-
21 Castner, Hamilton Young
SUBJECT AREA: Chemical technology[br]b. 11 September 1858 Brooklyn, New York, USAd. 11 October 1899 Saranoe Lake, New York, USA[br]American chemist, inventor of the electrolytic production of sodium.[br]Around 1850, the exciting new metal aluminium began to be produced by the process developed by Sainte-Claire Deville. However, it remained expensive on account of the high cost of one of the raw materials, sodium. It was another thirty years before Castner became the first to work successfully the process for producing sodium, which consisted of heating sodium hydroxide with charcoal at a high temperature. Unable to interest American backers in the process, Castner took it to England and set up a plant at Oldbury, near Birmingham. At the moment he achieved commercial success, however, the demand for cheap sodium plummeted as a result of the development of the electrolytic process for producing aluminium. He therefore sought other uses for cheap sodium, first converting it to sodium peroxide, a bleaching agent much used in the straw-hat industry. Much more importantly, Castner persuaded the gold industry to use sodium instead of potassium cyanide in the refining of gold. With the "gold rush", he established a large market in Australia, the USA, South Africa and elsewhere, but the problem was to meet the demand, so Castner turned to the electrolytic method. At first progress was slow because of the impure nature of the sodium hydroxide, so he used a mercury cathode, with which the released sodium formed an amalgam. It then reacted with water in a separate compartment in the cell to form sodium hydroxide of a purity hitherto unknown in the alkali industry; chlorine was a valuable by-product.In 1894 Castner began to seek international patents for the cell, but found he had been anticipated in Germany by Kellner, an Austrian chemist. Preferring negotiation to legal confrontation, Castner exchanged patents and processes with Kellner, although the latter's had been less successful. The cell became known as the Castner-Kellner cell, but the process needed cheap electricity and salt, neither of which was available near Oldbury, so he set up the Castner-Kellner Alkali Company works at Runcorn in Cheshire; at the same time, a pilot plant was set up in the USA at Saltville, Virginia, with a larger plant being established at Niagara Falls.[br]Further ReadingA.Fleck, 1947, "The life and work of Hamilton Young Castner" (Castner Memorial Lecture), Chemistry and Industry 44:515-; Fifty Years of Progress: The Story of the Castner-Kellner Company, 1947.T.K.Derry and T.I.Williams, 1960, A Short History of Technology, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 549–50 (provides a summary of his work).LRDBiographical history of technology > Castner, Hamilton Young
-
22 lot
I [lɔt] n1) масса, много, множество, большое количествоYou've got a lot of nerve. — У тебя большое самообладание.
It cost an awful lot. — Это очень дорого/много стоит.
They know quite a lot. — Они довольно много знают.
Give me a lot of sauce with my meat. — Дайте мне побольше соуса к мясу.
What a lot of time you take to dress. — Как же ты долго одеваешься.
We see a lot of her now. — Мы теперь ее часто видим. /Мы теперь с ней часто встречаемся.
- lot of children- lot of dresses
- lot of work
- lot of money
- lot of water
- awful lot of trouble
- lot of time
- work a lot
- take the whole lot don't leave any behind
- say a lot
- there was a lot of trade2) партия, комплектLot № 290 was a set of eleven sketches. — Под №290 на аукционе продавался набор из одиннадцати предметов.
Salt is sold in one kilogram lots. — Соль продается в упаковках по одному килограмму.
- divide fruit into ten lots- have a new lot of hats
- send the books in three different lots
- this lot of orages is better3) группа людей, компания- they're a nice lot of boys
- they're a fine lot of soldiers
- we've got a dull lot of neighbours
- they are a rather boring lot
- they are a bad lot4) территория, участок землиHis house is between two empty lots. — Его дом стоит между двумя пустующими участками.
- small lot- house lot
- film lot
- used car lot
- building lot
- parking lot
- lots of 50 acres
- lot at the edge of the town
- lot and its buildings
- divide the property into lots
- sell the property by lots5) судьба, доля, жребийThe lot came to (fell upon) me. — Жребий пал (пришёлся) на меня.
A policeman's lot is not easy. — У полицейского нелегкая судьба/доля.
His has a hard (happy) lot. — Ему выпала тяжелая (счастливая) судьба/доля.
