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  • 41 conclusion

    noun
    1) (end) Abschluss, der
    2) (result) Ausgang, der
    3) (decision reached) Beschluss, der
    4) (inference) Schluss, der; (Logic) [Schluss]folgerung, die
    * * *
    [-ʒən]
    1) (an end: the conclusion of his speech.) der Schluß
    2) (a judgement: I came to the conclusion that the house was empty.) der Schluß
    * * *
    con·clu·sion
    [kənˈklu:ʒən]
    n
    1. (end) Abschluss m; of a story Schluss m
    in \conclusion zum Abschluss, abschließend
    2. (decision) Entschluss m
    to come to a \conclusion einen Beschluss fassen
    to reach a \conclusion zu einem Entschluss gelangen
    3. (inference) Schluss m, Schlussfolgerung f
    to come to/draw [or reach] the \conclusion that... zu dem Schluss kommen/gelangen, dass...
    4. COMM Abschluss m
    \conclusion of a contract/deal Vertrags-/Geschäftsabschluss m
    5. LAW
    \conclusion of fact Tatsachenfeststellung f
    \conclusion of law rechtliche [Schluss]folgerung, Rechtsfolgerung f
    * * *
    [kən'kluːZən]
    n
    1) (= end) Abschluss m; (of essay, novel etc) Schluss m

    in conclusion — zum (Ab)schluss, abschließend

    2) (= settling of treaty etc) Abschluss m, Zustandekommen nt

    what conclusion do you draw or reach from all this? — welchen Schluss or welche Schlussfolgerung ziehen Sie daraus or aus alldem?

    let me know your conclusions —

    a hasty conclusion one is forced to the conclusion that... — ein voreiliger Schluss man kommt unweigerlich zu dem Schluss, dass...

    4) (LOGIC) Folgerung f
    * * *
    conclusion [kənˈkluːʒn] s
    1. (Ab)Schluss m, Ende n:
    bring to a conclusion zum Abschluss bringen;
    in conclusion zum (Ab)Schluss, schließlich, endlich
    2. Abschluss m (eines Vertrages etc):
    conclusion of peace Friedensschluss
    3. (logischer) Schluss, (Schluss)Folgerung f:
    come to ( oder arrive at) the conclusion that … zu dem Schluss oder der Überzeugung oder der Ansicht oder dem Ergebnis kommen, dass …;
    draw a conclusion einen Schluss ziehen;
    jump ( oder leap) to conclusions, rush at conclusions voreilig(e) Schlüsse ziehen
    4. Beschluss m, Entscheidung f: → academic.ru/28813/foregone">foregone 2
    5. JUR
    a) bindende Verpflichtung
    c) Ausspruch m, Entscheidung f
    d) Schlussausführungen pl
    6. Erfolg m, Folge f, Ausgang m
    7. try conclusions Br obs es versuchen, sich oder seine Kräfte messen ( alle:
    with mit)
    8. LING Apodosis f (Nachsatz eines Bedingungssatzes)
    9. MATH Rückschluss m
    con. abk
    1. MUS concerto
    * * *
    noun
    1) (end) Abschluss, der
    2) (result) Ausgang, der
    3) (decision reached) Beschluss, der
    4) (inference) Schluss, der; (Logic) [Schluss]folgerung, die
    * * *
    n.
    Ausgang n.
    Ergebnis -se n.
    Folgerung f.
    Schluss ¨-e m.
    Schlussfolgerung f.

    English-german dictionary > conclusion

  • 42 invite

    1) (to ask (a person) politely to come (eg to one's house, to a party etc): They have invited us to dinner tomorrow.) invitar
    2) (to ask (a person) politely to do something: He was invited to speak at the meeting.) pedir
    3) (to ask for (another person's suggestions etc): He invited proposals from members of the society.) pedir
    •
    - inviting
    invite vb invitar
    tr[ (vb) ɪn'vaɪt; (n) 'ɪnvaɪt]
    1 (guest etc) invitar, convidar; (candidate, participant) pedir, invitar
    ■ have they invited you to their wedding? ¿te han invitado a su boda?
    ■ we've been invited for/to dinner nos han invitado a cenar
    2 (comment, suggestion, etc) solicitar
    3 (criticism, disaster, etc) provocar, incitar
    ■ if you leave the window open, you're just inviting trouble si dejas la ventana abierta, te estás buscando problemas
    1 familiar invitación nombre femenino
    invite [ɪn'vaɪt] vt, - vited ; - viting
    1) attract: atraer, tentar
    a book that invites interest: un libro que atrae el interés
    2) provoke: provocar, buscar
    to invite trouble: buscarse problemas
    3) ask: invitar
    we invited them for dinner: los invitamos acenar
    4) solicit: solicitar, buscar (preguntas, comentarios, etc.)
    v.
    • brindar v.
    • convidar v.
    • invitar v.

    I ɪn'vaɪt
    1)

    I've invited her to o for dinner — la he invitado a cenar

    to invite somebody in/out — invitar a alguien a pasar/a salir

    to invite somebody to + INF — invitar a alguien a + inf or a que (+ subj)

    2)

    to invite somebody to + INF — invitar a alguien a + inf or a que (+ subj)

    b) ( call for) (frml)

    to invite tenders for a new airport — llamar a un concurso or llamar a licitación para la construcción de un nuevo aeropuerto

    3) ( encourage)

    II 'ɪnvaɪt
    noun (colloq) invitación f
    1. [ɪn'vaɪt]
    VT
    1) [+ person] invitar; (esp to important celebration) convidar

    to invite sb to dinner/lunch — invitar a algn a cenar/almorzar

    to invite sb in/up — invitar a algn a pasar/subir

    2) (=request) [+ opinions] pedir; (more frm) solicitar

    they are inviting applications for the post of... — han abierto el plazo para recibir solicitudes para el puesto de...

