham

    (1809-1865) Линкольн, Авраам
    16-й президент США [ President, U.S.] (в 1861-65). Один из наиболее известных и уважаемых деятелей в истории страны. Родился в Кентукки в семье бедного фермера - пионера освоения Запада. Почти не получил образования, учился по книгам, которых прочитал огромное количество. С начала 1830-х гг. стал заниматься политикой, в 1834-41 член законодательного собрания штата Иллинойс. В 1842 женился на Мэри Тодд [ Lincoln, Mary Todd]. В 1854 выступил против закона "Канзас-Небраска" [ Kansas-Nebraska Act], вступил (1856) в новую Республиканскую партию [ Republican Party], выступавшую против рабства. В 1858 приобрел общенациональную известность как оратор в ходе дебатов с Дугласом [ Lincoln-Douglas Debates] по вопросу о рабстве. Президент США в период Гражданской войны [ Civil War]. Администрация Линкольна провела ряд далеко идущих демократических преобразований, в частности, законы о гомстедах [ Homestead Act] и об отмене рабства [ Emancipation Proclamation]; она также перешла к решительной борьбе с рабовладельцами Юга [ South] вплоть до их военного разгрома. Линкольн стал инициатором принятия Тринадцатой поправки [ Thirteenth Amendment]. 14 апреля 1865, через пять дней после победы Севера в войне, был смертельно ранен во время спектакля актером Дж. Бутом [ Booth, John Wilkes] и умер на следующий день. Его политическим завещанием стало Геттисбергское послание [ Gettysburg Address]. В 1900 избран в национальную Галерею славы [ Hall of Fame]

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Lincoln, Abraham

  • 13 Montana

    I
    Штат на северо-западе США в группе Горных штатов [ Mountain States]. Площадь 380,8 тыс. кв. км (четвертый по величине штат). Население 902 тыс. человек (2000); один из десяти наименее населенных штатов страны. Столица г. Хелена [ Helena]. Крупный город Биллингс [ Billings]. На севере Монтана граничит с канадскими провинциями Британская Колумбия, Альберта и Саскачеван, на востоке со штатами Северная Дакота [ North Dakota] и Южная Дакота [ South Dakota], на юге с Вайомингом [ Wyoming] и на западе и юго-западе с Айдахо [ Idaho]. Восточная часть штата расположена на Великих равнинах [ Great Plains], постепенно повышающихся с востока на запад. На западе штата хребты Скалистых гор [ Rocky Mountains], высшая точка гора Гранит-Пик [ Granite Peak]. Основная река, протекающая по территории штата, - Миссури [ Missouri River]. Климат континентальный, зима суровая, малоснежная, летом часты сильные засухи. Монтана богата полезными ископаемыми, среди наиболее значимых: золото, медь, свинец, серебро, цинк, марганец, уголь, нефть, природный газ. Около 1/4 штата покрыто лесами, большая часть которых входит в состав национальных парков [ Glacier National Park, Yellowstone National Park] и заказников. В начале XVIII в. на территории будущего штата жили племена "черноногих" [ Blackfoot], сиу [ Sioux], кроу [ Crow], шайеннов [ Cheyenne], вытесненные