It fell to my lot to break the news. — На мою долю выпало сообщить эту печальную весть.
It fell to him by lot. — Это ему досталось по жребию.
- lot of everyone- chosen by lot
- be content with one's lot
- better one's lot
- draw lots for turns
- draw lots for choice
- drop lots to decide who should come ferst
- such fortune falls to the lot of few men•USAGE:(1.) Существительное a lot в русском языке соответствует как существительному, так и наречию, главным образом в сочетании с глаголом (he knows a lot он много знает) и с последующими прилагательными и наречиями (a lot better много лучше; a lot more много/гораздо больше). (2.) В разговорном языке в утвердительных предложениях употребление оборота a lot of (1.) предпочтительнее и встречается чаще, чем much и many. Оборот a lot of обычно не используется в отрицательных и вопросительных предложениях, в которых употребляются much и many: has he got many books? yes, he has got a lot of books; did you spend much time in the forest? no, not much. (3.) A lot of не употребляется перед словами, обозначающими отрезок времени. В этих случаях употребляется many или much (many days, much time). (4.) В предложении с оборотом с a lot of + существительное глагол согласуется с именем существительным, синтаксически связанным с оборотом a lot of: a lot of people are expected here; a lot of snow has fallen in the last few Days. (5.) Русским "так много, столько" в восклицательных конструкциях соответствуют such a lot, а также so many, so much: Such a lot of energy was wasted! /So much energy was wasted! Столько сил потрачено зря! So many people came to bid theirfarewell! Сколько людей пришло попрощаться с нимII [lɔt] advмного, гораздо, значительно (перед прилагательными и наречиями)She is a lot better than people think. — Она намного лучше, чем о ней думают.
The weather's a lot warmer there, lots better. — Погода там значительно намного лучше.
I like the boy a lot. — Мне очень нравится этот мальчик
- lot more- look a lot like smb -
23 production
n1) изготовление; производство2) продукция•to cut (back) production — свертывать / сокращать производство
to diversify production — диверсифицировать / разнообразить продукцию
to limit production — ограничивать / сокращать производство
- anarchy of productionto reduce production — свертывать / сокращать производство
- animal production
- annual production
- arms production
- atomic power and energy production
- automation of production
- batch production
- coal production
- commercial production
- commodity production
- comprehensive mechanization of production
- continuous production
- costs of production
- crop production
- current production
- curtailment ofproduction
- cutback of production
- cuts in production
- daily production
- decline in production
- domestic production
- drop in production
- economically effective production
- effectiveness of production
- end production
- energy production - fertilizer production
- fishing production
- flexible production
- flow production
- food production
- full-scale production of the neutron bomb
- global production
- high production
- high-cost production
- highly organized production
- highly remunerative production
- improvement of effectiveness of production
- improvement of production
- individual production
- industrial production
- joint production
- labor-intensive production
- lagging industrial production
- large-scale production - line production
- machine mode of production
- mass production
- material production
- means of production
- mechanized production
- mode of production
- nonspecialized production
- nonwaste production
- per capita production
- per head production
- pilot production
- planned production
- power production
- production advances rapidly
- production declines
- production decreases
- production falls
- production increases
- production of consumer goods
- production of illicit alcohol
- production of means of production
- production outstrips demand
- production rises
- profitable production
- public production
- rate of production
- runaway production
- scale of production
- self-reliance in production
- self-sufficiency in production
- serial production
- short-run production
- small-scale production
- social character of production
- social production - sphere of material production
- stagnant production
- steel production
- structure of industrial production
- subsidiary production
- subsistence production
- switchover from military to civilian production
- technical reequipment of production - total world production
- unequally distributed food production
- uninterrupted development of production
- unprofitable production - war production
- waste-free production
- wasteful production
- wasteless production