    3) (=provoke) [+ discussion, ridicule] provocar
    2.
    N
    * ['ɪnvaɪt] invitación f
    * * *

    I [ɪn'vaɪt]
    1)

    I've invited her to o for dinner — la he invitado a cenar

    to invite somebody in/out — invitar a alguien a pasar/a salir

    to invite somebody to + INF — invitar a alguien a + inf or a que (+ subj)

    2)

    to invite somebody to + INF — invitar a alguien a + inf or a que (+ subj)

    b) ( call for) (frml)

    to invite tenders for a new airport — llamar a un concurso or llamar a licitación para la construcción de un nuevo aeropuerto

    3) ( encourage)

    II ['ɪnvaɪt]
    noun (colloq) invitación f

    English-spanish dictionary > invite

  • 43 conclusion

    conclusion [kənˈklu:ʒən]
    • to come to the conclusion that... conclure que...
    * * *
    [kən'kluːʒn]
    1) ( end) fin f

    in conclusion — en conclusion, pour terminer

    2) (opinion, resolution) conclusion f

    to come to ou to reach a conclusion — arriver à une conclusion

    he jumped ou leapt to the conclusion that she was dead — il en a conclu un peu trop hâtivement qu'elle était morte

    don't jump ou leap to conclusions! — ne tire pas de conclusions hâtives!

    3) ( outcome) conclusion f

    taken to its logical conclusion, this would mean that — si on va jusqu'au bout, ceci signifierait que

    English-French dictionary > conclusion

  • 44 Creativity

       Put in this bald way, these aims sound utopian. How utopian they areor rather, how imminent their realization-depends on how broadly or narrowly we interpret the term "creative." If we are willing to regard all human complex problem solving as creative, then-as we will point out-successful programs for problem solving mechanisms that simulate human problem solvers already exist, and a number of their general characteristics are known. If we reserve the term "creative" for activities like discovery of the special theory of relativity or the composition of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, then no example of a creative mechanism exists at the present time. (Simon, 1979, pp. 144-145)
       Among the questions that can now be given preliminary answers in computational terms are the following: how can ideas from very different sources be spontaneously thought of together? how can two ideas be merged to produce a new structure, which shows the influence of both ancestor ideas without being a mere "cut-and-paste" combination? how can the mind be "primed," so that one will more easily notice serendipitous ideas? why may someone notice-and remember-something fairly uninteresting, if it occurs in an interesting context? how can a brief phrase conjure up an entire melody from memory? and how can we accept two ideas as similar ("love" and "prove" as rhyming, for instance) in respect of a feature not identical in both? The features of connectionist AI models that suggest answers to these questions are their powers of pattern completion, graceful degradation, sensitization, multiple constraint satisfaction, and "best-fit" equilibration.... Here, the important point is that the unconscious, "insightful," associative aspects of creativity can be explained-in outline, at least-by AI methods. (Boden, 1996, p. 273)
       There thus appears to be an underlying similarity in the process involved in creative innovation and social independence, with common traits and postures required for expression of both behaviors. The difference is one of product-literary, musical, artistic, theoretical products on the one hand, opinions on the other-rather than one of process. In both instances the individual must believe that his perceptions are meaningful and valid and be willing to rely upon his own interpretations. He must trust himself sufficiently that even when persons express opinions counter to his own he can proceed on the basis of his own perceptions and convictions. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 58)
       he average level of ego strength and emotional stability is noticeably higher among creative geniuses than among the general population, though it is possibly lower than among men of comparable intelligence and education who go into administrative and similar positions. High anxiety and excitability appear common (e.g. Priestley, Darwin, Kepler) but full-blown neurosis is quite rare. (Cattell & Butcher, 1970, p. 315)
       he insight that is supposed to be required for such work as discovery turns out to be synonymous with the familiar process of recognition; and other terms commonly used in the discussion of creative work-such terms as "judgment," "creativity," or even "genius"-appear to be wholly dispensable or to be definable, as insight is, in terms of mundane and well-understood concepts. (Simon, 1989, p. 376)
       From the sketch material still in existence, from the condition of the fragments, and from the autographs themselves we can draw definite conclusions about Mozart's creative process. To invent musical ideas he did not need any stimulation; they came to his mind "ready-made" and in polished form. In contrast to Beethoven, who made numerous attempts at shaping his musical ideas until he found the definitive formulation of a theme, Mozart's first inspiration has the stamp of finality. Any Mozart theme has completeness and unity; as a phenomenon it is a Gestalt. (Herzmann, 1964, p. 28)
       Great artists enlarge the limits of one's perception. Looking at the world through the eyes of Rembrandt or Tolstoy makes one able to perceive aspects of truth about the world which one could not have achieved without their aid. Freud believed that science was adaptive because it facilitated mastery of the external world; but was it not the case that many scientific theories, like works of art, also originated in phantasy? Certainly, reading accounts of scientific discovery by men of the calibre of Einstein compelled me to conclude that phantasy was not merely escapist, but a way of reaching new insights concerning the nature of reality. Scientific hypotheses require proof; works of art do not. Both are concerned with creating order, with making sense out of the world and our experience of it. (Storr, 1993, p. xii)
       The importance of self-esteem for creative expression appears to be almost beyond disproof. Without a high regard for himself the individual who is working in the frontiers of his field cannot trust himself to discriminate between the trivial and the significant. Without trust in his own powers the person seeking improved solutions or alternative theories has no basis for distinguishing the significant and profound innovation from the one that is merely different.... An essential component of the creative process, whether it be analysis, synthesis, or the development of a new perspective or more comprehensive theory, is the conviction that one's judgment in interpreting the events is to be trusted. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 59)
       In the daily stream of thought these four different stages [preparation; incubation; illumination or inspiration; and verification] constantly overlap each other as we explore different problems. An economist reading a Blue Book, a physiologist watching an experiment, or a business man going through his morning's letters, may at the same time be "incubating" on a problem which he proposed to himself a few days ago, be accumulating knowledge in "preparation" for a second problem, and be "verifying" his conclusions to a third problem. Even in exploring the same problem, the mind may be unconsciously incubating on one aspect of it, while it is consciously employed in preparing for or verifying another aspect. (Wallas, 1926, p. 81)
       he basic, bisociative pattern of the creative synthesis [is] the sudden interlocking of two previously unrelated skills, or matrices of thought. (Koestler, 1964, p. 121)
        11) The Earliest Stages in the Creative Process Involve a Commerce with Disorder
       Even to the creator himself, the earliest effort may seem to involve a commerce with disorder. For the creative order, which is an extension of life, is not an elaboration of the established, but a movement beyond the established, or at least a reorganization of it and often of elements not included in it. The first need is therefore to transcend the old order. Before any new order can be defined, the absolute power of the established, the hold upon us of what we know and are, must be broken. New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive that world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." (Ghiselin, 1985, p. 4)
       New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive our world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." Chaos and disorder are perhaps the wrong terms for that indeterminate fullness and activity of the inner life. For it is organic, dynamic, full of tension and tendency. What is absent from it, except in the decisive act of creation, is determination, fixity, and commitment to one resolution or another of the whole complex of its tensions. (Ghiselin, 1952, p. 13)
       [P]sychoanalysts have principally been concerned with the content of creative products, and with explaining content in terms of the artist's infantile past. They have paid less attention to examining why the artist chooses his particular activity to express, abreact or sublimate his emotions. In short, they have not made much distinction between art and neurosis; and, since the former is one of the blessings of mankind, whereas the latter is one of the curses, it seems a pity that they should not be better differentiated....
       Psychoanalysis, being fundamentally concerned with drive and motive, might have been expected to throw more light upon what impels the creative person that in fact it has. (Storr, 1993, pp. xvii, 3)
       A number of theoretical approaches were considered. Associative theory, as developed by Mednick (1962), gained some empirical support from the apparent validity of the Remote Associates Test, which was constructed on the basis of the theory.... Koestler's (1964) bisociative theory allows more complexity to mental organization than Mednick's associative theory, and postulates "associative contexts" or "frames of reference." He proposed that normal, non-creative, thought proceeds within particular contexts or frames and that the creative act involves linking together previously unconnected frames.... Simonton (1988) has developed associative notions further and explored the mathematical consequences of chance permutation of ideas....
       Like Koestler, Gruber (1980; Gruber and Davis, 1988) has based his analysis on case studies. He has focused especially on Darwin's development of the theory of evolution. Using piagetian notions, such as assimilation and accommodation, Gruber shows how Darwin's system of ideas changed very slowly over a period of many years. "Moments of insight," in Gruber's analysis, were the culminations of slow long-term processes.... Finally, the information-processing approach, as represented by Simon (1966) and Langley et al. (1987), was considered.... [Simon] points out the importance of good problem representations, both to ensure search is in an appropriate problem space and to aid in developing heuristic evaluations of possible research directions.... The work of Langley et al. (1987) demonstrates how such search processes, realized in computer programs, can indeed discover many basic laws of science from tables of raw data.... Boden (1990a, 1994) has stressed the importance of restructuring the problem space in creative work to develop new genres and paradigms in the arts and sciences. (Gilhooly, 1996, pp. 243-244; emphasis in original)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Creativity

