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(1848-1866)

  • 1 Alien's Reports

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > Alien's Reports

  • 2 Allen's Reports, New Brunswick

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > Allen's Reports, New Brunswick

  • 3 All.N.B.

    сокр. от Allen's Reports, New Brunswick

    Англо-русский юридический словарь > All.N.B.

  • 4 Thomson, Sir William, Lord Kelvin

    [br]
    b. 26 June 1824 Belfast, Ireland (now Northern Ireland)
    d. 17 December 1907 Largs, Scotland
    [br]
    Irish physicist and inventor who contributed to submarine telegraphy and instrumentation.
    [br]
    After education at Glasgow University and Peterhouse, Cambridge, a period of study in France gave Thomson an interest in experimental work and instrumentation. He became Professor of Natural Philosophy at Glasgow in 1846 and retained the position for the rest of his career, establishing the first teaching laboratory in Britain.
    Among his many contributions to science and engineering was his concept, introduced in 1848, of an "absolute" zero of temperature. Following on from the work of Joule, his investigations into the nature of heat led to the first successful liquefaction of gases such as hydrogen and helium, and later to the science of low-temperature physics.
    Cable telegraphy gave an impetus to the scientific measurement of electrical quantities, and for many years Thomson was a member of the British Association Committee formed in 1861 to consider electrical standards and to develop units; these are still in use. Thomson first became Scientific Adviser to the Atlantic Telegraph Company in 1857, sailing on the Agamemnon and Great Eastern during the cable-laying expeditions. He invented a mirror galvanometer and more importantly the siphon recorder, which, used as a very sensitive telegraph receiver, provided a permanent record of signals. He also laid down the design parameters of long submarine cables and discovered that the conductivity of copper was greatly affected by its purity. A major part of the success of the Atlantic cable in 1866 was due to Thomson, who received a knighthood for his contribution.
    Other instruments he designed included a quadrant electrostatic voltmeter to measure high voltages, and his "multi-cellular" instrument for low voltages. They could be used on alternating or direct current and were free from temperature errors. His balances for precision current measurement were widely used in standardizing laboratories.
    Thomson was a prolific writer of scientific papers on subjects across the whole spectrum of physics; between 1855 and 1866 he published some 110 papers, with a total during his life of over 600. In 1892 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Kelvin of Largs. By the time of his death he was looked upon as the "father" of British physics, but despite his outstanding achievements his later years were spent resisting change and progress.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Knighted 1866. Created Lord Kelvin of Largs 1892. FRS 1851. President, Royal Society 1890–4. An original member of the Order of Merit 1902. President, Society of Telegraph Engineers 1874. President, Institution of Electrical Engineers 1889 and 1907. Royal Society Royal Medal 1856, Copley Medal 1883.
    Bibliography
    1872, Reprints of Papers on Electrostatics and Magnetism, London; 1911, Mathematical and Physical Papers, 6 vols, Cambridge (collections of Thomson's papers).
    Further Reading
    Silvanus P.Thompson, 1910, The Life of William Thomson, Baron Kelvin of Largs, 2 vols, London (an uncritical biography).
    D.B.Wilson, 1987, Kelvin and Stokes: A Comparative Study in Victorian Physics, Bristol (provides a present-day commentary on all aspects of Thomson's work).
    J.G.Crowther, 1962, British Scientists of the 19th Century, London, pp. 199–257 (a short critical biography).
    GW

    Biographical history of technology > Thomson, Sir William, Lord Kelvin

  • 5 Grant, Ulysses S.

