the+most+significant

classical, classic.

classic.

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► adjetivo

1 (de los clásicos) classical

■ literatura clásica classical literature

2 (típico) classic, typical

■ la clásica pregunta the typical question

3 (tradicional) classic

■ es un vestido clásico it's a classic dress

► nombre masculino clásico

1 classic

■ este libro es un clásico de la ciencia ficción this book is a science-fiction classic

► nombre masculino

1 classic

■ este libro es un clásico de la ciencia ficción this book is a science-fiction classic

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1) лёгкий удар; стук

2) амер.; разг. наказание; обвинение; приговор

3) разг. выговор, замечание

4) амер.; разг. реакция (на что-л.), отзыв

••

- rap over the knuckles

1) резко ударять; стучать, постукивать

2) разг. болтать, разговаривать

3) амер.; разг. ругать, критиковать, извергать ругательства

•

- rap out

••

1) ист. мелкая обесцененная монета (в Ирландии в 18 в.)

2) очень маленькое количество, капелька, чуточка

3) никчёмный человек

SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace

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Ader was a distinguished engineer and versatile inventor who was involved with electrical developments, including the telephone and air-cushion vehicles. In the field of aeronautics he became the centre of a long-lasting controversy: did he, or did he not, fly before the Wright brothers' flight of 1903? In 1882 Ader started work on his first aeroplane, the Eole (god of the winds), which was bat-like in appearance and powered by a very well-designed lightweight steam engine developing about 15 kW (20 hp). On 9 October 1890 the Eole was ready, and with Ader as pilot it increased speed over a level surface and lifted off the ground. It was airborne for about 5 seconds and covered some 50 m (164 ft), reaching a height of 20 cm (8 in.). Whether such a short hop constituted a flight has caused much discussion and argument over the years. An even greater controversy followed Ader's claim in 1906 that his third aeroplane (Avion III) had made a flight of 300 m (328 yd) in 1897. He repeated this claim in his book written in 1907, and many historians accepted his account of the "flight". C.H.Gibbs-Smith, an eminent aviation historian, investigated the Ader controversy and in his book published in 1966 came to the conclusion that the Avion III did not fly at all. Avion III was donated to the Museum of the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers in Paris, and still survives. From 1906 onwards Ader concentrated his inventive efforts elsewhere, but he did mount a successful campaign to persuade the French War Ministry to create an air force.

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SUBJECT AREA: Weapons and armour

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Belidor was the son of a French army officer, who died when he was six months old, and was thereafter brought up by a brother officer. He soon demonstrated a scientific bent, and gravitated to Paris, where he became involved in the determination of the Paris meridian. He was then appointed Professor at the artillery school at La Fère, where he began to pursue the science of ballistics in earnest. He was able to disprove the popular theory that range was directly proportional to the powder charge, and also argued that the explosive power of a charge was greatest at the end of the explosion; he advocated spherical chambers in order to take advantage of this. His ideas made him unpopular with the "establishment", especially the Master of the King's artillery, and he was forced to leave France for a time, becoming a consultant to authorities in Bohemia and Bavaria. However, he was reinstated, and in 1758 he was appointed Royal Inspector of Artillery, a post that he held until his death.

Belidor also made a name for himself in hydraulics and influenced design in this field for more than a century after his death. In addition, he was the first to make practical application of integral calculus.

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SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

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Daniel Bourn may well have been a native of Lancashire. He set up a fourth Paul-Wyatt cotton-spinning mill at Leominster, Herefordshire, possibly in 1744, although the earliest mention of it is in 1748. His only known partner in this mill was Henry Morris, a yarn dealer who in 1743 had bought a grant of spindles from Paul at the low rate of 30 shillings or 40 shillings per spindle when the current price was £3 or £4. When Bourn patented his carding engine in 1748, he asked Wyatt for a grant of spindles, to which Wyatt agreed because £100 was offered immedi-ately. The mill, which was probably the only one outside the control of Paul and his backers, was destroyed by fire in 1754 and was not rebuilt, although Bourn and his partners had considerable hopes for it. Bourn was said to have lost over £1,600 in the venture.

Daniel Bourn described himself as a wool and cotton dealer of Leominster in his patent of 1748 for his carding engine. The significance of this invention is the use of rotating cylinders covered with wire clothing. The patent drawing shows four cylinders, one following the other to tease out the wool, but Bourn was unable to discover a satisfactory method of removing the fibres from the last cylinder. It is possible that Robert Peel in Lancashire obtained one of these engines through Morris, and that James Hargreaves tried to improve it; if so, then some of the early carding engines in the cotton industry were derived from Bourn's.

