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  • 21 Stephenson, George

    [br]
    b. 9 June 1781 Wylam, Northumberland, England
    d. 12 August 1848 Tapton House, Chesterfield, England
    [br]
    English engineer, "the father of railways".
    [br]
    George Stephenson was the son of the fireman of the pumping engine at Wylam colliery, and horses drew wagons of coal along the wooden rails of the Wylam wagonway past the house in which he was born and spent his earliest childhood. While still a child he worked as a cowherd, but soon moved to working at coal pits. At 17 years of age he showed sufficient mechanical talent to be placed in charge of a new pumping engine, and had already achieved a job more responsible than that of his father. Despite his position he was still illiterate, although he subsequently learned to read and write. He was largely self-educated.
    In 1801 he was appointed Brakesman of the winding engine at Black Callerton pit, with responsibility for lowering the miners safely to their work. Then, about two years later, he became Brakesman of a new winding engine erected by Robert Hawthorn at Willington Quay on the Tyne. Returning collier brigs discharged ballast into wagons and the engine drew the wagons up an inclined plane to the top of "Ballast Hill" for their contents to be tipped; this was one of the earliest applications of steam power to transport, other than experimentally.
    In 1804 Stephenson moved to West Moor pit, Killingworth, again as Brakesman. In 1811 he demonstrated his mechanical skill by successfully modifying a new and unsatisfactory atmospheric engine, a task that had defeated the efforts of others, to enable it to pump a drowned pit clear of water. The following year he was appointed Enginewright at Killingworth, in charge of the machinery in all the collieries of the "Grand Allies", the prominent coal-owning families of Wortley, Liddell and Bowes, with authorization also to work for others. He built many stationary engines and he closely examined locomotives of John Blenkinsop's type on the Kenton \& Coxlodge wagonway, as well as those of William Hedley at Wylam.
    It was in 1813 that Sir Thomas Liddell requested George Stephenson to build a steam locomotive for the Killingworth wagonway: Blucher made its first trial run on 25 July 1814 and was based on Blenkinsop's locomotives, although it lacked their rack-and-pinion drive. George Stephenson is credited with building the first locomotive both to run on edge rails and be driven by adhesion, an arrangement that has been the conventional one ever since. Yet Blucher was far from perfect and over the next few years, while other engineers ignored the steam locomotive, Stephenson built a succession of them, each an improvement on the last.
    During this period many lives were lost in coalmines from explosions of gas ignited by miners' lamps. By observation and experiment (sometimes at great personal risk) Stephenson invented a satisfactory safety lamp, working independently of the noted scientist Sir Humphry Davy who also invented such a lamp around the same time.
    In 1817 George Stephenson designed his first locomotive for an outside customer, the Kilmarnock \& Troon Railway, and in 1819 he laid out the Hetton Colliery Railway in County Durham, for which his brother Robert was Resident Engineer. This was the first railway to be worked entirely without animal traction: it used inclined planes with stationary engines, self-acting inclined planes powered by gravity, and locomotives.
    On 19 April 1821 Stephenson was introduced to Edward Pease, one of the main promoters of the Stockton \& Darlington Railway (S \& DR), which by coincidence received its Act of Parliament the same day. George Stephenson carried out a further survey, to improve the proposed line, and in this he was assisted by his 18-year-old son, Robert Stephenson, whom he had ensured received the theoretical education which he himself lacked. It is doubtful whether either could have succeeded without the other; together they were to make the steam railway practicable.
    At George Stephenson's instance, much of the S \& DR was laid with wrought-iron rails recently developed by John Birkinshaw at Bedlington Ironworks, Morpeth. These were longer than cast-iron rails and were not brittle: they made a track well suited for locomotives. In June 1823 George and Robert Stephenson, with other partners, founded a firm in Newcastle upon Tyne to build locomotives and rolling stock and to do general engineering work: after its Managing Partner, the firm was called Robert Stephenson \& Co.
    In 1824 the promoters of the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway (L \& MR) invited George Stephenson to resurvey their proposed line in order to reduce opposition to it. William James, a wealthy land agent who had become a visionary protagonist of a national railway network and had seen Stephenson's locomotives at Killingworth, had promoted the L \& MR with some merchants of Liverpool and had carried out the first survey; however, he overreached himself in business and, shortly after the invitation to Stephenson, became bankrupt. In his own survey, however, George Stephenson lacked the assistance of his son Robert, who had left for South America, and he delegated much of the detailed work to incompetent assistants. During a devastating Parliamentary examination in the spring of 1825, much of his survey was shown to be seriously inaccurate and the L \& MR's application for an Act of Parliament was refused. The railway's promoters discharged Stephenson and had their line surveyed yet again, by C.B. Vignoles.