    (1822-1885) Грант, Улисс С.
    18-й президент США [ President, U.S.] (в 1868-76). В 1843 окончил Уэст-Пойнт [ West Point]; направлен служить в кавалерию. В 1845-47 участвовал в войне с Мексикой [ Mexican War], в 1848-54 занимал различные посты в штатах Нью-Йорк и Мичиган, на Орегонской Территории и в Калифорнии. В 1854 вышел в отставку. В армию вернулся после начала Гражданской войны [ Civil War], и с января 1862, когда был принят его план наступления на южан в центре страны ("кампания на Западе"), одержал ряд побед: взятие форта Генри [Fort Henry] на р. Теннесси [ Tennessee River], взятие после осады форта Донелсон [ Fort Donelson National Battlefield] и захват там 15 тыс. пленных; в апреле-июле - наступление на г. Виксберг на р. Миссисипи [ Mississippi River], пленение 20 тыс. южан, - что привело к тому, что силы южан на Западе и на Востоке оказались отрезанными друг от друга. В конце года Грант был назначен Главнокомандующим Армии Союза [ Union] в звании генерал-лейтенанта [ Lieutenant General]. В 1864-65 вел решительное наступление на южан на Востоке и вынудил генерала Р. Ли [ Lee, Robert Edward] сдаться 9 апреля 1865 в Аппоматоксе [ Appomattox]. В 1866 Грант получил звание генерала армии [ General of the Army]. В 1868-76 в течение двух сроков был президентом США. В эти годы, несмотря на его личную честность, процветала коррупция и некомпетентность администрации. С 1881 жил в Нью-Йорке и с помощью М. Твена [ Mark Twain] писал мемуары [The Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant], которые закончил за несколько дней до смерти 23 июля 1885. В 1900 избран в национальную Галерею славы [ Hall of Fame]

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Grant, Ulysses S.

  • 6 Keokuk

    I
    Верховный вождь племени сок [ Sauk] (с 1833), преемник Черного Ястреба [ Black Hawk]. Искусный политик и оратор, умело защищал права своего народа. Умер в Канзасе, куда его племя переселили в 1845. Похоронен на Национальном кладбище в г. Киокак, шт. Айова, названном в его честь; на могиле установлена статуя вождя работы Н. В. Уокер [Walker, Nellie V.]
    II
    Город на крайнем юго-востоке штата Айова, порт на р. Миссисипи [ Mississippi River], в устье р. Де-Мойн [ Des Moines River]. 2,9 тыс. жителей (2000). Основан в 1829 как торговая фактория [ trading post]. Назван в честь индейского вождя Кеокука [Keokuk]. Торгово-промышленный центр юго-востока штата Айова. Металлообработка. Пищевая и деревообрабатывающая промышленность. Рыболовство. Близ города на р. Де-Мойн плотина [Keokuk Dam] и водохранилище [Keokuk, Lake] (иногда называется "озеро Купера" [Cooper, Lake]), создавшие условия для судоходства по р. Де-Мойн. На Национальном кладбище (основано в 1866) установлены памятники Неизвестному солдату и вождю Кеокуку. На борту колесного парохода [ stern-wheeler] "Джордж М. Вэрити" размещен Музей истории судоходства на р. Киокак [Keokuk River Museum]. Воссоздана бревенчатая хижина [ log cabin], в которой размещалась первая школа на территории штата (1830) [Galland School State Monument]

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Keokuk

  • 7 Lockwood, Belva Ann (Bennett)

    (1830-1917) Локвуд, Белва Энн (Беннет)
    Юрист, педагог, активная участница суфражисткого движения [ suffrage movement] последней трети XIX в. До 1848 преподавала в деревенских школах. После смерти мужа в 1853 вновь вернулась к педагогической деятельности. В 1857 окончила колледж Дженесси [Genesee College] (ныне Сиракьюсский университет [ Syracuse University]). После переезда в Вашингтон (1866) передала руководство школой своему второму мужу и несколько лет изучала право, а в 1873 была принята в коллегию адвокатов Округа Колумбия [ District of Columbia]. Хотя в практике в основном сталкивалась с делами по пенсионным проблемам, работа в Вашингтоне давала Локвуд возможность лоббировать в пользу законодательства, касающегося женщин, в частности, составила законопроект о равной оплате труда женщин, работающих в государственных органах, который был принят в 1872. После того, как в 1873 ей отказали в участии в деле, которое рассматривалось в Верховном суде США [ Supreme Court, U.S.], она единолично провела законопроект о чрезвычайных полномочиях [ enabling legislation] через Конгресс и в марте 1879 стала первой женщиной, которой было разрешено вести дело в Верховном суде. Получила общенациональную известность, выступая с лекциями о правах женщин, активно участвуя в деятельности феминистских организаций, лоббировала права замужних женщин и равноправие в опеке детей, законодательство о равных правах в новых штатах США Оклахоме, Аризоне, Нью-Мексико. В 1884 и 1888 выдвигалась кандидатом на президентских выборах от небольшой калифорнийской партии, Национальной партии равенства [National Equal Rights Party]. В 1896 представляла Госдепартамент [ Department of State, U.S.] на международном конгрессе благотворительных организаций в Женеве, а также участвовала в европейских конференциях миротворческих организаций (1889, 1906, 1908, 1911).

