silver+mine

- pure gold

- a gold chain

- a bar of gold

- mine for gold

1894-1975

   El nombre de Joseph Kane se asocia de forma indisoluble a una productora, Republic, de principio a fin. Kane habia dirigido en 1935 un serial para Mascot, que junto con otras pequenas productoras se asociaron para fundar Republic ese mismo ano. Desde esa fecha hasta 1958, en que la productora desaparece, Kane es uno de sus directores mas prolificos. Estamos ante uno de los grandes nombres del western, en cantidad, ya que no en calidad. Entre 1934 y 1975 trabaja en no menos de 120 peliculas, la inmensa mayoria de las cuales pertenecen al genero que nos ocupa. Trabaja con Gene Autry, John Wayne, Robert Livingston, Roy Rogers, Bill Elliott, en tre otros. Despues dirigira algunos episodios de se ries de television y otras cuatro peliculas. Sus mejores filmes son, sin duda, Titanes de la montana y Los indomables, ya al final de su carrera.

   FILMOGRAFIA

    Tumbling Tumbleweeds. 1935. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, Lucile Browne.

    Melody Trail. 1935, 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, Ann Rutherford.

    The Sagebrush Troubadour. 1935. 54 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, Barbara Pepper.

    The Lawless Nineties. 1936. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. John Wayne, Ann Rutherford.

    King of the Pecos. 1936. 54 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. John Wayne, Muriel Evans.

    The Lonely Trail. 1936. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. John Wayne, Ann Rutherford.

    Oh, Susanna! 1936. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, Frances Grant.

    Ride Ranger Ride. 1936. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, Kay Hugues.

    Ghost-Town Gold. 1936. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Ray Corrigan, Kay Hugues, Max Terhune.

    The Old Corral. 1936. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, Hope Manning.

    Guns and Guitars. 1936. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, Dorothy Dix.

    Git Along. Little Dogies. 1937. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, Judith Allen.

    Round-Up Time in Texas. 1937. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, Maxine Doyle.

    Gunsmoke Ranch. 1937. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Ray Corrigan, Julia Thayer, Max Terhune.

    Come On, Cowboys! 1937. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Ray Corrigan, Maxine Doyle, Max Terhune.

    Yodelin’ Kid from Pine Ridge. 1937. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, Betty Bronson.

    Public Cowboy No. 1. 1937. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, Ann Rutherford.

    Heart of the Rockies. 1937. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Ray Corrigan, Lynn Roberts, Max Terhune.

    Boots and Saddles. 1937. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, Judith Allen.

    Springtime in the Rockies. 1937. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, Polly Rowles.

    The Old Barn Dance. 1938. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, Helen Valkis.

    Arson Gang Busters. 1938. 65 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Robert Livingston, Rosalind Keith.

    Under Western Stars. 1938. 65 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Smiley Burnette, Carol Hugues.

    Gold Mine in the Sky. 1938. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, Carol Hugues.

    The Man from Music Mountain. 1938. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, Carol Hughes.

    Billy the Kid Returns. 1938. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, Mary Hart (Lynne Roberts).

    Come On, Rangers. 1938. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Raymond Hatton, Mary Hart (Lynne Roberts).

    Shine On, Harvest Moon. 1938. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Mary Hart (Lynne Roberts).

    Rough Riders’ Round-Up. 1939. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Raymond Hatton, Mary Hart (Lynne Roberts).

    Frontier Pony Express. 1939. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Mary Hart (Lynne Roberts).

    Southward Ho. 1939. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Mary Hart (Lynne Roberts).

    In Old Caliente. 1939. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Mary Hart (Lynne Roberts).

    Wall Street Cowboy. 1939. 66 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Ann Baldwyn, George Hayes, Raymond Hatton.

    In Old Monterey. 1939. 74 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Gene Autry, Smiley Burnette, June Storey.

    The Arizona Kid. 1939. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Dorothy Sebastian, George Hayes.

    Saga of Death Valley. 1939. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Doris Day, George Hayes.

    Days of Jesse James. 1939. 63 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Pauline Moore, George Hayes.