    The Stockton \& Darlington Railway was, however, triumphantly opened in the presence of vast crowds in September 1825, with Stephenson himself driving the locomotive Locomotion, which had been built at Robert Stephenson \& Co.'s Newcastle works. Once the railway was at work, horse-drawn and gravity-powered traffic shared the line with locomotives: in 1828 Stephenson invented the horse dandy, a wagon at the back of a train in which a horse could travel over the gravity-operated stretches, instead of trotting behind.
    Meanwhile, in May 1826, the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway had successfully obtained its Act of Parliament. Stephenson was appointed Engineer in June, and since he and Vignoles proved incompatible the latter left early in 1827. The railway was built by Stephenson and his staff, using direct labour. A considerable controversy arose c. 1828 over the motive power to be used: the traffic anticipated was too great for horses, but the performance of the reciprocal system of cable haulage developed by Benjamin Thompson appeared in many respects superior to that of contemporary locomotives. The company instituted a prize competition for a better locomotive and the Rainhill Trials were held in October 1829.
    Robert Stephenson had been working on improved locomotive designs since his return from America in 1827, but it was the L \& MR's Treasurer, Henry Booth, who suggested the multi-tubular boiler to George Stephenson. This was incorporated into a locomotive built by Robert Stephenson for the trials: Rocket was entered by the three men in partnership. The other principal entrants were Novelty, entered by John Braithwaite and John Ericsson, and Sans Pareil, entered by Timothy Hackworth, but only Rocket, driven by George Stephenson, met all the organizers' demands; indeed, it far surpassed them and demonstrated the practicability of the long-distance steam railway. With the opening of the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway in 1830, the age of railways began.
    Stephenson was active in many aspects. He advised on the construction of the Belgian State Railway, of which the Brussels-Malines section, opened in 1835, was the first all-steam railway on the European continent. In England, proposals to link the L \& MR with the Midlands had culminated in an Act of Parliament for the Grand Junction Railway in 1833: this was to run from Warrington, which was already linked to the L \& MR, to Birmingham. George Stephenson had been in charge of the surveys, and for the railway's construction he and J.U. Rastrick were initially Principal Engineers, with Stephenson's former pupil Joseph Locke under them; by 1835 both Stephenson and Rastrick had withdrawn and Locke was Engineer-in-Chief. Stephenson remained much in demand elsewhere: he was particularly associated with the construction of the North Midland Railway (Derby to Leeds) and related lines. He was active in many other places and carried out, for instance, preliminary surveys for the Chester \& Holyhead and Newcastle \& Berwick Railways, which were important links in the lines of communication between London and, respectively, Dublin and Edinburgh.
    He eventually retired to Tapton House, Chesterfield, overlooking the North Midland. A man who was self-made (with great success) against colossal odds, he was ever reluctant, regrettably, to give others their due credit, although in retirement, immensely wealthy and full of honour, he was still able to mingle with people of all ranks.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    President, Institution of Mechanical Engineers, on its formation in 1847. Order of Leopold (Belgium) 1835. Stephenson refused both a knighthood and Fellowship of the Royal Society.
    Bibliography
    1815, jointly with Ralph Dodd, British patent no. 3,887 (locomotive drive by connecting rods directly to the wheels).
    1817, jointly with William Losh, British patent no. 4,067 (steam springs for locomotives, and improvements to track).
    Further Reading
    L.T.C.Rolt, 1960, George and Robert Stephenson, Longman (the best modern biography; includes a bibliography).
    S.Smiles, 1874, The Lives of George and Robert Stephenson, rev. edn, London (although sycophantic, this is probably the best nineteenthcentury biography).