  • 45 report

    report [rɪ'pɔ:t]
    rapport ⇒ 1 (a) compte rendu ⇒ 1 (a) procès-verbal ⇒ 1 (a), 1 (d) reportage ⇒ 1 (b) bulletin ⇒ 1 (b), 1 (c) annoncer ⇒ 2 (a), 2 (b) rendre compte de ⇒ 2 (a) faire un reportage sur ⇒ 2 (b) signaler ⇒ 2 (c) faire un/son rapport ⇒ 3 (a) se présenter ⇒ 2 (d), 3 (c)
    1 noun
    (a) (account) rapport m; (summary → of speech, meeting) compte rendu m; (official record) procès-verbal m; Commerce & Finance (review) rapport m; (balance sheet) bilan m;
    ∎ to draw up or to make a report on sth faire ou rédiger un rapport sur qch;
    ∎ he gave an accurate report of the situation il a fait un rapport précis sur la situation;
    ∎ official/police report rapport m officiel/de police;
    ∎ his report on the meeting son compte rendu de la réunion;
    ∎ sales report rapport m ou bilan m commercial;
    ∎ School book report compte rendu m de lecture
    (b) (in media) reportage m; (investigation) enquête f; (bulletin) bulletin m; (rumour) rumeur f; (news) nouvelle f;
    ∎ to do a report on sth faire un reportage ou une enquête sur qch;
    ∎ Radio & Television here is a report from Keith Owen voici le reportage de Keith Owen;
    ∎ according to newspaper/intelligence reports selon les journaux/les services de renseignements;
    ∎ we have had reports of several burglaries in city stores on nous a signalé plusieurs cambriolages dans les magasins du centre-ville;
    ∎ there are reports of civil disturbances in the North il y aurait des troubles dans le Nord;
    ∎ reports are coming in of an earthquake on parle d'un tremblement de terre;
    ∎ I only know it by report je ne le sais que par ouï-dire, j'en ai seulement entendu parler
    ∎ (school) report bulletin m (scolaire);
    ∎ end of term report bulletin m trimestriel
    (d) Law (of court proceedings) procès-verbal m;
    ∎ law reports recueil m de jurisprudence
    (e) (sound → of explosion, shot) détonation f
    (g) formal (repute) renom m, réputation f;
    ∎ of good report de bonne réputation
    (a) (announce) annoncer, déclarer, signaler; (give account of) faire état de, rendre compte de;
    ∎ the police have reported some progress in the fight against crime la police a annoncé des progrès dans la lutte contre la criminalité;
    ∎ to report one's findings (in research) rendre compte des résultats de ses recherches; (in inquiry, commission) présenter ses conclusions;
    ∎ the discovery of a new vaccine is reported on annonce la découverte d'un nouveau vaccin;
    ∎ it is reported from Delhi that a ten-year contract has been signed on annonce à Delhi qu'un contrat de dix ans a été signé;
    ∎ to report the position of a ship signaler la position d'un navire;
    ∎ Customs to report a vessel déclarer un navire;
    ∎ the company reports a profit for the first time in five years l'entreprise annonce un bénéfice pour la première fois depuis cinq ans;
    ∎ the doctors report his condition as comfortable les médecins déclarent son état satisfaisant
    (b) (of press, media → event, match) faire un reportage sur; (→ winner) annoncer; (→ debate, speech) faire le compte rendu de;
    ∎ the newspapers report heavy casualties les journaux font état de nombreuses victimes;
    ∎ our correspondent reports that troops have left the city notre correspondant nous signale que des troupes ont quitté la ville;
    ∎ her resignation is reported in several papers sa démission est annoncée dans plusieurs journaux;
    ∎ the speech was reported in the 8 o'clock news bulletin il y avait un compte rendu du discours dans le bulletin d'informations de 8 heures;
    ∎ reporting restrictions were not lifted l'interdiction faite aux journalistes de rapporter les débats n'a pas été levée;
    ∎ it is reported that a woman drowned une femme se serait noyée;
    ∎ the plane is reported to have crashed in the jungle l'avion se serait écrasé dans la jungle;
    ∎ he is reported to have left or as having left the country il aurait quitté le pays
    (c) (accident, burglary, disappearance, murder) signaler; (wrongdoer) dénoncer, porter plainte contre;
    ∎ I'd like to report an accident je voudrais signaler un accident;
    ∎ to report sb missing (to the police) signaler la disparition de qn (à la police);
    ∎ ten people were reported dead on a annoncé la mort de dix personnes;
    ∎ she has been reported missing on a signalé sa disparition;
    ∎ she was reported missing five years ago elle a été portée disparue il y a cinq ans;
    ∎ nothing to report rien à signaler;
    ∎ they were reported to the police for vandalism on les a dénoncés à la police pour vandalisme;
    ∎ the school reported the boy's rudeness to his parents l'école a signalé l'insolence du garçon à ses parents
    ∎ to report oneself for duty se présenter au travail
    (a) (make a report → committee) faire son rapport, présenter ses conclusions; (→ police) faire un rapport; (→ journalist) faire un reportage;
    ∎ to report on sth Administration faire un rapport sur qch; Press faire un reportage sur qch;
    ∎ to report on a murder case faire un rapport sur un meurtre;
    ∎ to report on an aircraft hijacking faire un reportage sur un détournement d'avion;
    ∎ she's reporting on the train crash elle fait un reportage sur l'accident de train;
    ∎ he reports for the BBC il est reporter ou journaliste à la BBC;
    ∎ this is Keith Owen, reporting from Moscow for CBS de Moscou, pour la CBS, Keith Owen
    ∎ to report to sb être sous les ordres de qn;
    ∎ who do you report to? qui est votre supérieur?;
    ∎ I report directly to the sales manager je dépends directement du chef des ventes
    (c) (present oneself) se présenter;
    ∎ report to my office présentez-vous à mon bureau;
    ∎ to report for duty prendre son service, se présenter au travail;
    ∎ to report sick se faire porter malade;
    ∎ report to the sergeant when you arrive présentez-vous au sergent à votre arrivée;
    ∎ Military to report to base (go) se présenter à la base; (contact) contacter la base;
    ∎ Military to report to barracks or to one's unit rallier son unité
    ►► School report card bulletin m ou carnet m scolaire;
    Computing report form rapport m (d'édition), fiche f d'état;
    Computing report form generator générateur m d'états;
    British Politics report stage = examen d'un projet de loi avant la troisième lecture;
    ∎ the bill has reached report stage ≃ le projet de loi vient de passer en commission
    (a) (return → soldier) regagner ses quartiers, rallier son régiment; (→ journalist, salesman) rentrer;
    ∎ to report back to headquarters Military rentrer au quartier général; (salesman, clerk) rentrer au siège;
    ∎ I have to report back to the office il faut que je repasse au bureau;
    ∎ what time did he report back? à quelle heure est-il rentré ou était-il de retour?
    (b) (present report) présenter son rapport;
    ∎ the commission must first report back to the minister la commission doit d'abord présenter son rapport au ministre;
    ∎ can you report back on what was discussed? pouvez-vous rapporter ce qui a été dit?;
    ∎ please report back to me before you decide anything veuillez vous en référer à moi avant de prendre une décision
    (results, decision) rapporter, rendre compte de
    American Politics (bill, legislation) renvoyer après examen