- well organized production
- world production -
24 need
[ni:d] nyour \need is greater than mine du brauchst es dringender als ich;there was no \need for you to walk from the station du hättest doch nicht vom Bahnhof herlaufen müssen;to be in \need of sth etw brauchen;to be badly in \need of sth etw dringend brauchen;to have no \need of sth etw nicht brauchen;basic \needs Grundbedürfnisse ntpl;to meet sb's \needs jds Bedürfnisse pl erfüllento have the \need to do sth das Bedürfnis haben, etw zu tun3) ( destitution)in \need in Notas the \need arises bei Bedarf;there's no \need to get so angry es besteht kein Grund, so wütend zu werden;if \need[s] be falls nötigPHRASES:thy \need is greater than mine deine Not ist größer als meine vt1) ( require)to \need sth/sb etw/jdn brauchen;I \need you to advise me on... ich brauche deinen Rat...2) ( should have)to \need sth etw brauchen;what you \need is a nice hot bowl of soup was du jetzt brauchst ist eine schöne, heiße Schüssel Suppe;who \needs a car? I've got my bike wer braucht schon ein Auto? ich habe ja mein Fahrrad; ( hum)I \need this like I \need a hole in the head das ist ja das Letzte, was ich [jetzt auch noch] gebrauchen kann ( fam)this room \needs a bit of brightening-up dieses Zimmer muss man mal ein bisschen freundlicher machen;he \needs his brains examined er hat nicht mehr alle Tassen im Schrank;she \needs that car seeing to sie sollte das Auto mal zur Werkstatt bringen;you won't be \needing your coat today deinen Mantel brauchst du heute nicht3) ( must)to \need to do sth etw tun müssen;to \need not do sth etw nicht tun brauchen;\need we take your mother? müssen wir deine Mutter mitnehmen?4) ( not necessary)you \needn't worry du brauchst dir keine Gedanken zu machen;and it \needn't cost very much und es muss noch nicht mal viel kosten5) ( didn't have to)you didn't \need to invite him - he was sent an invitation weeks ago du hättest ihn nicht einladen müssen - er hat schon vor Wochen eine Einladung zugeschickt bekommen;you \needn't have washed all those dishes du hättest nicht das ganze Geschirr abwaschen müssen;this accident \needn't have happened, if he'd only driven more carefully dieser Unfall wäre nie passiert, wenn er nur vorsichtiger gefahren wäreyou \needn't laugh! du brauchst gar nicht [so] zu lachen!;\need you ask? ( iron) da fragst du noch?;I \need hardly say... ich brauche wohl kaum zu erwähnen...;\need I say more? muss ich noch mehr sagen?
- 1
- 2
См. также в других словарях:
cost — The opposite of revenue. An expense that reflects the price of purchasing goods, services and financial instruments. A cash cost means that cash is given up today to the purchase. Also, the purchase price of an investment, which is compared to… … Financial and business terms
Cost Equalisation — is the idea that the cost of goods and services will over time equal out and cost equalisation will be achieved.It is typical that when a product is introduced into the market place that the price will be effected by both the quantity produced… … Wikipedia
Cost Of Labor — The sum of all wages paid to employees, as well as the cost of employee benefits and payroll taxes paid by an employer. The cost of labor is broken into direct and indirect costs. Direct costs include wages for the employees physically making a… … Investment dictionary
The Corporate Machine — Developer(s) Stardock Publisher(s) Take Two Interactive … Wikipedia
The Natural Economic Order — is the most famous book of Silvio Gesell. PUBLISHED REFERENCES TO GESELL S THEORY John Maynard Keynes: General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (1936): Gesell s main book is written in cool, scientific language; though it is suffused… … Wikipedia
The View from the Mirror — is the first quartet in Ian Irvine s bestselling[1] The Three Worlds Cycle series. Contents 1 Titles 2 The Three Worlds Cycle 3 The Four Species … Wikipedia
The Simpsons (season 23) — The Simpsons Season 23 Country of origin United States Broadcast Original channel Fox Original run September 25, 2011 … Wikipedia
The Dome Leisure Centre — The Dome Doncaster Dome Location The Dome Doncaster Leisure Park Bawtry Road Doncaster DN4 7PD England Opened 26 November 1989 Owner Doncaster Metropolitan Borough Council … Wikipedia
The Wizard of Oz (1939 film) — The Wizard of Oz Theatrical release poster Directed by Victor Fleming Uncredited: Norman Taurog Richard Thorpe … Wikipedia
The Simpsons Movie — The Simpsons Movie … Wikipedia
The Economist editorial stance — The Economist was first published in September 1843 by James Wilson to take part in a severe contest between intelligence, which presses forward, and an unworthy, timid ignorance obstructing our progress. This phrase is quoted on its contents… … Wikipedia