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Stephenson, George

  • 22 day

    day [deɪ]
    jour ⇒ 1 (a), 1 (b) journée ⇒ 1 (a)-(c) époque ⇒ 1 (d)
    1 noun
    ∎ it's a nice or fine day c'est une belle journée, il fait beau aujourd'hui;
    ∎ on a clear day par temps clair;
    ∎ a summer's/winter's day un jour d'été/d'hiver;
    ∎ to have a day out aller passer une journée quelque part;
    ∎ a day at the seaside/the races une journée au bord de la mer/aux courses;
    ∎ we went to the country for the day nous sommes allés passer la journée à la campagne;
    ∎ to have a lazy day passer une journée à paresser;
    ∎ literary when day is done quand le jour s'achève;
    ∎ what day is it (today)? quel jour sommes-nous (aujourd'hui)?;
    ∎ what day is she arriving (on)? quel jour arrive-t-elle?;
    ∎ (on) that day ce jour-là;
    ∎ (on) the day (that or when) she was born le jour où elle est née;
    ∎ on the first/last day of the holidays le premier/dernier jour des vacances;
    ∎ on a day like this/today un jour comme celui-là/aujourd'hui;
    ∎ the day after, (on) the next or following day le lendemain, le jour suivant;
    ∎ the day after the party le lendemain de ou le jour d'après la fête;
    ∎ two days after the party le surlendemain de ou deux jours après la fête;
    ∎ the day after tomorrow après-demain;
    ∎ the day before, (on) the previous day la veille, le jour d'avant;
    ∎ I had first met him two days before je l'avais rencontré l'avant-veille pour la première fois;
    ∎ the day before yesterday avant-hier;
    ∎ four days before/later quatre jours plus tôt/tard;
    ∎ in four days, in four days' time dans quatre jours;
    ∎ it took me four days to do it ça m'a pris quatre jours pour le faire;
    ∎ once/twice a day une fois/deux fois par jour;
    ∎ good day! bonjour!;
    ∎ have a nice day! bonne journée!;
    ∎ the other day l'autre jour;
    ∎ Religion Day of Judgement (jour du) jugement dernier;
    ∎ Religion day of atonement jour m du Grand Pardon;
    ∎ dish of the day plat m du jour;
    ∎ day of reckoning jour de vérité;
    ∎ any day now d'un jour à l'autre;
    ∎ day after day, day in day out jour après jour;
    ∎ for days on end or at a time pendant des jours et des jours;
    ∎ from day to day de jour en jour;
    ∎ to live from day to day vivre au jour le jour;
    ∎ from one day to the next d'un jour à l'autre;
    ∎ from that day on or onwards à partir de ce jour-là;
    ∎ from that day to this depuis ce jour-là;
    ∎ literary from this day forth à partir ou à compter d'aujourd'hui;
    ∎ to the day I die or my dying day jusqu'à mon dernier jour;
    ∎ I'd rather work in Madrid any day (of the week) je préférerais largement ou de loin travailler à Madrid;
    ∎ you've done enough mischief for one day tu as fait assez de bêtises pour une seule journée;
    ∎ humorous another day, another dollar ≃ c'est le train-train quotidien;
    ∎ from day one depuis le premier jour;
    ∎ one day un jour;
    ∎ one of these days un de ces jours;
    ∎ some day un jour;
    ∎ she's seventy if she's a day elle a soixante-dix ans bien sonnés;
    ∎ he doesn't look a day older than 40/you il n'a pas l'air d'avoir plus de 40 ans/d'être plus vieux que toi;
    ∎ he doesn't look a day older than when I last saw him il n'a pas vieilli d'un poil depuis la dernière fois que je l'ai vu;
    ∎ it's been one of those days! tu parles d'une journée!;
    ∎ on this (day) of all days! justement aujourd'hui!;
    ∎ of all (the) days to choose for a conference! quelle idée d'avoir choisi de faire une conférence justement aujourd'hui!;
    ∎ let's make a day of it passons-y la journée;
    ∎ that really made my day! ça m'a fait très plaisir;
    ∎ it's not my (lucky) day ce n'est pas mon jour (de chance);
    ∎ familiar that'll be the day! (it's highly unlikely) il n'y a pas de danger que ça arrive de sitôt!;
    ∎ at the end of the day à la fin de la journée; figurative en fin de compte, au bout du compte;
    ∎ to carry or win the day gagner la journée ou la bataille
    (b) (hours of daylight) jour m, journée f;
    ∎ all day (long) toute la journée;
    ∎ we haven't got all day nous n'avons pas que ça à faire;
    ∎ to travel during the or by day voyager pendant la journée ou de jour;
    ∎ to sleep during the or by day dormir le jour;
    ∎ day and night, night and day jour et nuit, nuit et jour;
    ∎ in the cold light of day the plan seemed unfeasible avec un peu de distance critique, le projet semblait infaisable
    (c) (working hours) journée f;
    ∎ paid by the day payé à la journée;
    ∎ to work a seven-hour day travailler sept heures par jour, faire des journées de sept heures;
    ∎ how was your day?, what kind of day have you had? comment s'est passée ta journée?;
    ∎ did you have a good day? tu as passé une bonne journée?;
    ∎ it's been a hard/long day la journée a été dure/longue;
    ∎ day off jour m de congé;
    ∎ day of rest jour m de repos;
    ∎ let's call it a day (stop work) arrêtons-nous pour aujourd'hui; (end relationship) finissons-en;
    ∎ it's all in a day's work! ça fait partie du travail!