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Lockwood, Belva Ann (Bennett)

  • 8 Sherman, William Tecumseh

    (1820-1891) Шерман, Уильям Текумсе
    Профессиональный военный. Окончил Уэст-Пойнт [ West Point] в 1840, участвовал в войне с Мексикой [ Mexican War]. До создания гражданской администрации в Калифорнии в 1848 был ее фактическим военным губернатором. В 1861 с началом Гражданской войны [ Civil War] пошел добровольцем в Армию Союза [ Union Army], возглавлял бригаду в битве на р. Бул-Ран [ Bull Run, Battles of]. В 1863-64 как командующий Армией Теннесси провел ряд успешных кампаний под руководством генерала Гранта [ Grant, Ulysses S.] против южан и после назначения последнего командующим на востоке остался главнокомандующим силами северян на западе. В мае 1864 начал известный марш к морю [ Sherman's March to the Sea] - вторжение в южные штаты с полным уничтожением всех военных и экономически значимых объектов. Оставив позади себя сожженную Атланту, войска Шермана достигли г. Саванны и повернули на север, оставляя позади себя полосу сожженной земли. В феврале 1865 была сожжена столица Южной Каролины г. Колумбия, и 21 апреля, через 17 дней после сдачи генерала Ли [ Lee, Robert Edward] войскам генерала Гранта, Шерман принял капитуляцию южан в Северной Каролине. В 1866 был произведен в генерал-лейтенанты, в 1869 стал командующим всей Армией Союза. Выступая перед курсантами военного училища в 1879, заявил: "Война это (сплошной) ад" ["War is (all) hell"]. В 1883 вышел в отставку. Избран в национальную Галерею славы [ Hall of Fame] в 1905.

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Sherman, William Tecumseh

  • 9 Weydemeyer, Joseph

    (1818-1866) Вейдемейер, Иосиф (Джозеф)
    Деятель германского и американского рабочего движения, близкий друг К. Маркса и Ф. Энгельса. Эмигрировал из Германии после поражения революции 1848-49, с 1851 в США. С 1852 участвовал в работе Коммунистического клуба [Communist Club] г. Нью-Йорка. Весной 1852 как редактор ежемесячника "Революция" ["Die Revolution"] впервые опубликовал работу Маркса "Восемнадцатое брюмера Луи Бонапарта". Во время Гражданской войны [ Civil War] 1861-65 был полковником Армии Союза [ Union Army], возглавлял 41-й полк миссурийских волонтеров. Положил начало распространению марксизма в США

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Weydemeyer, Joseph

  • 10 Younger Brothers

    Четверо братьев из местечка Лис-Саммит [Lee's Summit] в Монтане, легендарные бандиты Дикого Запада [ Wild West]. Коул [Younger, Thomas Coleman ("Cole")] (1844-1916) и Джим [Younger, James Henry ("Jim")] (1848-1902) во время Гражданской войны [ Civil War] были партизанами на стороне южан. В 1866 Коул участвовал в создании "шайки Джеймса" ["James Gang", James, Jesse (Woodson)], к которой позднее присоединились остальные братья - Джим, Джон [Younger, John] (1851-1874) и Боб [Younger, Robert Ewing ("Bob")] (1856-1889). В 1876 все братья, кроме ранее погибшего Джона, были арестованы в г. Нортфилде, шт. Миннесота, и осуждены за ограбления банков

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Younger Brothers

  • 11 lay everything on one card

    поставить всё на карту, рискнуть всем

    What Bismarck hud learnt in Paris - the card on which he staked everything between 1864 and 1866 - was not French weakness, but the division in French policy. (A. J. P. Taylor, ‘The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848-1918’, ch. VIII) — В 1864-66 гг. Бисмарк делал ставку не на слабость Франции, а на противоречивость ее политики, в чем он убедился, побывав в Париже.