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SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace

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Cayley was born into a well-to-do Yorkshire family living at Brompton Hall. He was encouraged to study mathematics, navigation and mechanics, particularly by his mother. In 1792 he succeeded to the baronetcy and took over the daunting task of revitalizing the run-down family estate.

The first aeronautical device made by Cayley was a copy of the toy helicopter invented by the Frenchmen Launoy and Bienvenu in 1784. Cayley's version, made in 1796, convinced him that a machine could "rise in the air by mechanical means", as he later wrote. He studied the aerodynamics of flight and broke away from the unsuccessful ornithopters of his predecessors. In 1799 he scratched two sketches on a silver disc: one side of the disc showed the aerodynamic force on a wing resolved into lift and drag, and on the other side he illustrated his idea for a fixed-wing aeroplane; this disc is preserved in the Science Museum in London. In 1804 he tested a small wing on the end of a whirling arm to measure its lifting power. This led to the world's first model glider, which consisted of a simple kite (the wing) mounted on a pole with an adjustable cruciform tail. A full-size glider followed in 1809 and this flew successfully unmanned. By 1809 Cayley had also investigated the lifting properties of cambered wings and produced a low-drag aerofoil section. His aim was to produce a powered aeroplane, but no suitable engines were available. Steam-engines were too heavy, but he experimented with a gunpowder motor and invented the hot-air engine in 1807. He published details of some of his aeronautical researches in 1809–10 and in 1816 he wrote a paper on airships. Then for a period of some twenty-five years he was so busy with other activities that he largely neglected his aeronautical researches. It was not until 1843, at the age of 70, that he really had time to pursue his quest for flight. The Mechanics' Magazine of 8 April 1843 published drawings of "Sir George Cayley's Aerial Carriage", which consisted of a helicopter design with four circular lifting rotors—which could be adjusted to become wings—and two pusher propellers. In 1849 he built a full-size triplane glider which lifted a boy off the ground for a brief hop. Then in 1852 he proposed a monoplane glider which could be launched from a balloon. Late in 1853 Cayley built his "new flyer", another monoplane glider, which carried his coachman as a reluctant passenger across a dale at Brompton, Cayley became involved in public affairs and was MP for Scarborough in 1832. He also took a leading part in local scientific activities and was co-founder of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1831 and of the Regent Street Polytechnic Institution in 1838.

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SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace

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At the age of 17, Cierva and some of his friends built a successful two-seater biplane, the BCD-1 (C for Cierva). By 1919 he had designed a large three-engined biplane bomber, the C 3, which unfortunately crashed when its wing stalled (list its lift) during a slow-speed turn. Cierva turned all his energies to designing a flying machine which could not stall: his answer was the autogiro. Although an autogiro looks like a helicopter, its rotor blades are not driven by an engine, but free-wheel like a windmill. Forward speed is provided by a conventional engine and propeller, and even if this engine fails, the autogiro's rotors continue to free-wheel and it descends safely. Cierva patented his autogiro design in 1920, but it took him three years to put theory into practice. By 1925, after further improvements, he had produced a practical rotary-winged flying machine.

He moved to England and in 1926 established the Cierva Autogiro Company Ltd. The Air Ministry showed great interest and a year later the British company Avro was commissioned to manufacture the C 6A Autogiro under licence. Probably the most significant of Cierva's autogiros was the C 30A, or Avro Rota, which served in the Royal Air Force from 1935 until 1945. Several other manufacturers in France, Germany, Japan and the USA built Cierva autogiros under licence, but only in small numbers and they never really rivalled fixed-wing aircraft. The death of Cierva in an airliner crash in 1936, together with the emergence of successful helicopters, all but extinguished interest in the autogiro.

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SUBJECT AREA: Medical technology

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Constrained by poverty despite displaying considerable gifts, particularly in the realm of mathematics, he became a surgeon in the Prussian Army but was able to undertake research; in 1842 he wrote a thesis on the discovery of nerve cells in ganglia. He became Professor of Physiology in Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia) in 1849. moving to a similar post in Bonn in 1855, to Heidelberg in 1858, and the Chair of Physic in Berlin in 1871. This latter included the directorship of the physicotechnical institute at Charlottenburg.