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > report

  • 46 near cash

    !
    гос. фин. The resource budget contains a separate control total for “near cash” expenditure, that is expenditure such as pay and current grants which impacts directly on the measure of the golden rule.
    This paper provides background information on the framework for the planning and control of public expenditure in the UK which has been operated since the 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review (CSR). It sets out the different classifications of spending for budgeting purposes and why these distinctions have been adopted. It discusses how the public expenditure framework is designed to ensure both sound public finances and an outcome-focused approach to public expenditure.
    The UK's public spending framework is based on several key principles:
    "
    consistency with a long-term, prudent and transparent regime for managing the public finances as a whole;
    " "
    the judgement of success by policy outcomes rather than resource inputs;
    " "
    strong incentives for departments and their partners in service delivery to plan over several years and plan together where appropriate so as to deliver better public services with greater cost effectiveness; and
    "
    the proper costing and management of capital assets to provide the right incentives for public investment.
    The Government sets policy to meet two firm fiscal rules:
    "
    the Golden Rule states that over the economic cycle, the Government will borrow only to invest and not to fund current spending; and
    "
    the Sustainable Investment Rule states that net public debt as a proportion of GDP will be held over the economic cycle at a stable and prudent level. Other things being equal, net debt will be maintained below 40 per cent of GDP over the economic cycle.
    Achievement of the fiscal rules is assessed by reference to the national accounts, which are produced by the Office for National Statistics, acting as an independent agency. The Government sets its spending envelope to comply with these fiscal rules.
    Departmental Expenditure Limits ( DEL) and Annually Managed Expenditure (AME)
    "
    Departmental Expenditure Limit ( DEL) spending, which is planned and controlled on a three year basis in Spending Reviews; and
    "
    Annually Managed Expenditure ( AME), which is expenditure which cannot reasonably be subject to firm, multi-year limits in the same way as DEL. AME includes social security benefits, local authority self-financed expenditure, debt interest, and payments to EU institutions.
    More information about DEL and AME is set out below.
    In Spending Reviews, firm DEL plans are set for departments for three years. To ensure consistency with the Government's fiscal rules departments are set separate resource (current) and capital budgets. The resource budget contains a separate control total for “near cash” expenditure, that is expenditure such as pay and current grants which impacts directly on the measure of the golden rule.
    To encourage departments to plan over the medium term departments may carry forward unspent DEL provision from one year into the next and, subject to the normal tests for tautness and realism of plans, may be drawn down in future years. This end-year flexibility also removes any incentive for departments to use up their provision as the year end approaches with less regard to value for money. For the full benefits of this flexibility and of three year plans to feed through into improved public service delivery, end-year flexibility and three year budgets should be cascaded from departments to executive agencies and other budget holders.
    Three year budgets and end-year flexibility give those managing public services the stability to plan their operations on a sensible time scale. Further, the system means that departments cannot seek to bid up funds each year (before 1997, three year plans were set and reviewed in annual Public Expenditure Surveys). So the credibility of medium-term plans has been enhanced at both central and departmental level.
    Departments have certainty over the budgetary allocation over the medium term and these multi-year DEL plans are strictly enforced. Departments are expected to prioritise competing pressures and fund these within their overall annual limits, as set in Spending Reviews. So the DEL system provides a strong incentive to control costs and maximise value for money.
    There is a small centrally held DEL Reserve. Support from the Reserve is available only for genuinely unforeseeable contingencies which departments cannot be expected to manage within their DEL.
    AME typically consists of programmes which are large, volatile and demand-led, and which therefore cannot reasonably be subject to firm multi-year limits. The biggest single element is social security spending. Other items include tax credits, Local Authority Self Financed Expenditure, Scottish Executive spending financed by non-domestic rates, and spending financed from the proceeds of the National Lottery.
    AME is reviewed twice a year as part of the Budget and Pre-Budget Report process reflecting the close integration of the tax and benefit system, which was enhanced by the introduction of tax credits.
    AME is not subject to the same three year expenditure limits as DEL, but is still part of the overall envelope for public expenditure. Affordability is taken into account when policy decisions affecting AME are made. The Government has committed itself not to take policy measures which are likely to have the effect of increasing social security or other elements of AME without taking steps to ensure that the effects of those decisions can be accommodated prudently within the Government's fiscal rules.
    Given an overall envelope for public spending, forecasts of AME affect the level of resources available for DEL spending. Cautious estimates and the AME margin are built in to these AME forecasts and reduce the risk of overspending on AME.
    Together, DEL plus AME sum to Total Managed Expenditure (TME). TME is a measure drawn from national accounts. It represents the current and capital spending of the public sector. The public sector is made up of central government, local government and public corporations.
    Resource and Capital Budgets are set in terms of accruals information. Accruals information measures resources as they are consumed rather than when the cash is paid. So for example the Resource Budget includes a charge for depreciation, a measure of the consumption or wearing out of capital assets.
    "
    Non cash charges in budgets do not impact directly on the fiscal framework. That may be because the national accounts use a different way of measuring the same thing, for example in the case of the depreciation of departmental assets. Or it may be that the national accounts measure something different: for example, resource budgets include a cost of capital charge reflecting the opportunity cost of holding capital; the national accounts include debt interest.
    "
    Within the Resource Budget DEL, departments have separate controls on:
    "
    Near cash spending, the sub set of Resource Budgets which impacts directly on the Golden Rule; and
    "
    The amount of their Resource Budget DEL that departments may spend on running themselves (e.g. paying most civil servants’ salaries) is limited by Administration Budgets, which are set in Spending Reviews. Administration Budgets are used to ensure that as much money as practicable is available for front line services and programmes. These budgets also help to drive efficiency improvements in departments’ own activities. Administration Budgets exclude the costs of frontline services delivered directly by departments.
    The Budget preceding a Spending Review sets an overall envelope for public spending that is consistent with the fiscal rules for the period covered by the Spending Review. In the Spending Review, the Budget AME forecast for year one of the Spending Review period is updated, and AME forecasts are made for the later years of the Spending Review period.