    Large English-Russian phrasebook > lay everything on one card

  • 12 Deacon, Henry

    [br]
    b. 30 July 1822 London, England
    d. 23 July 1876 Widnes, Cheshire, England
    [br]
    English industrial chemist.
    [br]
    Deacon was apprenticed at the age of 14 to the London engineering firm of Galloway \& Sons. Faraday was a friend of the family and gave Deacon tuition, allowing him to use the laboratories at the Royal Institution. When the firm failed in 1839, Deacon transferred his indentures to Nasmyth \& Gaskell on the Bridgewater Canal at Patricroft. Nasmyth was then beginning work on his steam hammer and it is said that Deacon made the first model of it, for patent purposes. Around 1848, Deacon joined Pilkington's, the glassmakers at St Helens, where he learned the alkali industry, which was then growing up in that district on account of the close proximity of the necessary raw materials, coal, lime and salt. Wishing to start out on his own, he worked as Manager at the chemical works of a John Hutchinson. This was followed by a partnership with William Pilkington, a former employer, who was later replaced by Holbrook Gaskell, another former employer. Deacon's main activity was the manufacture of soda by the Leblanc process. He sought improvement by substituting the ammonia-soda process, but this failed and did not succeed until it was perfected by Solvay. Deacon did, however, with his Chief Chemist F.Hurter, introduce improvements in the Leblanc process during the period 1866–70. Hydrochloric acid, which had previously been a waste product and a nuisance, was oxidized catalytically to chlorine; this could be converted with lime to bleaching powder, which was in heavy demand by the textile industry. The process was patented in 1870.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    D.W.F.Hardie, 1950, A History of the Chemical Industry in Widnes, London. J.Fenwick Allen, 1907, Some Founders of the Chemical Industry, London.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Deacon, Henry

  • 13 Siemens, Dr Ernst Werner von

    [br]
    b. 13 December 1816 Lenthe, near Hanover, Germany
    d. 6 December 1892 Berlin, Germany
    [br]
    German pioneer of the dynamo, builder of the first electric railway.
    [br]
    Werner von Siemens was the eldest of a large family and after the early death of his parents took his place at its head. He served in the Prussian artillery, being commissioned in 1839, after which he devoted himself to the study of chemistry and physics. In 1847 Siemens and J.G. Halske formed a company, Telegraphen-Bauanstalt von Siemens und Halske, to manufacture a dial telegraph which they had developed from an earlier instrument produced by Charles Wheatstone. In 1848 Siemens obtained his discharge from the army and he and Halske constructed the first long-distance telegraph line on the European continent, between Berlin and Frankfurt am Main.
    Werner von Siemens's younger brother, William Siemens, had settled in Britain in 1844 and was appointed agent for the Siemens \& Halske company in 1851. Later, an English subsidiary company was formed, known from 1865 as Siemens Brothers. It specialized in manufacturing and laying submarine telegraph cables: the specialist cable-laying ship Faraday, launched for the purpose in 1874, was the prototype of later cable ships and in 1874–5 laid the first cable to run direct from the British Isles to the USA. In charge of Siemens Brothers was another brother, Carl, who had earlier established a telegraph network in Russia.
    In 1866 Werner von Siemens demonstrated the principle of the dynamo in Germany, but it took until 1878 to develop dynamos and electric motors to the point at which they could be produced commercially. The following year, 1879, Werner von Siemens built the first electric railway, and operated it at the Berlin Trades Exhibition. It comprised an oval line, 300 m (985 it) long, with a track gauge of 1 m (3 ft 3 1/2 in.); upon this a small locomotive hauled three small passenger coaches. The locomotive drew current at 150 volts from a third rail between the running rails, through which it was returned. In four months, more than 80,000 passengers were carried. The railway was subsequently demonstrated in Brussels, and in London, in 1881. That same year Siemens built a permanent electric tramway, 1 1/2 miles (2 1/2 km) long, on the outskirts of Berlin. In 1882 in Berlin he tried out a railless electric vehicle which drew electricity from a two-wire overhead line: this was the ancestor of the trolleybus.
    In the British Isles, an Act of Parliament was obtained in 1880 for the Giant's Causeway Railway in Ireland with powers to work it by "animal, mechanical or electrical power"; although Siemens Brothers were electrical engineers to the company, of which William Siemens was a director, delays in construction were to mean that the first railway in the British Isles to operate regular services by electricity was that of Magnus Volk.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Honorary doctorate, Berlin University 1860. Ennobled by Kaiser Friedrich III 1880, after which he became known as von Siemens.
    Further Reading
    S.von Weiher, 1972, "The Siemens brothers, pioneers of the electrical age in Europe", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 45 (describes the Siemens's careers). C.E.Lee, 1979, The birth of electric traction', Railway Magazine (May) (describes Werner Siemens's introduction of the electric railway).
    Transactions of the Newcomen Society (1979) 50: 82–3 (describes Siemens's and Halske's early electric telegraph instruments).
    Transactions of the Newcomen Society (1961) 33: 93 (describes the railless electric vehicle).
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Siemens, Dr Ernst Werner von