    Young Buffalo Bill. 1940. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Pauline Moore, George Hayes.

    The Carson City Kid. 1940. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Pauline Moore, Bob Steele.

    The Ranger and the Lady. 1940. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Julie Bishop, George Hayes.

    Colorado. 1940. 57 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Pauline Moore, George Hayes.

    Young Bill Hickcok. 1940. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Sally Payne, George Hayes.

    The Border Legion. 1940. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Carol Hugues, George Hayes.

    Robin Hood of the Pecos. 1941. 59 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Marjorie Reynolds, George Hayes.

    In Old Cheyenne. 1941. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Joan Woodbury, George Hayes.

    Sheriff of Tombstone. 1941. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Elyse Knox, George Hayes.

    Nevada City. 1941. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Sally Payne, George Hayes.

    Bad Man of Deadwood. 1941. 61 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Carol Adams, George Hayes.

    Jesse James at Bay. 1941. 56 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Gale Storm, Sally Payne, George Hayes.

    Red River Valley. 1941. 62 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Sally Payne, George Hayes.

    Man from Cheyenne. 1942. 60 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Sally Payne, George Hayes.

    South of Santa Fe. 1942. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Lynda Hayes, George Hayes.

    Sunset on the Desert. 1942. 63 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Lynne Carver, George Hayes.

    Romance on the Range. 1942. 63 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Sally Payne, George Hayes.

    Sons of the Pioneers. 1942. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Maris Wrixon, George Hayes.

    Sunset Serenade. 1942. 58 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Helen Parrish, George Hayes.

    Heart of the Golden West. 1942. 65 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Ruth Terry, George Hayes, Smiley Burnette.

    Ridin’ Down the Canyon. 1942. 55 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Lynda Hayes, George Hayes, Bob Nolan.

    Idaho. 1943. 70 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Virginia Grey, Smiley Burnette, Bob Nolan.

    King of the Cowboys. 1943. 67 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Peggy Moran, Smiley Burnette, Bob Nolan.

    Song of Texas. 1943. 69 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Sheila Ryan, Barton MacLane, Bob Nolan.

    Silver Spurs. 1943. 65 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Phyllis Brooks, Smiley Burnette, Bob Nolan, John Carradine.

    The Man from Music Mountain. 1943. 71 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Ruth Ferry, Bob Notan.

    Hands Across the Border (Cita en la frontera). 1944. 73 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Ruth Terry, Bob Nolan.

    The Cowboy and the Senorita. 1944. 78 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Mary Lee, Dale Evans, Bob Nolan.

    The Yellow Rose of Texas. 1944. 69 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Dale Evans, Bob Nolan.

    Song of Nevada (La cancion de Nevada). 1944. 75 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Roy Rogers, Dale Evans, Mary Lee, Bob Nolan.

    Flame of Barbary Coast (Algun dia volvere). 1945. 91 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. John Wayne, Ann Dvorak.

    Dakota. 1945. 82 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. John Wayne, Vera Ralston, Walter Brennan.

    In Old Sacramento. 1946. 89 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bill Elliott, Constance Moore

    The Plainsman and the Lady. 1946. 87 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bill Elliott, Vera Ralston, Andy Clyde.

    Wyoming. 1947. 84 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bill Elliott, Vera Ralston, George Hayes.

    In Old Los Angeles. 1948. 88 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bill Elliott, Catherine McLeod, Andy Devine.

    The Gallant Legion. 1948. 88 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bill Elliott, Adele Mara, Adrian Booth, Andy Devine.

    The Plunderers. 1948. 87 minutos. Trucolor. Republic. Rod Cameron, Ilona Massey, Adrian Booth.

    The Last Bandit. 1949. 80 minutos. Trucolor. Republic. Bill Elliott, Adrian Booth, Forrest Tucker, Andy Devine.

    Brimstone. 1949. 90 minutos. Trucolor. Republic. Rod Cameron, Adrian Booth, Forrest Tucker, Walter Brennan.

    Rock Island Trail. 1950. 90 minutos. Trucolor. Republic. Forrest Tucker, Adele Mara, Adrian Booth.