    The 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review ( CSR), which was published in July 1998, was a comprehensive review of departmental aims and objectives alongside a zero-based analysis of each spending programme to determine the best way of delivering the Government's objectives. The 1998 CSR allocated substantial additional resources to the Government's key priorities, particularly education and health, for the three year period from 1999-2000 to 2001-02.
    Delivering better public services does not just depend on how much money the Government spends, but also on how well it spends it. Therefore the 1998 CSR introduced Public Service Agreements (PSAs). Each major government department was given its own PSA setting out clear targets for achievements in terms of public service improvements.
    The 1998 CSR also introduced the DEL/ AME framework for the control of public spending, and made other framework changes. Building on the investment and reforms delivered by the 1998 CSR, successive spending reviews in 2000, 2002 and 2004 have:
    "
    provided significant increase in resources for the Government’s priorities, in particular health and education, and cross-cutting themes such as raising productivity; extending opportunity; and building strong and secure communities;
    " "
    enabled the Government significantly to increase investment in public assets and address the legacy of under investment from past decades. Departmental Investment Strategies were introduced in SR2000. As a result there has been a steady increase in public sector net investment from less than ¾ of a per cent of GDP in 1997-98 to 2¼ per cent of GDP in 2005-06, providing better infrastructure across public services;
    " "
    introduced further refinements to the performance management framework. PSA targets have been reduced in number over successive spending reviews from around 300 to 110 to give greater focus to the Government’s highest priorities. The targets have become increasingly outcome-focused to deliver further improvements in key areas of public service delivery across Government. They have also been refined in line with the conclusions of the Devolving Decision Making Review to provide a framework which encourages greater devolution and local flexibility. Technical Notes were introduced in SR2000 explaining how performance against each PSA target will be measured; and
    "
    not only allocated near cash spending to departments, but also – since SR2002 - set Resource DEL plans for non cash spending.
    To identify what further investments and reforms are needed to equip the UK for the global challenges of the decade ahead, on 19 July 2005 the Chief Secretary to the Treasury announced that the Government intends to launch a second Comprehensive Spending Review (CSR) reporting in 2007.
    A decade on from the first CSR, the 2007 CSR will represent a long-term and fundamental review of government expenditure. It will cover departmental allocations for 2008-09, 2009-10 and 2010 11. Allocations for 2007-08 will be held to the agreed figures already announced by the 2004 Spending Review. To provide a rigorous analytical framework for these departmental allocations, the Government will be taking forward a programme of preparatory work over 2006 involving:
    "
    an assessment of what the sustained increases in spending and reforms to public service delivery have achieved since the first CSR. The assessment will inform the setting of new objectives for the decade ahead;
    " "
    an examination of the key long-term trends and challenges that will shape the next decade – including demographic and socio-economic change, globalisation, climate and environmental change, global insecurity and technological change – together with an assessment of how public services will need to respond;
    " "
    to release the resources needed to address these challenges, and to continue to secure maximum value for money from public spending over the CSR period, a set of zero-based reviews of departments’ baseline expenditure to assess its effectiveness in delivering the Government’s long-term objectives; together with
    "
    further development of the efficiency programme, building on the cross cutting areas identified in the Gershon Review, to embed and extend ongoing efficiency savings into departmental expenditure planning.
    The 2007 CSR also offers the opportunity to continue to refine the PSA framework so that it drives effective delivery and the attainment of ambitious national standards.
    Public Service Agreements (PSAs) were introduced in the 1998 CSR. They set out agreed targets detailing the outputs and outcomes departments are expected to deliver with the resources allocated to them. The new spending regime places a strong emphasis on outcome targets, for example in providing for better health and higher educational standards or service standards. The introduction in SR2004 of PSA ‘standards’ will ensure that high standards in priority areas are maintained.
    The Government monitors progress against PSA targets, and departments report in detail twice a year in their annual Departmental Reports (published in spring) and in their autumn performance reports. These reports provide Parliament and the public with regular updates on departments’ performance against their targets.
    Technical Notes explain how performance against each PSA target will be measured.
    To make the most of both new investment and existing assets, there needs to be a coherent long term strategy against which investment decisions are taken. Departmental Investment Strategies (DIS) set out each department's plans to deliver the scale and quality of capital stock needed to underpin its objectives. The DIS includes information about the department's existing capital stock and future plans for that stock, as well as plans for new investment. It also sets out the systems that the department has in place to ensure that it delivers its capital programmes effectively.
    This document was updated on 19 December 2005.
    Near-cash resource expenditure that has a related cash implication, even though the timing of the cash payment may be slightly different. For example, expenditure on gas or electricity supply is incurred as the fuel is used, though the cash payment might be made in arrears on aquarterly basis. Other examples of near-cash expenditure are: pay, rental.Net cash requirement the upper limit agreed by Parliament on the cash which a department may draw from theConsolidated Fund to finance the expenditure within the ambit of its Request forResources. It is equal to the agreed amount of net resources and net capital less non-cashitems and working capital.Non-cash cost costs where there is no cash transaction but which are included in a body’s accounts (or taken into account in charging for a service) to establish the true cost of all the resourcesused.Non-departmental a body which has a role in the processes of government, but is not a government public body, NDPBdepartment or part of one. NDPBs accordingly operate at arm’s length from governmentMinisters.Notional cost of a cost which is taken into account in setting fees and charges to improve comparability with insuranceprivate sector service providers.The charge takes account of the fact that public bodies donot generally pay an insurance premium to a commercial insurer.the independent body responsible for collecting and publishing official statistics about theUK’s society and economy. (At the time of going to print legislation was progressing tochange this body to the Statistics Board).Office of Government an office of the Treasury, with a status similar to that of an agency, which aims to maximise Commerce, OGCthe government’s purchasing power for routine items and combine professional expertiseto bear on capital projects.Office of the the government department responsible for discharging the Paymaster General’s statutoryPaymaster General,responsibilities to hold accounts and make payments for government departments and OPGother public bodies.Orange bookthe informal title for Management of Risks: Principles and Concepts, which is published by theTreasury for the guidance of public sector bodies.Office for NationalStatistics, ONS60Managing Public Money
