princeton+university

  Палачи тоже умирают

   1943 - США (131 мин; часто встречается в сокр. виде)

     Произв. Arnold Productions (Арнолд Прессбёргер), прокат UA

     Реж. ФРИЦ ЛАНГ

     Сцен. Фриц Ланг, Бертольд Брехт, Джон Уэксли

     Опер. Джеймс Вонг Хау

     Муз. Ганс Айслер

     В ролях Брайан Донлеви (доктор Франц Свобода), Уолтер Бреннан (профессор Новотны), Анна Ли (Маша Новотны), Джин Локхарт (Эмиль Чака), Деннис О'Киф (Ян Горек), Александр Гранах (Алоис Грубер), Маргарет Уичерли (тетя Людмила Новотны), Нана Брайант (госпожа Новотны), Ганс фон Твардовски (Райнхард Гейдрих), Лайонел Стэндер (таксист), Райнхольд Шюнцель (инспектор Риттер).

   Прага, 1941 и 1942 гг. Доктор Свобода, боец Сопротивления, убивший Гейдриха, в комендантский час укрывается у дочки профессора истории Новотны Маши, которая однажды невольно помогла ему скрыться от гестаповцев, гнавшихся за ним на улице. В тот же вечер профессор Новотны схвачен как заложник, а вместе с ним - еще 400 жителей Праги. Девушка выдерживает несколько допросов, пока Свобода, наконец, лично не избавляет ее от дознавателей, выдав себя за ее любовника. На допросах Машу убеждают, что ее отец будет казнен, хотя на самом деле его имени нет в списке приговоренных. Несколько сотен заложников погибают, но в этот момент пивовар Эмиль Чака, ведущий двойную игру (он входит в Сопротивление и сотрудничает с гестапо), попадает в ловушку, расставленную соратниками по подполью. Однажды Чаку уже чуть было не сочли предателем, и спасло его лишь то, что он якобы не знал немецкого языка. Теперь же, на банкете в ресторане, гарсон рассказывает в его присутствии анекдот про Гитлера на немецком языке, и Чака покатывается со смеху. Через некоторое время участники Сопротивления и многие жители города дают показания, называя убийцей Гейдриха Чаку; у него же находят труп следователя из гестапо Грубера, убитого Яном Горском, женихом Маши. Чтобы сохранить хорошую мину, немецкие полицейские чины делают вид, будто поверили в виновность Чаки.

   ► Участие Брехта как сценариста привлекло особый интерес исследователей к этому фильму, сделанному без поддержки крупных студий независимым продюсером, старым знакомым Ланга. Сотрудничество Ланга и Брехта не принесло выдающихся результатов, зато было довольно неспокойным и закончилось ссорой, поскольку Лангу пришлось за неделю до съемок сократить слишком длинный сценарий как минимум наполовину. (В работе над сценарием принимал участие и 3-й человек - Джон Уэксли, выбранный потому, что знал и немецкий, и английский языки, ведь Брехт по-английски не говорил; это вылилось в конфликт Уэксли-Брехт, подогретый авторским соперничеством и спорами о порядке появления в титрах.) Как бы то ни было, сценарий Палачи тоже умирают (поначалу носивший названия «Доверие народу», «Пленных не брать», «Безмолвный город» - все они гораздо неудачнее итогового) далек от идеальной линейности или тонкой и умело проработанной изысканности лучших картин Ланга. Сюжет состоит из отдельных блоков, довольно негибких и слишком самостоятельных: введение и представление нацистских сановников; отношения Маши и Свободы; эпизоды с заложниками; устранение пивовара Чаки. Эти блоки соединены между собой в некое подобие единства, и вот тут фильм становится увлекательным и приобретает фирменные черты стиля Ланга. Связующими элементами выступают документальная достоверность, окружающая вымышленные события сюжета (который, напомним, был написан по горячим следам, сразу же после излагаемых событий), и главным образом - развитие центральной темы фильма (ловушки), которая также является одной из базовых фигур всего творчества Ланга.