His investigations over the years encompassed almost the whole field of science, including physiology, physiological optics, physiological acoustics, chemistry, mathematics, electricity and magnetism, meteorology and theoretical mechanics. He also made important additions to the understanding of putrefaction and fermentation.

Helmholtz's contributions to the understanding of vision and optics ranged widely, but one of the most significant was the definitive development of the ophthalmoscope in 1851. Incorporating some of the aspects of Babbage's original suggestions (which were not brought to practical fruition), his instrument inaugurated a new diagnostic era in ophthalmology, particularly when his method of direct ophthalmoscopy was supplemented by the indirect method of Ruete. His personal life was uneventful, in contrast to his inventive achievements, which were perhaps unequalled in scope in his century. Michael Faraday's tribute, "the absolute simplicity, modesty and untroubled purity of his disposition had a charm such as I have never encountered in another man", is therefore all the more to be valued.

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SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology, Telecommunications

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As a child, Shannon tinkered with radio kits and enjoyed solving puzzles, particularly crypto-graphic ones. He graduated from the University of Michigan in 1936 with a Bachelor of Science in mathematics and electrical engineering, and earned his Master's degree from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1937. His thesis on applying Boolean algebra to switching circuits has since been acclaimed as possibly the most significant this century. Shannon earned his PhD in mathematics from MIT in 1940 with a dissertation on the mathematics of genetic transmission.

Shannon spent a year at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, then in 1941 joined Bell Telephone Laboratories, where he began studying the relative efficiency of alternative transmission systems. Work on digital encryption systems during the Second World War led him to think that just as ciphers hide information from the enemy, "encoding" information could also protect it from noise. About 1948, he decided that the amount of information was best expressed quantitatively in a two-value number system, using only the digits 0 and 1. John Tukey, a Princeton colleague, named these units "binary digits" (or, for short, "bits"). Almost all digital computers and communications systems use such on-off, or two-state logic as their basis of operation.

Also in the 1940s, building on the work of H. Nyquist and R.V.L. Hartley, Shannon proved that there was an upper limit to the amount of information that could be transmitted through a communications channel in a unit of time, which could be approached but never reached because real transmissions are subject to interference (noise). This was the beginning of information theory, which has been used by others in attempts to quantify many sciences and technologies, as well as subjects in the humanities, but with mixed results. Before 1970, when integrated circuits were developed, Shannon's theory was not the preferred circuit-and-transmission design tool it has since become.

Shannon was also a pioneer in the field of artificial intelligence, claiming that computing machines could be used to manipulate symbols as well as do calculations. His 1953 paper on computers and automata proposed that digital computers were capable of tasks then thought exclusively the province of living organisms. In 1956 he left Bell Laboratories to join the MIT faculty as Professor of Communications Science.

On the lighter side, Shannon has built many devices that play games, and in particular has made a scientific study of juggling.

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(to read, learn, memorize etc sth.) completely, not leaving anything out, (to know sth.) thoroughly, in all its details: (read sth. (read sth. through)) from cover to cover

• В основных чертах это был метод, использовавшийся Смитом [1]. - In essence, this was the method employed by Smith [1].

• Главной (характерной) чертой предыдущего примера является... - A central feature of the previous example is...

• Мы наметим в общих чертах метод, основанный на... - We will outline a procedure based on...

• Наиболее значимой чертой этого примера является то, что... - The most significant feature of this example is that...

• Ниже излагается в общих чертах концепция... - The development below outlines the concept of...

• Отметим, что основные черты данного принципа состоят в... - The principal features to note are...

• Характерной чертой этого плана является... - An essential feature of the design is...

• Яркой чертой данной теории является то, что... - A salient feature of the theory is that...

• ОТ КОРКИ ДО КОРКИ чи i a I ь, прочитывать, учить, знать и т.п. что coll

[PrepP; Invar; adv; fixed WD]

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⇒ (to read, learn, memorize etc sth.) completely, not leaving anything out, (to know sth.) thoroughly, in all its details:

- (read sth. <read sth. through>) from cover to cover;

- (read (memorize, learn) sth.) from beginning to end;

- (read etc sth.) from top to bottom;

- (read sth. through etc) from end to end (from start to finish);

- (know (learn) sth.) backward and forward.

     ♦ Старик читает справочник по элементарной математике. Сынок прислал соседу. Ничего не понимает. Какие-то синусы-косинусы. Всё равно читает. От корки до корки... (Терц 3). Ап old man is reading a text-book on elementary mathematics sent to the man in the next bunk by his son. He doesn't understand a word of it-all this business about sines and cosines. But all the same he reads right through, from cover to cover... (3a).