  • 14 Smith, Willoughby

    [br]
    b. 16 April 1828 Great Yarmouth, England
    d. 17 July 1891 Eastbourne, England
    [br]
    English engineer of submarine telegraph cables who observed that light reduced the resistance of selenium.
    [br]
    Smith joined the Gutta Percha Company, London, in 1848 and successfully experimented with the use of gutta-percha, a natural form of latex, for the insulation of conducting wires. As a result, he was made responsible for the laying of the first cross-Channel cable between Dover and Calais in 1850. Four years later he laid the first Mediterranean cable between Spezia, Italy, and Corsica and Sardinia, later extending it to Algeria. On its completion he became Manager of the Gutta Percha works, which in 1864 became the Telegraph and Construction Company. In 1865 he assisted on board the Great Eastern with the laying of the transatlantic cable by Bright.
    Clearly his management responsibilities did not stop him from experimenting practically. In 1866 he discovered that the resistance of a selenium rod was reduced by the action of incident light, an early discovery of the photoelectric effect more explicitly observed by Hertz and subsequently explained by Einstein. In 1883 he read a paper to the Society of Telegraph Engineers (later the Institution of Electrical Engineers), suggesting the possibility of wireless communication with moving trains, an idea that was later successfully taken up by others, and in 1888 he demonstrated the use of water as a practical means of communication with a lighthouse. Four years later, after his death, the system was tried between Alum Bay and the Needles in the Isle of Wight, and it was used subsequently for the Fastnet Rock lighthouse some 10 miles (16 km) off the south-west coast of Ireland.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Founder and Council Member of the Society of Telegraph Engineers 1871; President 1873.
    Bibliography
    The effect of light on the resistance of selenium was reported in a letter to the Vice- Chairman of the Society of Telegraph Engineers on 4 February 1873.
    7 June 1897, British patent no. 8,159 (the use of water, instead of cable, as a conductor).
    November 1888, article in Electrician (describes his idea of using water as a conductor, rather than cable).
    Further Reading
    E.Hawkes, 1927, Pioneers of Wireless, London: Methuen.
    C.T.Bright, 1898, Submarine Cables, Their History, Construction and Working.
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Smith, Willoughby