    The Savage Horde. 1950. 90 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Bill Elliott, Adrian Booth, Grant Whiters, Noah Beery, Jr.

    California Passage. 1950. 90 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Forrest Tucker, Adele Mara, Jim Davis.

    Oh! Susanna. 1951. 90 minutos. Trucolor. Republic. Rod Cameron, Adrian Booth, Forrest Tucker.

    Woman of the North Country. 1952. 92 minutos. Trucolor. Republic. Ruth Hussey, Rod Cameron, John Agar, Gale Storm

    Ride the Man Down. 1952. 90 minutos. Trucolor. Republic. Brian Donlevy, Rod Cameron, Ella Raines.

    San Antone (Los rebeldes de San Antonio). 1953. 90 min. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Rod Cameron, Arleen Whelan, Katy Jurado, Forrest Tucker.

    Jubilee Trail (Extrana aventura). 1954. 103 minutos. Trucolor. Republic. Vera Ralston, Forrest Tucker, Joan Leslie.

    Hell’s Outpost. 1954. 90 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Rod Cameron, Joan Leslie, John Russell.

    Timberjack (Titanes de la montana). 1955. 94 minutos. Trucolor. Republic. Sterling Hayden, Vera Ralston.

    The Road to Denver. 1955. 90 minutos. Trucolor. Republic. John Payne, Mona Freeman, Lee J. Cobb.

    The Vanishing American (El ocaso de una raza). 1955. 90 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Scott Brady, Audrey Totter, Forrest Tucker.

    The Maverick Queen (Los indomables). 1956. 92 minutos. Trucolor. Natu rama. Republic. Barbara Stanwyck, Barry Sullivan, Scott Brady.

    Thunder Over Arizona. 1956. 70 minutos. Trucolor. Naturama. Republic. Skip Homeier, Kristine Miller.

    Duel at Apache Wells. 1957. 70 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Naturama. Republic. Anna Maria Alberguetti, Ben Cooper, Jim Davis.

    Spoilers of the Forest. 1957. 68 minutos. Trucolor. Naturama. Republic. Rod Cameron, Vera Ralston.

    The Last Stagecoach West. 1957. 67 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Naturama. Republic. Jim Davis, Mary Castle.

    Gunfire at Indian Gap. 1957. 70 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Naturama. Republic. Vera Ralston, Anthony George.

    The Lawless Eighties. 1958. 70 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Naturama. Republic. Buster Crabbe, John Smith, Marilyn Saris.

    Smoke in the Wind (co-d.: Andy Brennan). 1975. 98 minutos. Color. Gamalex. John Ashely, John Russell, Susan Houston, Walter Brennan.

tip

A n

1 ( end) (of stick, branch, shoot, leaf, sword, pen, shoe, nose, tongue, finger, wing) bout m, pointe f ; (of tail, feather, cue) bout m ; (of ski, spire, island, landmass) pointe f ; to stand on the tips of one's toes être sur la pointe des pieds ; at the southernmost tip of Italy à la pointe la plus au sud de l'Italie ;

2 ( protective cover on end) (of cane, umbrella) pointe f ; ( of shoe heel) bout m (ferré) ;

3 GB ( waste dump) ( for rubbish) décharge f ; ( at mine) crassier m ;

4 ○ GB ( mess) fouillis m ; his office is a tip son bureau est un vrai fouillis ;

5 ( gratuity) pourboire m ; to give/leave a tip donner/laisser un pourboire ; a £5 tip 5 livres de pourboire ;

6 ( hint) truc ○ m, conseil m ; sewing/safety tips conseils pour la couture/de sécurité ; a tip for doing ou on how to do un conseil pour faire ; I'll give you a tip, let me give you a tip un conseil d'ami ; take a tip from me, take my tip suis mon conseil ; take a tip from your sister prends exemple sur ta sœur ;

7 ( in betting) tuyau ○ m ; to have a hot tip for sth avoir un bon tuyau pour qch ○.

B - tipped (dans composés) silver-/pink-/spiky-tiped à bout argenté/rose/pointu.