со своих земель на востоке. В свою очередь, они потеснили к западу местные племена сэлиш [ Salish], шошон [ Shoshone], кутенэ [ Kootenai]. Первыми европейцами в этих краях были участники экспедиции Льюиса и Кларка [ Lewis and Clark Expedition]. В 1807 М. Лайса [Lisa, Manuel] основал первый торговый пост [ trading post] - форт Мануэля [ Manuel's Fort]. Вскоре сюда пришли трапперы [ trapper] и маунтинмены [ mountain men]. Первое постоянное поселение, миссия Св. Марии [Saint Mary's Mission], была основана в 1841 священником П. Де Сметом [De Smet, Pierre Jean]. В 1858 у р. Голдкрик [Goldcreek] было открыто небольшое месторождение золота; открытие более крупных запасов в 1860-е стало началом "золотой лихорадки" [ Gold Rush], сделавшей Монтану одним из центров "Дикого Запада" [ Wild West]. В 1863 западная Монтана, ранее входившая в состав Территории Орегон [ Oregon Territory] и Территории Вашингтон [Washington Territory], была объединена с восточной Монтаной, входившей в состав Территорий Луизиана [Louisiana Territory] (1805-12), Миссури [Missouri Territory] (1812-54), Небраска [Nebraska Terriory] (1854-61) и Дакота [Dakota Territory] (1861), и вошла в состав Территории Айдахо [Idaho Territory]. В 1864 Монтана получила статус самостоятельной территории [ Territory], первой столицей которой был Баннак [Bannack], второй - Вирджиния-Сити [Virginia City], третьей (с 1875) - Хелена. В 1860-70-е в Монтане участились столкновения с индейцами, кульминацией которых стала война с сиу 1875-76 [Sioux War of 1875-76, Sioux Wars]. В 80-е гг. XIX в. земли Монтаны пересекли железные дороги, и она стала местом борьбы за пастбищные угодья между скотоводами, а также местом борьбы за власть между "медным королем" М. Дейли [ Daly, Marcus] и двумя другими бизнесменами, Кларком [Clark, William Andrews] и Хайнце [Heinze, "Fritz" Augustus]. 8 ноября 1889 после пятилетних дебатов Монтана стала 41-м штатом США. Наиболее важными отраслями производства были: деревообрабатывающая промышленность и производство продуктов питания. Важную роль в экономике играло сельское хозяйство, сосредоточенное на крупных фермах и ранчо [ ranch]. Основное место занимало животноводство мясо-шерстного направления; главная культура растениеводства - пшеница. В 1909-18 сюда прибыли тысячи переселенцев, привлеченные возможностью получения гомстедов [ homestead] для земледелия. Началось быстрое развитие фермерских хозяйств, приостановившееся после нескольких засушливых лет (с 1917). В период Великой депрессии [ Great Depression] закрылось множество медных шахт. После депрессии началась интенсивная диверсификация экономики, введение новых методов в сельском хозяйстве, разработка месторождений нефти и угля. В 1972 была принята новая конституция штата [ state constitution] взамен первой (1889). На выборах жители штата чаще голосуют за республиканцев.
    II
    "Montana"
    "Монтана"
    Гимн [ state song] штата Монтана (с 1945)