    (d) (often pl) (lifetime, era) époque f;
    ∎ in Caesar's day du temps de César;
    ∎ in the days of King Arthur, in King Arthur's day du temps du Roi Arthur;
    ∎ in days to come à l'avenir;
    ∎ in days gone by par le passé;
    ∎ in those days à l'époque;
    ∎ what are you up to these days? qu'est-ce que tu fais de beau ces temps-ci?;
    ∎ honestly, teenagers these days! vraiment, les adolescents d'aujourd'hui!;
    ∎ literary or humorous in days of old or yore il y a fort longtemps;
    ∎ in the good old days dans le temps;
    ∎ in my/our day de mon/notre temps;
    ∎ in this day and age de nos jours, aujourd'hui;
    ∎ he was well-known in his day il était connu de son temps ou à son époque;
    ∎ in his working/married days du temps où il travaillait/était marié;
    ∎ in his younger days dans son jeune temps, dans sa jeunesse;
    ∎ the happiest/worst days of my life les plus beaux/les pires jours de ma vie;
    ∎ during the early days of the strike/my childhood au tout début de la grève/de mon enfance;
    ∎ he ended his days in poverty il a fini ses jours dans la misère;
    ∎ her day will come son heure viendra;
    ∎ to have had its day (theory, fashion etc) être démodé; (car, TV) avoir fait son temps;
    ∎ he's had his day il a eu son heure;
    ∎ he's/this chair has seen better days il/cette chaise a connu des jours meilleurs;
    ∎ those were the days c'était le bon temps
    (e) (battle, game)
    ∎ to win or to carry the day l'emporter;
    ∎ to lose the day perdre la partie
    ∎ to work days travailler de jour
    dans huit jours aujourd'hui
    jour pour jour;
    ∎ it's a year ago to the day il y a un an jour pour jour ou aujourd'hui
    à ce jour, aujourd'hui encore
    ►► day bed lit m de repos;
    American day camp centre m aéré;
    day care (for elderly, disabled) service m d'accueil de jour; (for children) service m de garderie;
    ∎ the children go to day care les enfants vont à la garderie;
    day centre = centre d'animation et d'aide sociale;
    day cream crème f de jour;
    day job travail m principal;
    ∎ familiar humorous don't give up the day job (to aspiring artist etc) je ne crois pas que tu es prêt pour une carrière professionnelle;
    day labourer journalier(ère) m,f;
    day nurse infirmier(ère) m,f qui est de service de jour;
    day nursery garderie f;
    Stock Exchange day order ordre m valable pour la journée;
    day pass (for skiing) forfait m journalier;
    School day pupil (élève mf) externe mf;
    British Industry day release formation f continue en alternance;
    ∎ to be on day release être en formation continue en alternance;
    Railways day return aller-retour m valable pour la journée;
    day room salle f commune;
    day school externat m;
    day shift (period worked) service m de jour; (workers) équipe f de jour;
    ∎ to work the day shift travailler de jour, être (dans l'équipe) de jour;
    ∎ when do you go on day shift? quand est-ce que tu prends le service de jour?;
    Stock Exchange day trade opération f de journée;
    Stock Exchange day trader spéculateur(trice) m,f à la journée;
    day trip excursion f;
    day tripper excursionniste mf;
    day work travail m de jour
    ✾ Book ✾ Film 'The Day of the Jackal' Forsyth, Zimmermann 'Le Chacal'

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