C vtr ( p prés etc - pp-)

1 (tilt, incline) incliner [object, bowl, seat] ; to tip sth forward/back/to one side incliner qch vers l'avant/vers l'arrière/sur le côté ; to tip sth onto its side mettre qch sur le côté ; to tip one's chair back se balancer sur sa chaise ; to tip sb off his ou her chair faire tomber qn de sa chaise ; to tip one's hat soulever son chapeau (to sb pour saluer qn) ; to tip the scales at 60 kg peser 60 kilos ;

2 (pour, empty) to tip sth into/onto/out of sth verser qch dans/sur/de qch ; to tip sth upside down retourner qch ; to tip sth down the sink verser qch dans l'évier ; to tip sth away jeter qch ;

3 fig (push, overbalance) to tip sth over 50% faire passer à qch la barre des 50% ; to tip the economy into recession faire basculer l'économie dans la récession ; to tip sb over the edge ( mentally) faire basculer qn ; to tip the balance ou scales faire pencher la balance (in favour of en faveur de) ; to tip the result the other way inverser les résultats ;

4 (throw away, dump) [person, lorry] déverser [waste] ; to tip sth by the roadside/in the countryside déverser qch le long de la route/dans la campagne ; to tip sth into a pit verser qch dans un trou ;

5 (forecast, predict) to tip sb/sth to win prédire que qn/qch va gagner ; to tip sb as the next president prédire que qn sera le prochain président ; to tip sb for a job prédire que qn aura un poste ; to be tipped as a future champion/for promotion être donné comme futur champion/candidat à une promotion ; to be tipped for the top se voir prédire un avenir brillant ;

6 ( give money to) donner un pourboire à [waiter, driver] ; to tip sb £5 donner 5 livres de pourboire à qn ; how much should I tip (the porter)? combien dois-je laisser de pourboire (au porteur)? ;

7 ( put something on the end of) recouvrir le bout de [sword, cane, heel] (with avec) ; to tip sth with red paint peindre le bout de qch en rouge ; to be tipped with red paint avoir le bout peint en rouge ; to tip an arrow with poison empoisonner la pointe d'une flèche ;

8 Sport (touch, gently push) to tip the ball over the net/past the goalkeeper frapper la balle délicatement pour l'envoyer de l'autre côté du filet/dans le but.

D vi ( p prés etc - pp-)

1 ( tilt) [seat, object] s'incliner ; to tip forward/back/onto one side pencher vers l'avant/vers l'arrière/sur le côté ;

2 fig [balance, scales] pencher (in favour of sb, in sb's favour en faveur de qn).

■ tip down ○ GB dial:

▶ it ou the rain is tipping (it) down il tombe des cordes ○.

■ tip off:

▶ tip off [sb], tip [sb] off avertir, donner un tuyau ○ à [person, police] ; to tip sb off about sth avertir qn de qch ; to be tipped off être averti.

■ tip out:

▶ tip out [sth], tip [sth] out vider [drawer, contents].

■ tip over:

▶ tip over [chair, cupboard] basculer ; [cup, bucket, stack, pile] se renverser ;

▶ tip over [sth], tip [sth] over faire basculer [chair, cupboard] ; renverser [bucket, cup, stack, pile].

■ tip up:

▶ tip up s'incliner, se pencher ;

▶ tip up [sth], tip [sth] up incliner [cup, bottle] ; pencher [chair, wardrobe].

SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy, Mining and extraction technology

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At the University of Prague he studied law, but thereafter turned to mineralogy, physics and different aspects of mining. In 1769–70 he worked with the mining administration in Schemnitz (now Banská Stiavnica, Slovakia) and Prague and later continued travelling to many parts of Europe, with special interests in the mining districts. In 1776, he was charged to enlarge and systematically to reshape the natural-history collection in Vienna. Three years later he was appointed Wirklicher Hofrat at the mining and monetary administration of the Austrian court.