  • 15 Stringfellow, John

    SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace
    [br]
    b. 6 December 1799 Sheffield, England
    d. 13 December 1883 Chard, England
    [br]
    English inventor and builder of a series of experimental model aeroplanes.
    [br]
    After serving an apprenticeship in the lace industry, Stringfellow left Nottingham in about 1820 and moved to Chard in Somerset, where he set up his own business. He had wide interests such as photography, politics, and the use of electricity for medical treatment. Stringfellow met William Samuel Henson, who also lived in Chard and was involved in lacemaking, and became interested in his "aerial steam carriage" of 1842–3. When support for this project foundered, Henson and Stringfellow drew up an agreement "Whereas it is intended to construct a model of an Aerial Machine". They built a large model with a wing span of 20 ft (6 m) and powered by a steam engine, which was probably the work of Stringfellow. The model was tested on a hillside near Chard, often at night to avoid publicity, but despite many attempts it never made a successful flight. At this point Henson emigrated to the United States. From 1848 Stringfellow continued to experiment with models of his own design, starting with one with a wing span of 10 ft (3m). He decided to test it in a disused lace factory, rather than in the open air. Stringfellow fitted a horizontal wire which supported the model as it gained speed prior to free flight. Unfortunately, neither this nor later models made a sustained flight, despite Stringfellow's efficient lightweight steam engine. For many years Stringfellow abandoned his aeronautical experiments, then in 1866 when the (Royal) Aeronautical Society was founded, his interest was revived. He built a steam-powered triplane, which was demonstrated "flying" along a wire at the world's first Aeronautical Exhibition, held at Crystal Palace, London, in 1868. Stringfellow also received a cash prize for one of his engines, which was the lightest practical power unit at the Exhibition. Although Stringfellow's models never achieved a really successful flight, his designs showed the way for others to follow. Several of his models are preserved in the Science Museum in London.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Member of the (Royal) Aeronautical Society 1868.
    Bibliography
    Many of Stringfellow's letters and papers are held by the Royal Aeronautical Society, London.
    Further Reading
    Harald Penrose, 1988, An Ancient Air: A Biography of John Stringfellow, Shrewsbury. A.M.Balantyne and J.Laurence Pritchard, 1956, "The lives and work of William Samuel Henson and John Stringfellow", Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society (June) (an attempt to analyse conflicting evidence).
    M.J.B.Davy, 1931, Henson and Stringfellow, London (an earlier work with excellent drawings from Henson's patent).
    "The aeronautical work of John Stringfellow, with some account of W.S.Henson", Aeronau-tical Classics No. 5 (written by John Stringfellow's son and held by the Royal Aeronautical Society in London).
    JDS

    Biographical history of technology > Stringfellow, John

  • 16 Whitehead, Robert

    SUBJECT AREA: Weapons and armour
    [br]
    b. 3 January 1823 Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire, England
    d. 19 November 1903 Shrivenham, Wiltshire, England
    [br]
    English inventor of the torpedo.
    [br]
    At the age of 14 Whitehead was apprenticed by his father, who ran a cotton-bleaching business, to an engineering firm in Manchester. He moved in 1847 to join his uncle, who was the Manager of another engineering firm, and three years later Whitehead set up on his own in Milan, where he made mechanical improvements to the silk-weaving industry and designed drainage machines for the Lombardy marshes.
    In 1848 he was forced to move from Italy because of the revolution and settled in Fiume, which was then part of Austria. There he concen-. trated on designing and building engines for warships, and in 1864 the Austrians invited him to participate in a project to develop a "floating torpedo". In those days the torpedo was synonymous with the underwater mine, and Whitehead believed that he could do better than this proposal and produce an explosive weapon that could propel itself through the water. He set to work with his son John and a mechanic, producing the first version of his torpedo in 1866. It had a range of only 700 yd (640 m) and a speed of just 7 knots (13 km/h), as well as depth-keeping problems, but even so, especially after he had reduced the last problem by the use of a "balance chamber", the Austrian authorities were sufficiently impressed to buy construction rights and to decorate him. Other navies quickly followed suit and within twenty years almost every navy in the world was equipped with the Whitehead torpedo, its main attraction being that no warship, however large, was safe from it. During this time Whitehead continued to improve on his design, introducing a servo-motor and gyroscope, thereby radically improving range, speed and accuracy.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Order of Max Joseph (Austria) 1868. Légion d'honneur 1884. Whitehead also received decorations from Prussia, Denmark, Portugal, Italy and Greece.
    Further Reading
    Dictionary of National Biography, 1912, Vol. 3, Suppl. 2, London: Smith, Elder.
    CM