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Montana

  • 14 Nevada

    Штат на западе США, в группе Горных штатов [ Mountain States]. Граничит с Калифорнией [ California] на юге и на западе, Орегоном [ Oregon] и Айдахо [ Idaho] на севере, Аризоной [ Arizona] и Ютой [ Utah] на востоке. Площадь 286,3 тыс. кв. км (седьмой по размерам территории штат США), причем 85 процентов территории контролируется федеральными правительственными органами: Бюро по управлению земельными ресурсами [ Bureau of Land Management], Службой леса [ Forest Service], Службой национальных парков [ National Park Service] и др. Штат владеет только 1 процентом территории. Население 1,9 млн. человек (2000), прирост населения один из самых высоких в США. Столица Карсон-Сити [ Carson City]. Крупные города: Лас-Вегас [ Las Vegas] и Рино [ Reno]. Почти вся территория штата расположена в пределах нагорья Большой Бассейн [ Great Basin] (высота хребтов 1-2,5 тыс. м над уровнем моря). На западе отроги хребта Сьерра-Невада [ Sierra Nevada], на севере Колумбийское плато [ Columbia Plateau], гейзеры [Beowawe Geysers]; южные районы граничат с пустыней Мохаве [ Mojave Desert]. В штате более 200 озер и водохранилищ, наиболее крупные - водохранилище Мид [ Mead, Lake] и озеро Тахо [ Tahoe, Lake]. Умеренный континентальный климат; Невада считается самым сухим штатом страны. В горах климат более влажный. Холодная зима и жаркое лето. Важнейшие виды полезных ископаемых: золото (первое место в стране по добыче), серебро, молибден, магний, барит, гипс. Индейцы поселились на этих землях около 12 тыс. лет назад. Полагают, что первым европейцем, посетившим Неваду в 1775, был испанский священник-францисканец Ф. Гарсес [Garces, Francisco]. В 1826 в центральной части Невады побывал Дж. Смит [ Smith, Jedediah Strong (Jed)], но первые систематические исследования были проведены Дж. Фримонтом [ Fremont, John Charles] только в 1843-45. Невада в числе других земель вошла в состав США по договору, подписанному в Гуадалупе-Идальго [ Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo] (1848) и завершившему войну с Мексикой [ Mexican War]. Первое постоянное поселение было основано мормонами [ Mormons] в долине Карсон [Carson Valley] в 1849, в 1855 они основали миссию в долине Лас-Вегас [Las Vegas Valley]. В 1860 через Неваду был проложен маршрут "Пони-экспресса" [ Pony Express]. Первый толчок развитию Невады был дан открытием месторождения золота и серебра, известного как "жила Комстока" [ Comstock Lode] в Вирджиния-Сити [ Virginia City] (1858). В 1860-70 население увеличилось с 7 до 42 тыс. человек. В 1861 Территория Невада [Nevada Territory] отделилась от Территории Юта [Utah Territory]. Штат вступил в состав США 31 октября 1864, и федеральное правительство смогло получить значительные кредиты для ведения Гражданской войны [ Civil War] за счет доходов от невадских месторождений. В 1869 через штат прошел участок железной дороги "Сентрал-Пасифик" [ Central Pacific Railroad]. Поселенцы-баски сделали важной отраслью экономики овцеводство. К началу XX в. месторождения золота и серебра практически истощились, стала развиваться добыча других металлов. Большим препятствием для заселения Невады был недостаток водных ресурсов, что привело к замедленным темпам урбанизации и развития промышленности. Экономика, основанная на добыче полезных ископаемых, железных дорогах и крупных ранчо, коренным образом изменилась после второй мировой войны. В сельском хозяйстве важнейшую роль стало играть животноводство (молочное, овцеводство), в промышленности - производство химикатов, продуктов питания, стекла. С 1950-х Невада стала местом испытаний ядерного оружия, первоначально - и в атмосфере [ Nevada Test Site], что нанесло огромный ущерб экологии штата и здоровью его жителей; ныне штат уделяет большое внимание охране окружающей среды. В экономике Невады главенствующую роль играют туризм и сфера обслуживания. Работники последней составляют вторую по численности (после фермеров) категорию трудоспособного населения. Ежегодно в Неваду приезжают около 30 млн. туристов. Основные доходы штат получает от налогов на продажу [ sales tax] и на игорный бизнес, который был легализован здесь в 1931. Отсутствие подоходного налога и налога на наследство [ inheritance tax] привлекает в штат многих состоятельных людей. Политические симпатии жителей штата не являются ярко выраженными - обе основные политические партии пользуются примерно равным влиянием в штате.