Born, who had been at a Jesuit college in his youth, was an active freemason in Vienna and exercised remarkable social communication. The intensity of his academic exchange was outstanding, and he was a member of more than a dozen learned societies throughout Europe. When with the construction of a new metallurgic plant at Joachimsthal (now Jáchymov, Czech Republic) the methods of extracting silver and gold from ores by the means of quicksilver demanded acute consideration, it was this form of scientific intercourse that induced him in 1786 to invite many of his colleagues from several countries to meet in Schemnitz in order to discuss his ideas. Since the beginnings of the 1780s Born had developed the amalgamation process as had first been applied in Mexico in 1557, by mixing the roasted and chlorinated ores with water, ingredients of iron and quicksilver in drums and having the quicksilver refined from the amalgam in the next step. The meeting led to the founding of the Societät der Bergbaukunde, the first internationally structured society of scientists in the world. He died as the result of severe injuries suffered in an accident while he was studying fire-setting in a Slovakian mine in 1770.

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SUBJECT AREA: Mining and extraction technology

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After Menzies conceived his idea of breaking off coal with machines in 1761, many inventors subsequently followed his proposals through into the practice of underground working. More than one century later, Garforth became one of the principal pioneers of machine-holing combined with the longwall method of working in order to reduce production costs and increase the yield of coal. Having been appointed agent to Pope \& Pearson's Collieries, West Yorkshire, in 1879, of which company he later became Managing Director and Chairman, he gathered a great deal of experience with different methods of cutting coal. The first disc machine was exhibited in London as early as 1851, and ten years later a pick machine was invented. In 1893 he introduced an improved type of deep undercutting machine, his "diamond" disc coal-cutter, driven by compressed air, which also became popular on the European continent.

Besides the considerable economic advantages it created, the use of machinery for mining coal increased the safety of working in hard and thin seams. The improvement of safety in mining technology was always his primary concern, and as a result of his inventions and his many publications he became the leading figure in the British coal mining industry at the beginning of the twentieth century; safety lamps still carry his name. In 1885 he invented a firedamp detector, and following a severe explosion in 1886 he concentrated on coal-dust experiments. From the information he obtained of the effect of stone-dust on a coal-dust explosion he proposed the stone-dust remedy to prevent explosions of coal-dust. As a result of discussions which lasted for decades and after he had been entrusted with the job of conducting the British coal-dust experiments, in 1921 an Act made it compulsory in all mines which were not naturally wet throughout to treat all roads with incombustible dust so as to ensure that the dust always consisted of a mixture containing not more than 50 per cent combustible matter. In 1901 Garforth erected a surface gallery which represented the damaged roadways of a mine and could be filled with noxious fumes to test self-contained breathing apparata. This gallery formed the model from which all the rescue-stations existing nowadays have been developed.

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SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Mining and extraction technology, Railways and locomotives

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The Wylam wagonway passed Newburn, and Hedley, who went to school at Wylam, must have been familiar with this wagonway from childhood. It had been built c.1748 to carry coal from Wylam Colliery to the navigable limit of the Tyne at Lemington. In 1805 Hedley was appointed viewer, or manager, of Wylam Colliery by Christopher Blackett, who had inherited the colliery and wagonway in 1800. Unlike most Tyneside wagonways, the gradient of the Wylam line was insufficient for loaded wagons to run down by gravity and they had to be hauled by horses. Blackett had a locomotive, of the type designed by Richard Trevithick, built at Gateshead as early as 1804 but did not take delivery, probably because his wooden track was not strong enough. In 1808 Blackett and Hedley relaid the wagonway with plate rails of the type promoted by Benjamin Outram, and in 1812, following successful introduction of locomotives at Middleton by John Blenkinsop, Blackett asked Hedley to investigate the feasibility of locomotives at Wylam. The expense of re-laying with rack rails was unwelcome, and Hedley experimented to find out the relationship between the weight of a locomotive and the load it could move relying on its adhesion weight alone. He used first a model test carriage, which survives at the Science Museum, London, and then used a full-sized test carriage laden with weights in varying quantities and propelled by men turning handles. Having apparently satisfied himself on this point, he had a locomotive incorporating the frames and wheels of the test carriage built. The work was done at Wylam by Thomas Waters, who was familiar with the 1804 locomotive, Timothy Hackworth, foreman smith, and Jonathan Forster, enginewright. This locomotive, with cast-iron boiler and single cylinder, was unsatisfactory: Hackworth and Forster then built another locomotive to Hedley's design, with a wrought-iron return-tube boiler, two vertical external cylinders and drive via overhead beams through pinions to the two axles. This locomotive probably came into use in the spring of 1814: it performed well and further examples of the type were built. Their axle loading, however, was too great for the track and from about 1815 each locomotive was mounted on two four-wheeled bogies, the bogie having recently been invented by William Chapman. Hedley eventually left Wylam in 1827 to devote himself to other colliery interests. He supported the construction of the Clarence Railway, opened in 1833, and sent his coal over it in trains hauled by his own locomotives. Two of his Wylam locomotives survive— Puffing Billy at the Science Museum, London, and Wylam Dilly at the Royal Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh—though how much of these is original and how much dates from the period 1827–32, when the Wylam line was re-laid with edge rails and the locomotives reverted to four wheels (with flanges), is a matter of mild controversy.