     ♦ [Калошин:] Сколько раз вам указывалось, чтобы анкеты заполнялись от корки до корки (Вампилов 1). [К.:] How many times have you been told to get those forms filled in from top to bottom... (1a).

     ♦...Он с утра отправлялся в село за газетами. Затем... прочитывал их от корки до корки, старательно подчеркивая наиболее, по его мнению, значительные места... (Максимов 3)....First thing in the morning he went down to the village for the papers. Next, he read them through from end to end, carefully underlining what he considered to be the most significant passages... (3a).

     ♦ Ганичев взял у него районку [районную газету] и все четыре полоски просмотрел от корки до корки (Абрамов 1). Ganichev took the paper from him and looked through all four pages from start to finish (1a).

• Сравнение чисел:

• А > В: число А больше числа В - A is greater than В; A is larger than B; A exceeds В

• В < А: число В меньше числа А - В is less than А; В is smaller than A

• А ≥ В: число А больше или равно числу В - Л is greater than or equal to В

• А < В: число А не больше числа В - A is at least as large as В

• В ≤ А: число В меньше или равно числу А - В is less than or equal to А; В does not exceed A

• А < В < С: число А меньше числа В, которое меньше числа С - A is less than В, and В is less than С; In strictly ascending order, we have А, В, С

• С > В > А: число С больше числа В, которое больше числа С - In strictly descending order, we have С, В, A; С is greater than B, and В is greater than А; С is larger than B, and В is larger than А; С exceeds B, and В exceeds A; C is greater than B, which in turn is greater than А; С is larger than B, which in turn is larger than A; С exceeds B, which in turn exceeds A

• А < В < С: число А меньше или равно числу В, которое меньше или равно числу С - Л is at least as large as B, and В is at least as large as C; A cannot exceed B, and В cannot exceed C; A cannot exceed B, which in turn cannot exceed C; In ascending order, we have А, В, С; In descending order, we have С, В, А

• Огромное значение имеет большое число

(= количество) (чего-л). - Of great importance is the large number of...

• Большое число ученых теперь считает, что... - A large number of scientists now believe that...

• В этом случае число действий могло бы быть существенно сокращено (путем и т. п.)... - The amount of manipulation in this case could have been significantly reduced by...

• Иррациональные числа включают в себя числа е и π. - The irrational numbers include e and π

• Мы хотим найти число (= количество)(^, чего-л). - We wish to find the number of...

• Наибольшая значащая цифра числа 10 это 1. - The most significant digit of the number 10 is 1.

• Натуральные числа также известны как... - Natural numbers are also known as counting numbers.

• Существует положительное целое число N такое, что... - There exists such a positive integer N that...

 As noted, the most significant reactions for SO3 formation are reactions (1) and (2).

 The term F represents the production of SO3 while В represents the destruction of SO3.

— вероятность образования

— взаимодействовать с... с образованием

— затрачиваться на образование

— начинаться одновременно с началом образования

— образование разными путями

— по образованию и... по призванию

— промежуточное образование

— распад... с образованием

— реагировать с образованием

— реакция образования

— сливаться с образованием

— способствовать образованию

— тенденция к образованию отложений

hail [heɪl]

1 noun

(a) Meteorology grêle f; figurative (of stones) grêle f, pluie f; (of abuse) avalanche f, déluge m; (of blows) grêle f;

∎ he died in a hail of bullets il est tombé sous une pluie de balles

(b) literary (call) appel m;

∎ within hail à portée de voix

2 intransitive verb

Meteorology grêler;

∎ it's hailing il grêle

3 transitive verb

(a) (call → taxi, ship, person) héler;

∎ within hailing distance à portée de voix

(b) (greet → person) acclamer, saluer

(c) (acclaim → person, new product, invention etc) acclamer, saluer;

∎ her book has been hailed as the most significant new novel this year son livre a été acclamé comme le nouveau roman le plus marquant de cette année;

∎ the plan was hailed as the solution to their problems le projet a été salué comme la solution à tous leurs problèmes;

∎ to hail sb emperor proclamer qn empereur

(d) (idioms)

∎ to hail blows on sb faire pleuvoir les coups sur qn;

∎ to hail insults on sb accabler qn d'injures

4 exclamation

archaic salut à vous ou toi;