    ————————————————————————————————————————
    "
    GLOSSARYOverdraftan account with a negative balance.Parliament’s formal agreement to authorise an activity or expenditure.Prerogative powerspowers exercisable under the Royal Prerogative, ie powers which are unique to the Crown,as contrasted with common-law powers which may be available to the Crown on the samebasis as to natural persons.Primary legislationActs which have been passed by the Westminster Parliament and, where they haveappropriate powers, the Scottish Parliament and the Northern Ireland Assembly. Begin asBills until they have received Royal Assent.arrangements under which a public sector organisation contracts with a private sectorentity to construct a facility and provide associated services of a specified quality over asustained period. See annex 7.5.Proprietythe principle that patterns of resource consumption should respect Parliament’s intentions,conventions and control procedures, including any laid down by the PAC. See box 2.4.Public Accountssee Committee of Public Accounts.CommitteePublic corporationa trading body controlled by central government, local authority or other publiccorporation that has substantial day to day operating independence. See section 7.8.Public Dividend finance provided by government to public sector bodies as an equity stake; an alternative to Capital, PDCloan finance.Public Service sets out what the public can expect the government to deliver with its resources. EveryAgreement, PSAlarge government department has PSA(s) which specify deliverables as targets or aimsrelated to objectives.a structured arrangement between a public sector and a private sector organisation tosecure an outcome delivering good value for money for the public sector. It is classified tothe public or private sector according to which has more control.Rate of returnthe financial remuneration delivered by a particular project or enterprise, expressed as apercentage of the net assets employed.Regularitythe principle that resource consumption should accord with the relevant legislation, therelevant delegated authority and this document. See box 2.4.Request for the functional level into which departmental Estimates may be split. RfRs contain a number Resources, RfRof functions being carried out by the department in pursuit of one or more of thatdepartment’s objectives.Resource accountan accruals account produced in line with the Financial Reporting Manual (FReM).Resource accountingthe system under which budgets, Estimates and accounts are constructed in a similar wayto commercial audited accounts, so that both plans and records of expenditure allow in fullfor the goods and services which are to be, or have been, consumed – ie not just the cashexpended.Resource budgetthe means by which the government plans and controls the expenditure of resources tomeet its objectives.Restitutiona legal concept which allows money and property to be returned to its rightful owner. Ittypically operates where another person can be said to have been unjustly enriched byreceiving such monies.Return on capital the ratio of profit to capital employed of an accounting entity during an identified period.employed, ROCEVarious measures of profit and of capital employed may be used in calculating the ratio.Public Privatepartnership, PPPPrivate Finance Initiative, PFIParliamentaryauthority61Managing Public Money
    "
    ————————————————————————————————————————
    GLOSSARYRoyal charterthe document setting out the powers and constitution of a corporation established underprerogative power of the monarch acting on Privy Council advice.Second readingthe second formal time that a House of Parliament may debate a bill, although in practicethe first substantive debate on its content. If successful, it is deemed to denoteParliamentary approval of the principle of the proposed legislation.Secondary legislationlaws, including orders and regulations, which are made using powers in primary legislation.Normally used to set out technical and administrative provision in greater detail thanprimary legislation, they are subject to a less intense level of scrutiny in Parliament.European legislation is,however,often implemented in secondary legislation using powers inthe European Communities Act 1972.Service-level agreement between parties, setting out in detail the level of service to be performed.agreementWhere agreements are between central government bodies, they are not legally a contractbut have a similar function.Shareholder Executive a body created to improve the government’s performance as a shareholder in businesses.Spending reviewsets out the key improvements in public services that the public can expect over a givenperiod. It includes a thorough review of departmental aims and objectives to find the bestway of delivering the government’s objectives, and sets out the spending plans for the givenperiod.State aidstate support for a domestic body or company which could distort EU competition and sois not usually allowed. See annex 4.9.Statement of Excessa formal statement detailing departments’ overspends prepared by the Comptroller andAuditor General as a result of undertaking annual audits.Statement on Internal an annual statement that Accounting Officers are required to make as part of the accounts Control, SICon a range of risk and control issues.Subheadindividual elements of departmental expenditure identifiable in Estimates as single cells, forexample cell A1 being administration costs within a particular line of departmental spending.Supplyresources voted by Parliament in response to Estimates, for expenditure by governmentdepartments.Supply Estimatesa statement of the resources the government needs in the coming financial year, and forwhat purpose(s), by which Parliamentary authority is sought for the planned level ofexpenditure and income.Target rate of returnthe rate of return required of a project or enterprise over a given period, usually at least a year.Third sectorprivate sector bodies which do not act commercially,including charities,social and voluntaryorganisations and other not-for-profit collectives. See annex 7.7.Total Managed a Treasury budgeting term which covers all current and capital spending carried out by the Expenditure,TMEpublic sector (ie not just by central departments).Trading fundan organisation (either within a government department or forming one) which is largely orwholly financed from commercial revenue generated by its activities. Its Estimate shows itsnet impact, allowing its income from receipts to be devoted entirely to its business.Treasury Minutea formal administrative document drawn up by the Treasury, which may serve a wide varietyof purposes including seeking Parliamentary approval for the use of receipts asappropriations in aid, a remission of some or all of the principal of voted loans, andresponding on behalf of the government to reports by the Public Accounts Committee(PAC).62Managing Public Money
    ————————————————————————————————————————
    GLOSSARY63Managing Public MoneyValue for moneythe process under which organisation’s procurement, projects and processes aresystematically evaluated and assessed to provide confidence about suitability, effectiveness,prudence,quality,value and avoidance of error and other waste,judged for the public sectoras a whole.Virementthe process through which funds are moved between subheads such that additionalexpenditure on one is met by savings on one or more others.Votethe process by which Parliament approves funds in response to supply Estimates.Voted expenditureprovision for expenditure that has been authorised by Parliament. Parliament ‘votes’authority for public expenditure through the Supply Estimates process. Most expenditureby central government departments is authorised in this way.Wider market activity activities undertaken by central government organisations outside their statutory duties,using spare capacity and aimed at generating a commercial profit. See annex 7.6.Windfallmonies received by a department which were not anticipated in the spending review.
    ————————————————————————————————————————