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See also: Stephenson, George

SUBJECT AREA: Chemical technology

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The son of a prosperous Sheffield manufacturer, Roebuck forsook the family business to pursue studies in medicine at Edinburgh University. There he met Dr Joseph Black (1727–99), celebrated Professor of Chemistry, who aroused in Roebuck a lasting interest in chemistry. Roebuck continued his studies at Leyden, where he took his medical degree in 1742. He set up in practice in Birmingham, but in his spare time he continued chemical experiments that might help local industries.

Among his early achievements was his new method of refining gold and silver. Success led to the setting up of a large laboratory and a reputation as a chemical consultant. It was at this time that Roebuck devised an improved way of making sulphuric acid. This vital substance was then made by burning sulphur and nitre (potassium nitrate) over water in a glass globe. The scale of the process was limited by the fragility of the glass. Roebuck substituted "lead chambers", or vessels consisting of sheets of lead, a metal both cheap and resistant to acids, set in wooden frames. After the first plant was set up in 1746, productivity rose and the price of sulphuric acid fell sharply. Success encouraged Roebuck to establish a second, larger plant at Prestonpans, near Edinburgh. He preferred to rely on secrecy rather than patents to preserve his monopoly, but a departing employee took the secret with him and the process spread rapidly in England and on the European continent. It remained the standard process until it was superseded by the contact process towards the end of the nineteenth century. Roebuck next turned his attention to ironmaking and finally selected a site on the Carron river, near Falkirk in Scotland, where the raw materials and water power and transport lay close at hand. The Carron ironworks began producing iron in 1760 and became one of the great names in the history of ironmaking. Roebuck was an early proponent of the smelting of iron with coke, pioneered by Abraham Darby at Coalbrookdale. To supply the stronger blast required, Roebuck consulted John Smeaton, who c. 1760 installed the first blowing cylinders of any size.

All had so far gone well for Roebuck, but he now leased coal-mines and salt-works from the Duke of Hamilton's lands at Borrowstonness in Linlithgow. The coal workings were plagued with flooding which the existing Newcomen engines were unable to overcome. Through his friendship with Joseph Black, patron of James Watt, Roebuck persuaded Watt to join him to apply his improved steam-engine to the flooded mine. He took over Black's loan to Watt of £1,200, helped him to obtain the first steam-engine patent of 1769 and took a two-thirds interest in the project. However, the new engine was not yet equal to the task and the debts mounted. To satisfy his creditors, Roebuck had to dispose of his capital in his various ventures. One creditor was Matthew Boulton, who accepted Roebuck's two-thirds share in Watt's steam-engine, rather than claim payment from his depleted estate, thus initiating a famous partnership. Roebuck was retained to manage Borrowstonness and allowed an annuity for his continued support until his death in 1794.

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SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives, Steam and internal combustion engines

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Trevithick's father was a tin-mine manager, and Trevithick himself, after limited formal education, developed his immense engineering talent among local mining machinery and steam-engines and found employment as a mining engineer. Tall, strong and high-spirited, he was the eternal optimist.