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Nevada

  • 15 Adamson, Daniel

    [br]
    b. 1818 Shildon, Co. Durham, England
    d. January 1890 Didsbury, Manchester, England
    [br]
    English mechanical engineer, pioneer in the use of steel for boilers, which enabled higher pressures to be introduced; pioneer in the use of triple-and quadruple-expansion mill engines.
    [br]
    Adamson was apprenticed between 1835 and 1841 to Timothy Hackworth, then Locomotive Superintendent on the Stockton \& Darlington Railway. After this he was appointed Draughtsman, then Superintendent Engineer, at that railway's locomotive works until in 1847 he became Manager of Shildon Works. In 1850 he resigned and moved to act as General Manager of Heaton Foundry, Stockport. In the following year he commenced business on his own at Newton Moor Iron Works near Manchester, where he built up his business as an iron-founder and boilermaker. By 1872 this works had become too small and he moved to a 4 acre (1.6 hectare) site at Hyde Junction, Dukinfield. There he employed 600 men making steel boilers, heavy machinery including mill engines fitted with the American Wheelock valve gear, hydraulic plant and general millwrighting. His success was based on his early recognition of the importance of using high-pressure steam and steel instead of wrought iron. In 1852 he patented his type of flanged seam for the firetubes of Lancashire boilers, which prevented these tubes cracking through expansion. In 1862 he patented the fabrication of boilers by drilling rivet holes instead of punching them and also by drilling the holes through two plates held together in their assembly positions. He had started to use steel for some boilers he made for railway locomotives in 1857, and in 1860, only four years after Bessemer's patent, he built six mill engine boilers from steel for Platt Bros, Oldham. He solved the problems of using this new material, and by his death had made c.2,800 steel boilers with pressures up to 250 psi (17.6 kg/cm2).
    He was a pioneer in the general introduction of steel and in 1863–4 was a partner in establishing the Yorkshire Iron and Steel Works at Penistone. This was the first works to depend entirely upon Bessemer steel for engineering purposes and was later sold at a large profit to Charles Cammell \& Co., Sheffield. When he started this works, he also patented improvements both to the Bessemer converters and to the engines which provided their blast. In 1870 he helped to turn Lincolnshire into an important ironmaking area by erecting the North Lincolnshire Ironworks. He was also a shareholder in ironworks in South Wales and Cumberland.
    He contributed to the development of the stationary steam engine, for as early as 1855 he built one to run with a pressure of 150 psi (10.5 kg/cm) that worked quite satisfactorily. He reheated the steam between the cylinders of compound engines and then in 1861–2 patented a triple-expansion engine, followed in 1873 by a quadruple-expansion one to further economize steam. In 1858 he developed improved machinery for testing tensile strength and compressive resistance of materials, and in the same year patents for hydraulic lifting jacks and riveting machines were obtained.
    He was a founding member of the Iron and Steel Institute and became its President in 1888 when it visited Manchester. The previous year he had been President of the Institution of Civil Engineers when he was presented with the Bessemer Gold Medal. He was a constant contributor at the meetings of these associations as well as those of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. He did not live to see the opening of one of his final achievements, the Manchester Ship Canal. He was the one man who, by his indomitable energy and skill at public speaking, roused the enthusiasm of the people in Manchester for this project and he made it a really practical proposition in the face of strong opposition.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    President, Institution of Civil Engineers 1887.
    President, Iron and Steel Institute 1888. Institution of Civil Engineers Bessemer Gold Medal 1887.
    Further Reading
    Obituary, Engineer 69:56.
    Obituary, Engineering 49:66–8.
    H.W.Dickinson, 1938, A Short History of the Steam Engine, Cambridge University Press (provides an illustration of Adamson's flanged seam for boilers).
    R.L.Hills, 1989, Power from Steam. A History of the Stationary Steam Engine, Cambridge University Press (covers the development of the triple-expansion engine).
    RLH

    Biographical history of technology > Adamson, Daniel

  • 16 Hodgkinson, Eaton

    [br]
    b. 26 February 1789 Anderton, Cheshire, England
    d. 18 June 1861 near Manchester, England
    [br]
    English engineer who devised d new form of cast-iron girder.
    [br]
    Eaton Hodgkinson's father, a farmer, died when he was 6 years old, but his mother was a resourceful woman who set up a business in Salford and ensured that her son received a sound schooling. Most important for his education, however, was his friendship with the Manchester scientific luminary Dr. Dalton, who instructed him in practical mathematics. These studies led Hodgkinson to devise a new form of cast-iron girder, carefully tested by experiments and which was widely adopted for fire-proof structures in the nineteenth century. Following Dalton, Hodgkinson became an active member of the Manchester Philosophical Society, of which he was elected President in 1848. He also became an active member of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Hodgkinson's work on cast-iron girders secured him a Fellowship of the Royal Society, and the Royal Medal of the Society, in 1841. It was Hodgkinson also who verified the mathematical value of the pioneering experiments carried out by William Fairbairn for Robert Stephenson's proposed wrought-iron tube structure which, in 1849, became the Britannia Bridge over the Menai Straits. He received a Silver Medal for this work at the Paris Exhibition of 1858. Hodgkinson served as a member of the Royal Commission appointed to enquire into the application of iron to railway structures. In 1847 he was appointed Professor of the Mechanical Principles of Engineering at University College, London, but his health began to fail shortly after. He was elected an Honorary Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1851. Described as "singularly simple and guileless", he was widely admired and respected.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    President, Manchester Philosophical Society 1848. FRS 1841. Royal Society Medal 1841.
    Further Reading
    Dictionary of National Biography, London.
    Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers 21:542–5.
    AB