   В фильме фигурируют 4 ловушки, причем раз от разу их масштабы и количество участников возрастают. Сначала Маша и Свобода расставляют исключительно «звуковую» западню дознавателям из гестапо, разыгрывая любовников в комнате, набитой микрофонами. Затем они вновь изображают застигнутых врасплох любовников в спальне, где прячется раненый боец Сопротивления, которого лечит Свобода. Пивовар Чака впервые попадает в ловушку, когда обнаруживает свое знание немецкого языка на банкете, где находится дюжина персонажей. Наконец, все пражское Сопротивление и немалое количество жителей города сговариваются, чтобы ложными показаниями выдать его за убийцу Гейдриха. Следует отметить, что все эти ловушки оказываются идеально эффективны и добиваются цели, однако при этом никто не остается в дураках. Следователь Грубер в конце концов разгадал первые две уловки, но его убили; да и немецким властям (см. шифровку в финале) прекрасно известно о заговоре против Чаки. (В данном случае ловушка оказывается особенно сложной и особенно удачной, поскольку гестапо, сознавая, что речь идет о подставе, не может объявить об этом в открытую и вынуждено вступить в игру.) Ланг постарался вывести нацистов чудовищами, зверями, мучителями, но не идиотами. Такой взгляд только усиливает напряжение, угрозу, предостережение, которое фильм был призван нести американской публике тех лет, когда нацисты еще действовали вовсю. Вовлекая в свою орбиту все население Праги, абстрактная фигура ловушки приобретает в этом фильме эпические размеры, положительное и освобождающее значение, что весьма необычно для творчества Ланга. Эволюция этой фигуры не только со всей очевидностью доказывает, что Ланг, как и всегда, полностью владеет материалом (с точки зрения концепции, построения и изобразительных средств), она еще и свидетельствует о желании режиссера превратить довольно хаотичную и временами литературную конструкцию в чистый боевик. По мнению Ланга, нацизм следует обличать без лишних слов в линейном сюжете, где бы описание привычек и жестов персонажей, оценка их самих и их мотивов не только мешали драматургическому развитию, но, наоборот, питали его и придавали ему незабываемую насыщенность. Для Ланга фильм не будет удавшимся, каковы бы ни были его цели или сколь бы глубока ни была главная мысль, если в нем не окажется плотного действия, неумолимого и постоянного драматургического движения, свойственного приключенческому роману. Сцена, где герой Уолтера Бреннана перед казнью пересказывает дочери письмо к молодому сыну, служит исключением из этого правила, но от этого не становится менее прекрасной. Авторство этой сцены, как и большинства реплик, вложенных в уста профессора Новотны, вероятно, следует приписать Брехту.

   БИБЛИОГРАФИЯ: интервью и документальные свидетельства в журнале «Film Kritik». Мюнхен, № 223, июль 1975 г. (номер целиком посвящен фильму). Bertolt Brecht. Journal de travail, L'Arche, 1976; James K. Lyon, Bertolt Brecht in America, Princeton University Press, 1980; Lotte H. Eisner, Fritz Lang, Gahiers du cinema - Editions de L'Etoile - Cinematheque Francaise, 1981 (глава 8),

SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building

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Garnier spent almost all his life in Lyon, apart from the years that he passed in Rome as a result of winning the Prix de Rome in 1889. While there, he evolved his concept of the cité industrielle, plans of which he exhibited and published early in the twentieth century. This was an idealized town, powered electrically, with its industrial areas separated from leisure ones. Garnier envisaged flat-roofed buildings supported on pilotis, with glass cladding, a steel structure, and extensive use of concrete. He proposed that each family should occupy its own house in a garden-city concept. In 1905 Garnier became city architect to Lyon, where he was able to carry out some of his ideas of the cité industrielle. He used concrete widely in such schemes as the municipal stadium, the Abattoirs de la Mouche and various housing schemes.

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SUBJECT AREA: Electricity, Telecommunications

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Sent to stay with relatives at the age of 6 because of the illness of his father, when the latter died in 1811 Henry was apprenticed to a silversmith and then turned to the stage. Whilst he was ill himself, a book on science fired his interest and he began studying at Albany Academy, working as a tutor to finance his studies. Initially intending to pursue medicine, he then spent some time as a surveyor before becoming Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy at Albany Academy in 1826. There he became interested in the improvement of electromagnets and discovered that the use of an increased number of turns of wire round the core greatly increased their power; by 1831 he was able to supply to Yale a magnet capable of lifting almost a ton weight. During this time he also discovered the principles of magnetic induction and self-inductance. In the same year he made, but did not patent, a cable telegraph system capable of working over a distance of 1 mile (1.6 km). It was at this time, too, that he found that adiabatic expansion of gases led to their sudden cooling, thus paving the way for the development of refrigerators. For this he was recommended for, but never received, the Copley Medal of the Royal Society. Five years later he became Professor of Natural Philosophy at New Jersey College (later Princeton University), where he deduced the laws governing the operation of transformers and observed that changes in magnetic flux induced electric currents in conductors. Later he also observed that spark discharges caused electrical effects at a distance. He therefore came close to the discovery of radio waves. In 1836 he was granted a year's leave of absence and travelled to Europe, where he was able to meet Michael Faraday. It was with his help that in 1844 Samuel Morse set up the first patented electric telegraph, but, sadly, the latter seems to have reaped all the credit and financial rewards. In 1846 he became the first secretary of the Washington Smithsonian Institute and did much to develop government support for scientific research. As a result of his efforts some 500 telegraph stations across the country were equipped with meteorological equipment to supply weather information by telegraph to a central location, a facility that eventually became the US National Weather Bureau. From 1852 he was a member of the Lighthouse Board, contributing to improvements in lighting and sound warning systems and becoming its chairman in 1871. During the Civil War he was a technical advisor to President Lincoln. He was a founder of the National Academy of Science and served as its President for eleven years.