∎ hail, Caesar! Ave César!;

∎ hail, Mary, full of grace je te salue, Marie, pleine de grâce

►► Religion Hail Mary (prayer) Je vous salue Marie m inv, Ave (Maria) m inv;

∎ say five Hail Marys vous direz cinq Je vous salue Marie ou cinq Ave (Maria);

American Sport Hail Mary pass = passe au petit bonheur;

➲ hail down

1 intransitive verb

(blows, stones etc) pleuvoir;

∎ blows/rocks were hailing down on us des coups/pierres nous pleuvaient dessus;

∎ criticism hailed down on him il a subi une avalanche ou un déluge de critiques

2 separable transitive verb

∎ they hailed insults down on the President ils ont déversé un flot d'insultes à l'intention du président;

➲ hail from inseparable transitive verb

(of ship) être en provenance de; (of person) venir de, être originaire de;

∎ where does she hail from? (of ship) quelle est sa provenance?; (of person) d'où vient-elle?

эк. тр. несельскохозяйственный работодатель* (работодатель в иной сфере, чем сельское хозяйство; напр., промышленная компания)

prefiks \/pəʊst\/

1) etter-, post-

• the post-Victorian society was perhaps less prudish

2) senere enn, etter

• he was the most significant composer in the post-Beethoven period

= neighbourhood advice centre (NAC).

Ex. The most significant development in the field of information and advice services has been the phenomenal growth of neighbourhood advice centres (NAC).

(n.) = neighbourhood advice centre (NAC)

Ex. The most significant development in the field of information and advice services has been the phenomenal growth of neighbourhood advice centres (NAC).

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1. ( кинетические явления) transfer, transport

2. мат., вчт. carry

блоки́ровать перено́с вчт. — suppress carry

перено́с в какой-л. разря́д вчт. — carry into a digit place

перено́с возника́ет вчт. — a carry is generated

перено́с из какого-л. разря́да вчт. — carry out of [from] a digit place

перено́с из ста́ршего разря́да добавля́ется к мла́дшему разря́ду вчт. — the carry out of the most significant position [digit] is added into the least signifiant position [digit]

произвести́ перено́с вчт. — forward [execute] a carry

перено́с вещества́ — mass transfer, mass transport

перено́с ви́хря (ско́рости) — vorticity transfer

группово́й перено́с вчт. — block carry

двои́чный перено́с — binary carry

десяти́чный перено́с — decimal carry

диффузио́нный перено́с

1. физ. diffusive transfer

2. кфт. transfer diffusion, image transfer by diffusion

заде́ржанный перено́с вчт. — delayed carry

перено́с заря́да — charge transfer

перено́с заря́да, эстафе́тный — relay-race charge transfer

перено́с излуче́ния — radiative transport, radiation transfer

каска́дный перено́с — cascaded [step-by-step] carry

перено́с ко́пии полигр. — laying

перено́с ко́пии, мо́крый полигр. — wet laying

перено́с ко́пии, сухо́й полигр. — dry laying

лучи́стый перено́с — radiative transport, radiation transfer

перено́с ма́ссы — mass transfer, mass transport

перено́с материа́ла ( при трении твёрдых тел) — transfer of material

межфа́зный перено́с — interphase transfer

перено́с мета́лла — metal transfer

молекуля́рный перено́с — molecular transport

одновреме́нный перено́с — simultaneous carry

перено́с осе́й (координа́т) — translation or (coordinate) axes

перено́с радиоакти́вности — radioactivity transport

сквозно́й перено́с вчт. — ripple-through carry

сквозно́й перено́с че́рез девя́тки ( в десятичной системе) — standing-on-nines carry

сквозно́й перено́с че́рез едини́цы ( в двоичной системе) — standing-on-ones carry

перено́с тепла́ — heat transfer, heat transport

перено́с фотографи́ческого изображе́ния (на другу́ю подло́жку) — transfer process

цикли́ческий перено́с вчт. — end-around carry

части́чный перено́с — partial carry

перено́с частоты́ ( в другой диапазон) свз. — frequency translation

перено́с эне́ргии — transfer of energy

перено́с эне́ргии, диффузио́нный — energy transfer by (a) diffusion (mechanism)

перено́с эне́ргии, индукти́вно-резона́нсный — energy transfer by (an) inductive resonance (mechanism)

перено́с эне́ргии, эксито́нный — energy transfer by excitons [by an exciton mechanism]