    Biographical history of technology > Hodgkinson, Eaton

  • 17 Lebaudy, Paul

    SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace
    [br]
    b. 1858 Enghien, France
    d. 1937 Rosny-sur-Seine, France
    [br]
    French airship pioneer responsible for the first practical airship, in collaboration with his brother Pierre (1861–1924).
    [br]
    Soon after Alberto Santos-Dumont had made his first successful flight in a small airship, Paul and Pierre Lebaudy decided to construct a large airship. The two brothers were sugar manufacturers in Moisson, France, and in 1899 they commissioned their chief engineer, Henri Julliot, to build them a large airship. Julliot was conscientious and cautious, and consequently he spent many months studying the problems and working out a feasible design. The Lebaudy I was not completed until late in 1902 and made its first flight on 13 November. It was 57 m (187 ft) long and powered by a 30 kW (40 hp) Daimler petrol engine driving two propellers which enabled it to fly at 40 km/h (25 mph); it could overcome all but very strong winds. During the ensuing months, Lebaudy I made many successful flights, often carrying passengers, and usually returning to its base at Moisson. On 12 November 1903 it flew a distance of 62 km (381/2 miles) in 1 hour 41 minutes, from Moisson to Paris, where it was put on display and attracted huge crowds. After being damaged, Lebaudy I was rebuilt as Lebaudy II, although it was often called La Jaune because of the yellow fabric of the envelope. In 1905 it made a flight lasting over 3 hours; few would argue that this was the first really successful airship.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    Basil Clarke, 1961, The History of Airships, London.
    Wilfrid de Fonvieille, 1911, Histoire de la navigation aérienne, Paris.
    JDS

    Biographical history of technology > Lebaudy, Paul

  • 18 Locke, Joseph

    [br]
    b. 9 August 1805 Attercliffe, Yorkshire, England
    d. 18 September 1860 Moffat, Scotland
    [br]
    English civil engineer who built many important early main-line railways.
    [br]
    Joseph Locke was the son of a colliery viewer who had known George Stephenson in Northumberland before moving to Yorkshire: Locke himself became a pupil of Stephenson in 1823. He worked with Robert Stephenson at Robert Stephenson \& Co.'s locomotive works and surveyed railways, including the Leeds \& Selby and the Canterbury \& Whitstable, for George Stephenson.
    When George Stephenson was appointed Chief Engineer for construction of the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway in 1826, the first resident engineer whom he appointed to work under him was Locke, who took a prominent part in promoting traction by locomotives rather than by fixed engines with cable haulage. The pupil eventually excelled the master and in 1835 Locke was appointed in place of Stephenson as Chief Engineer for construction of the Grand Junction Railway. He introduced double-headed rails carried in chairs on wooden sleepers, the prototype of the bullhead track that became standard on British railways for more than a century. By preparing the most detailed specifications, Locke was able to estimate the cost of the railway much more accurately than was usual at that time, and it was built at a cost close to the estimate; this made his name. He became Engineer to the London \& Southampton Railway and completed the Sheffield, Ashton-under-Lyme \& Manchester Railway, including the 3-mile (3.8 km) Woodhead Tunnel, which had been started by Charles Vignoles. He was subsequently responsible for many British main lines, including those of the companies that extended the West Coast Route northwards from Preston to Scotland. He was also Engineer to important early main lines in France, notably that from Paris to Rouen and its extension to Le Havre, and in Spain and Holland. In 1847 Locke was elected MP for Honiton.
    Locke appreciated early in his career that steam locomotives able to operate over gradients steeper than at first thought practicable would be developed. Overall his monument is not great individual works of engineering, such as the famous bridges of his close contemporaries Robert Stephenson and I.K. Brunel, but a series of lines built economically but soundly through rugged country without such works; for example, the line over Shap, Cumbria.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Officier de la Légion d'honneur, France. FRS. President, Institution of Civil Engineers 1858–9.
    Further Reading
    Obituary, 1861, Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers 20. L.T.C.Rolt, 1962, Great Engineers, London: G. Bell \& Sons, ch. 6.
    Industrial Heritage, 1991, Vol. 9(2):9.
    See also: Brassey, Thomas
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Locke, Joseph