    Biographical history of technology > Whitehead, Robert

  • 17 Whitworth, Sir Joseph

    [br]
    b. 21 December 1803 Stockport, Cheshire, England
    d. 22 January 1887 Monte Carlo, Monaco
    [br]
    English mechanical engineer and pioneer of precision measurement.
    [br]
    Joseph Whitworth received his early education in a school kept by his father, but from the age of 12 he attended a school near Leeds. At 14 he joined his uncle's mill near Ambergate, Derbyshire, to learn the business of cotton spinning. In the four years he spent there he realized that he was more interested in the machinery than in managing a cotton mill. In 1821 he obtained employment as a mechanic with Crighton \& Co., Manchester. In 1825 he moved to London and worked for Henry Maudslay and later for the Holtzapffels and Joseph Clement. After these years spent gaining experience, he returned to Manchester in 1833 and set up in a small workshop under a sign "Joseph Whitworth, Tool Maker, from London".
    The business expanded steadily and the firm made machine tools of all types and other engineering products including steam engines. From 1834 Whitworth obtained many patents in the fields of machine tools, textile and knitting machinery and road-sweeping machines. By 1851 the company was generally regarded as the leading manufacturer of machine tools in the country. Whitworth was a pioneer of precise measurement and demonstrated the fundamental mode of producing a true plane by making surface plates in sets of three. He advocated the use of the decimal system and made use of limit gauges, and he established a standard screw thread which was adopted as the national standard. In 1853 Whitworth visited America as a member of a Royal Commission and reported on American industry. At the time of the Crimean War in 1854 he was asked to provide machinery for manufacturing rifles and this led him to design an improved rifle of his own. Although tests in 1857 showed this to be much superior to all others, it was not adopted by the War Office. Whitworth's experiments with small arms led on to the construction of big guns and projectiles. To improve the quality of the steel used for these guns, he subjected the molten metal to pressure during its solidification, this fluid-compressed steel being then known as "Whitworth steel".
    In 1868 Whitworth established thirty annual scholarships for engineering students. After his death his executors permanently endowed the Whitworth Scholarships and distributed his estate of nearly half a million pounds to various educational and charitable institutions. Whitworth was elected an Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1841 and a Member in 1848 and served on its Council for many years. He was elected a Member of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers in 1847, the year of its foundation.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Baronet 1869. FRS 1857. President, Institution of Mechanical Engineers 1856, 1857 and 1866. Hon. LLD Trinity College, Dublin, 1863. Hon. DCL Oxford University 1868. Member of the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers 1864. Légion d'honneur 1868. Society of Arts Albert Medal 1868.
    Bibliography
    1858, Miscellaneous Papers on Mechanical Subjects, London; 1873, Miscellaneous Papers on Practical Subjects: Guns and Steel, London (both are collections of his papers to technical societies).
    1854, with G.Wallis, The Industry of the United States in Machinery, Manufactures, and
    Useful and Ornamental Arts, London.
    Further Reading
    F.C.Lea, 1946, A Pioneer of Mechanical Engineering: Sir Joseph Whitworth, London (a short biographical account).
    A.E.Musson, 1963, "Joseph Whitworth: toolmaker and manufacturer", Engineering Heritage, Vol. 1, London, 124–9 (a short biography).
    D.J.Jeremy (ed.), 1984–6, Dictionary of Business Biography, Vol. 5, London, 797–802 (a short biography).
    W.Steeds, 1969, A History of Machine Tools 1700–1910, Oxford (describes Whitworth's machine tools).
    RTS

    Biographical history of technology > Whitworth, Sir Joseph

  • 18 Young, James

    SUBJECT AREA: Chemical technology
    [br]
    b. 13 July 1811 Glasgow, Scotland
    d. 13 May 1883 Wemyss Bay, Scotland
    [br]
    Scottish chemist and pioneer petroleum technologist.
    [br]
    Young's early education took place in the evenings, after the day's work in his father's joinery. From 1830 he studied chemistry at the evening classes in Glasgow given by the distinguished Scottish chemist Thomas Graham (1805–69) and soon afterwards became Graham's assistant. When Graham moved to University College London in 1837, Young accompanied him.
    From 1839 he was employed in the chemical industry, first with James Muspratt at St Helens, Lancashire, and from 1843 with Tennant \& Company in Manchester. In 1848 his attention was drawn to an oil seepage in a mine at Alfreton, Derbyshire, of some 300 gallons per day; he set up his own works there to extract an oil that could be used for lighting and lubrication. When this source of oil was exhausted, three years later, Young moved to Lothian in Scotland. By distillation, he extracted oil from the oil-shale deposits there and thus founded the Scottish oil-shale industry: he obtained a high yield of paraffin oil for lighting and heating, and was a pioneer in the use of chemical methods in extracting and treating oil. In 1866 he disposed of his company for no less than £400,000. Young's other activities included measuring the speed of light by Fizeau's method and giving financial support to the expeditions of David Livingstone, who had been a fellow student in Glasgow.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    FRS 1873.
    Further Reading
    Obituary, 1884, Journal of the Chemical Society 45:630.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Young, James

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