    Англо-русский экономический словарь > near cash

  • 47 Knowledge

       It is indeed an opinion strangely prevailing amongst men, that houses, mountains, rivers, and, in a word, all sensible objects, have an existence, natural or real, distinct from their being perceived by the understanding. But, with how great an assurance and acquiescence soever this principle may be entertained in the world, yet whoever shall find in his heart to call it into question may, if I mistake not, perceive it to involve a manifest contradiction. For, what are the forementioned objects but things we perceive by sense? and what do we perceive besides our own ideas or sensations? and is it not plainly repugnant that any one of these, or any combination of them, should exist unperceived? (Berkeley, 1996, Pt. I, No. 4, p. 25)
       It seems to me that the only objects of the abstract sciences or of demonstration are quantity and number, and that all attempts to extend this more perfect species of knowledge beyond these bounds are mere sophistry and illusion. As the component parts of quantity and number are entirely similar, their relations become intricate and involved; and nothing can be more curious, as well as useful, than to trace, by a variety of mediums, their equality or inequality, through their different appearances.
       But as all other ideas are clearly distinct and different from each other, we can never advance farther, by our utmost scrutiny, than to observe this diversity, and, by an obvious reflection, pronounce one thing not to be another. Or if there be any difficulty in these decisions, it proceeds entirely from the undeterminate meaning of words, which is corrected by juster definitions. That the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the squares of the other two sides cannot be known, let the terms be ever so exactly defined, without a train of reasoning and enquiry. But to convince us of this proposition, that where there is no property, there can be no injustice, it is only necessary to define the terms, and explain injustice to be a violation of property. This proposition is, indeed, nothing but a more imperfect definition. It is the same case with all those pretended syllogistical reasonings, which may be found in every other branch of learning, except the sciences of quantity and number; and these may safely, I think, be pronounced the only proper objects of knowledge and demonstration. (Hume, 1975, Sec. 12, Pt. 3, pp. 163-165)
       Our knowledge springs from two fundamental sources of the mind; the first is the capacity of receiving representations (the ability to receive impressions), the second is the power to know an object through these representations (spontaneity in the production of concepts).
       Through the first, an object is given to us; through the second, the object is thought in relation to that representation.... Intuition and concepts constitute, therefore, the elements of all our knowledge, so that neither concepts without intuition in some way corresponding to them, nor intuition without concepts, can yield knowledge. Both may be either pure or empirical.... Pure intuitions or pure concepts are possible only a priori; empirical intuitions and empirical concepts only a posteriori. If the receptivity of our mind, its power of receiving representations in so far as it is in any way affected, is to be called "sensibility," then the mind's power of producing representations from itself, the spontaneity of knowledge, should be called "understanding." Our nature is so constituted that our intuitions can never be other than sensible; that is, it contains only the mode in which we are affected by objects. The faculty, on the other hand, which enables us to think the object of sensible intuition is the understanding.... Without sensibility, no object would be given to us; without understanding, no object would be thought. Thoughts without content are empty; intuitions without concepts are blind. It is therefore just as necessary to make our concepts sensible, that is, to add the object to them in intuition, as to make our intuitions intelligible, that is to bring them under concepts. These two powers or capacities cannot exchange their functions. The understanding can intuit nothing, the senses can think nothing. Only through their union can knowledge arise. (Kant, 1933, Sec. 1, Pt. 2, B74-75 [p. 92])
       Metaphysics, as a natural disposition of Reason is real, but it is also, in itself, dialectical and deceptive.... Hence to attempt to draw our principles from it, and in their employment to follow this natural but none the less fallacious illusion can never produce science, but only an empty dialectical art, in which one school may indeed outdo the other, but none can ever attain a justifiable and lasting success. In order that, as a science, it may lay claim not merely to deceptive persuasion, but to insight and conviction, a Critique of Reason must exhibit in a complete system the whole stock of conceptions a priori, arranged according to their different sources-the Sensibility, the understanding, and the Reason; it must present a complete table of these conceptions, together with their analysis and all that can be deduced from them, but more especially the possibility of synthetic knowledge a priori by means of their deduction, the principles of its use, and finally, its boundaries....
       This much is certain: he who has once tried criticism will be sickened for ever of all the dogmatic trash he was compelled to content himself with before, because his Reason, requiring something, could find nothing better for its occupation. Criticism stands to the ordinary school metaphysics exactly in the same relation as chemistry to alchemy, or as astron omy to fortune-telling astrology. I guarantee that no one who has comprehended and thought out the conclusions of criticism, even in these Prolegomena, will ever return to the old sophistical pseudo-science. He will rather look forward with a kind of pleasure to a metaphysics, certainly now within his power, which requires no more preparatory discoveries, and which alone can procure for reason permanent satisfaction. (Kant, 1891, pp. 115-116)