About 1797 it occurred to him that the separate condenser patent of James Watt could be avoided by employing "strong steam", that is steam at pressures substantially greater than atmospheric, to drive steam-engines: after use, steam could be exhausted to the atmosphere and the condenser eliminated. His first winding engine on this principle came into use in 1799, and subsequently such engines were widely used. To produce high-pressure steam, a stronger boiler was needed than the boilers then in use, in which the pressure vessel was mounted upon masonry above the fire: Trevithick designed the cylindrical boiler, with furnace tube within, from which the Cornish and later the Lancashire boilers evolved.

Simultaneously he realized that high-pressure steam enabled a compact steam-engine/boiler unit to be built: typically, the Trevithick engine comprised a cylindrical boiler with return firetube, and a cylinder recessed into the boiler. No beam intervened between connecting rod and crank. A master patent was taken out.

Such an engine was well suited to driving vehicles. Trevithick built his first steam-carriage in 1801, but after a few days' use it overturned on a rough Cornish road and was damaged beyond repair by fire. Nevertheless, it had been the first self-propelled vehicle successfully to carry passengers. His second steam-carriage was driven about the streets of London in 1803, even more successfully; however, it aroused no commercial interest. Meanwhile the Coalbrookdale Company had started to build a locomotive incorporating a Trevithick engine for its tramroads, though little is known of the outcome; however, Samuel Homfray's ironworks at Penydarren, South Wales, was already building engines to Trevithick's design, and in 1804 Trevithick built one there as a locomotive for the Penydarren Tramroad. In this, and in the London steam-carriage, exhaust steam was turned up the chimney to draw the fire. On 21 February the locomotive hauled five wagons with 10 tons of iron and seventy men for 9 miles (14 km): it was the first successful railway locomotive.

Again, there was no commercial interest, although Trevithick now had nearly fifty stationary engines completed or being built to his design under licence. He experimented with one to power a barge on the Severn and used one to power a dredger on the Thames. He became Engineer to a project to drive a tunnel beneath the Thames at Rotherhithe and was only narrowly defeated, by quicksands. Trevithick then set up, in 1808, a circular tramroad track in London and upon it demonstrated to the admission-fee-paying public the locomotive Catch me who can, built to his design by John Hazledine and J.U. Rastrick.

In 1809, by which date Trevithick had sold all his interest in the steam-engine patent, he and Robert Dickinson, in partnership, obtained a patent for iron tanks to hold liquid cargo in ships, replacing the wooden casks then used, and started to manufacture them. In 1810, however, he was taken seriously ill with typhus for six months and had to return to Cornwall, and early in 1811 the partners were bankrupt; Trevithick was discharged from bankruptcy only in 1814.

In the meantime he continued as a steam engineer and produced a single-acting steam engine in which the cut-off could be varied to work the engine expansively by way of a three-way cock actuated by a cam. Then, in 1813, Trevithick was approached by a representative of a company set up to drain the rich but flooded silver-mines at Cerro de Pasco, Peru, at an altitude of 14,000 ft (4,300 m). Low-pressure steam engines, dependent largely upon atmospheric pressure, would not work at such an altitude, but Trevithick's high-pressure engines would. Nine engines and much other mining plant were built by Hazledine and Rastrick and despatched to Peru in 1814, and Trevithick himself followed two years later. However, the war of independence was taking place in Peru, then a Spanish colony, and no sooner had Trevithick, after immense difficulties, put everything in order at the mines then rebels arrived and broke up the machinery, for they saw the mines as a source of supply for the Spanish forces. It was only after innumerable further adventures, during which he encountered and was assisted financially by Robert Stephenson, that Trevithick eventually arrived home in Cornwall in 1827, penniless.

He petitioned Parliament for a grant in recognition of his improvements to steam-engines and boilers, without success. He was as inventive as ever though: he proposed a hydraulic power transmission system; he was consulted over steam engines for land drainage in Holland; and he suggested a 1,000 ft (305 m) high tower of gilded cast iron to commemorate the Reform Act of 1832. While working on steam propulsion of ships in 1833, he caught pneumonia, from which he died.

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See also: Blenkinsop, John

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- aricular iron ore