  • 19 Nightingale, Florence

    SUBJECT AREA: Medical technology
    [br]
    b. 15 May 1820 Florence, Italy
    d. 13 August 1910 London, England
    [br]
    English nurse, pioneer of the reform of nursing, hospital organization and technology.
    [br]
    Dedicated to the relief of suffering, Florence Nightingale spent her early years visiting civil and military hospitals all over Europe. She then attended a course of formal training at Kaiserwerth in Germany and with the Sisters of St Vincent de Paul in Paris.
    She had returned to London and was managing, after having reformed, a hostel for invalid gentlewomen when in 1854 the appalling conditions of the wounded in Turkey during the Crimean War led to her taking a party of thirty-eight nurses out to Scutari. The application of principles of hygiene and sanitation resulted in dramatic improvements in conditions and on her return to England in 1856 she applied the large sums which had been raised in her honour to the founding in 1861 of the St Thomas's School of Nursing.
    From this base she acted as adviser, goad and promoter of sound nursing common sense for the remainder of a long life marred by a chronic invalidism quite out of keeping with the rigorousness of her role in the nursing field. It was not only in the training and conduct of nursing that her influence was primal. Many concepts of hospital technology relating to hygiene, ventilation and ward design are to be attributed to her forthright common sense. The "Nightingale ward", for a time the target of progressive reformers, has been shown still to have abiding virtues.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Order of Merit 1907.
    Bibliography
    1858, Notes on Nursing.
    1899, Notes on Hospitals.
    Further Reading
    C.Woodham-Smith, 1949, Florence Nightingale, London.
    MG

    Biographical history of technology > Nightingale, Florence

  • 20 Phillips, Edouard

    [br]
    b. 21 May 1821 Paris, France
    d. 14 December 1889 Pouligny-Saint-Martin, France
    [br]
    French engineer and mathematician who achieved isochronous oscillations of a balance by deriving the correct shape for the balance spring.
    [br]
    Phillips was educated in Paris, at the Ecole Polytechnic and the Ecole des Mines. In 1849 he was awarded a doctorate in mathematical sciences by the University of Paris. He had a varied career in industry, academic and government institutions, rising to be Inspector- General of Mines in 1882.
    It was well known that the balance of a watch or chronometer fitted with a simple spiral or helical spring was not isochronous, i.e. the period of the oscillation was not entirely independent of the amplitude. Watch-and chronometer-makers, notably Breguet and Arnold, had devised empirical solutions to the problem by altering the curvature of the end of the balance spring. In 1858 Phillips was encouraged to tackle the problem mathematically, and two years later he published a complete solution for the helical balance spring and a partial solution for the more complex spiral spring. Eleven years later he was able to achieve a complete solution for the spiral spring by altering the curvature of both ends of the spring. Phillips published a series of typical curves that the watch-or chronometer-maker could use to shape the ends of the balance spring.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Académie des Sciences 1868. Chairman, Jury on Mechanics, Universal Exhibition 1889.
    Bibliography
    1861, "Mémoire sur l'application de la Théorie du Spiral Réglant", Annales des Mines 20:1–107.
    1878, Comptes Rendus 86:26–31.
    An English translation (by J.D.Weaver) of both the above papers was published by the Antiquarian Horological Society in 1978 (Monograph No. 15).
    Further Reading
    J.D.Weaver, 1989, "Edouard Phillips: a centenary appreciation", Horological Journal 132: 205–6 (a good short account).
    F.J.Britten, 1978, Britten's Watch and Clock Maker's Handbook, 16th edn, rev. R Good (a description of the practical applications of the balance spring).
    DV

    Biographical history of technology > Phillips, Edouard

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