       Knowledge is only real and can only be set forth fully in the form of science, in the form of system. Further, a so-called fundamental proposition or first principle of philosophy, even if it is true, it is yet none the less false, just because and in so far as it is merely a fundamental proposition, merely a first principle. It is for that reason easily refuted. The refutation consists in bringing out its defective character; and it is defective because it is merely the universal, merely a principle, the beginning. If the refutation is complete and thorough, it is derived and developed from the nature of the principle itself, and not accomplished by bringing in from elsewhere other counter-assurances and chance fancies. It would be strictly the development of the principle, and thus the completion of its deficiency, were it not that it misunderstands its own purport by taking account solely of the negative aspect of what it seeks to do, and is not conscious of the positive character of its process and result. The really positive working out of the beginning is at the same time just as much the very reverse: it is a negative attitude towards the principle we start from. Negative, that is to say, in its one-sided form, which consists in being primarily immediate, a mere purpose. It may therefore be regarded as a refutation of what constitutes the basis of the system; but more correctly it should be looked at as a demonstration that the basis or principle of the system is in point of fact merely its beginning. (Hegel, 1910, pp. 21-22)
       Knowledge, action, and evaluation are essentially connected. The primary and pervasive significance of knowledge lies in its guidance of action: knowing is for the sake of doing. And action, obviously, is rooted in evaluation. For a being which did not assign comparative values, deliberate action would be pointless; and for one which did not know, it would be impossible. Conversely, only an active being could have knowledge, and only such a being could assign values to anything beyond his own feelings. A creature which did not enter into the process of reality to alter in some part the future content of it, could apprehend a world only in the sense of intuitive or esthetic contemplation; and such contemplation would not possess the significance of knowledge but only that of enjoying and suffering. (Lewis, 1946, p. 1)
       "Evolutionary epistemology" is a branch of scholarship that applies the evolutionary perspective to an understanding of how knowledge develops. Knowledge always involves getting information. The most primitive way of acquiring it is through the sense of touch: amoebas and other simple organisms know what happens around them only if they can feel it with their "skins." The knowledge such an organism can have is strictly about what is in its immediate vicinity. After a huge jump in evolution, organisms learned to find out what was going on at a distance from them, without having to actually feel the environment. This jump involved the development of sense organs for processing information that was farther away. For a long time, the most important sources of knowledge were the nose, the eyes, and the ears. The next big advance occurred when organisms developed memory. Now information no longer needed to be present at all, and the animal could recall events and outcomes that happened in the past. Each one of these steps in the evolution of knowledge added important survival advantages to the species that was equipped to use it.
       Then, with the appearance in evolution of humans, an entirely new way of acquiring information developed. Up to this point, the processing of information was entirely intrasomatic.... But when speech appeared (and even more powerfully with the invention of writing), information processing became extrasomatic. After that point knowledge did not have to be stored in the genes, or in the memory traces of the brain; it could be passed on from one person to another through words, or it could be written down and stored on a permanent substance like stone, paper, or silicon chips-in any case, outside the fragile and impermanent nervous system. (Csikszentmihalyi, 1993, pp. 56-57)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Knowledge

  • 48 conclusion

    conclusion [kən'klu:ʒən]
    1 noun
    (a) (end) conclusion f, fin f; (of meeting, session) clôture f;
    ∎ to bring sth to a conclusion mener qch à sa conclusion ou à terme;
    ∎ she brought the matter to a successful conclusion elle a mené l'affaire à (bon) terme
    (b) (decision, judgement) conclusion f, décision f;
    ∎ to come to or reach the conclusion that… conclure que… + indicative, (en) arriver à la conclusion que… + indicative;
    ∎ the conclusion to be drawn from this matter la conclusion à tirer de cette affaire;
    ∎ it's up to you to draw your own conclusions c'est à vous d'en juger;
    ∎ the facts lead me to the conclusion that… les faits m'amènent à conclure que…+ indicative
    (c) (settling → of deal, treaty) conclusion f
    (d) Philosophy conclusion f
    en conclusion, pour conclure

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > conclusion

  • 49 inference

    inference ['ɪnfərəns]
    déduction f; (in logic) inférence f;
    ∎ what inferences can we draw from it? quelles conclusions pouvons-nous en tirer?, que pouvons-nous en déduire?

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > inference

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См. также в других словарях:

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  • Draw by agreement — In chess, a draw by (mutual) agreement is the outcome of a game due to the agreement of both players to a draw. A player may offer a draw to his opponent at any stage of a game; if the opponent accepts, the game is a draw. The relevant portion of …   Wikipedia

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