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IJP - International Journal of Psycho-analysis

JAPA - Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association

SE - Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, ed. James Strachey (London: Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis, 1953—74.)

PSOC - Psychoanalytic Study of the Child (New Haven: Yale University Press)

PQ - Psychoanalytic Quarterly

WAF - The Writings of Anna Freud, ed. Anna Freud (New York: International Universities Press, 1966—74)

PMC - Psychoanalysis The Major Concepts ed. Burness E. Moore and Bernard D. Fine (New Haven: Yale University Press)

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О словаре: _about - Psychoanalytic Terms and Concepts

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1. Abend, S. M. Identity. PMC. Forthcoming.

2. Abend, S. M. (1974) Problems of identity. PQ, 43.

3. Abend, S. M., Porder, M. S. & Willick, M. S. (1983) Borderline Patients. New York: Int. Univ. Press.

4. Abraham, K. (1916) The first pregenital stage of libido. Selected Papers. London, Hogarth Press, 1948.

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6. Abraham, K. (1921) Contributions to the theory of the anal character. Selected Papers. New York: Basic Books, 1953.

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8. Abraham, K. (1924) Manic-depressive states and the pre-genital levels of the libido. In: Selected Papers. London: Hogarth Press, 1949.

9. Abraham, K. (1924) Selected Papers. London: Hogarth Press, 1948.

10. Abraham, K. (1924) The influence of oral erotism on character formation. Ibid.

11. Abraham, K. (1925) The history of an impostor in the light of psychoanalytic knowledge. In: Clinical Papers and Essays on Psychoanalysis. New York: Basic Books, 1955, vol. 2.

12. Abrams, S. (1971) The psychoanalytic unconsciousness. In: The Unconscious Today, ed. M. Kanzer. New York: Int. Univ. Press.

13. Abrams, S. (1981) Insight. PSOC, 36.

14. Abse, D W. (1985) The depressive character In Depressive States and their Treatment, ed. V. Volkan New York: Jason Aronson.

15. Abse, D. W. (1985) Hysteria and Related Mental Disorders. Bristol: John Wright.

16. Ackner, B. (1954) Depersonalization. J. Ment. Sci., 100.

17. Adler, A. (1924) Individual Psychology. New York: Harcourt, Brace.

18. Akhtar, S. (1984) The syndrome of identity diffusion. Amer. J. Psychiat., 141.

19. Alexander, F. (1950) Psychosomatic Medicine. New York: Norton.

20. Allen, D. W. (1974) The Feat- of Looking. Charlottesvill, Va: Univ. Press of Virginia.

21. Allen, D. W. (1980) Psychoanalytic treatment of the exhibitionist. In: Exhibitionist, Description, Assessment, and Treatment, ed. D. Cox. New York: Garland STPM Press.

22. Allport, G. (1937) Personality. New York: Henry Holt.

23. Almansi, R. J. (1960) The face-breast equation. JAPA, 6.

24. Almansi, R. J. (1979) Scopophilia and object loss. PQ, 47.

25. Altman, L. Z. (1969) The Dream in Psychoanalysis. New York: Int. Univ. Press.

26. Altman, L. Z. (1977) Some vicissitudes of love. JAPA, 25.

27. American Psychiatric Association. (1987) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3d ed. revised. Washington, D. C.

28. Ansbacher, Z. & Ansbacher, R. (1956) The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler. New York: Basic Books.

29. Anthony, E. J. (1981) Shame, guilt, and the feminine self in psychoanalysis. In: Object and Self, ed. S. Tuttman, C. Kaye & M. Zimmerman. New York: Int. Univ. Press.

30. Arlow. J. A. (1953) Masturbation and symptom formation. JAPA, 1.

31. Arlow. J. A. (1959) The structure of the deja vu experience. JAPA, 7.

32. Arlow. J. A. (1961) Ego psychology and the study of mythology. JAPA, 9.

33. Arlow. J. A. (1963) Conflict, regression and symptom formation. IJP, 44.

34. Arlow. J. A. (1966) Depersonalization and derealization. In: Psychoanalysis: A General Psychology, ed. R. M. Loewenstein, L. M. Newman, M. Schur & A. J. Solnit. New York: Int. Univ. Press.

35. Arlow. J. A. (1969) Fantasy, memory and reality testing. PQ, 38.

36. Arlow. J. A. (1969) Unconscious fantasy and disturbances of mental experience. PQ, 38.

37. Arlow. J. A. (1970) The psychopathology of the psychoses. IJP, 51.

38. Arlow. J. A. (1975) The structural hypothesis. PQ, 44.

39. Arlow. J. A. (1977) Affects and the psychoanalytic situation. IJP, 58.

40. Arlow. J. A. (1979) Metaphor and the psychoanalytic situation. PQ, 48.

41. Arlow. J. A. (1979) The genesis of interpretation. JAPA, 27 (suppl.).

42. Arlow. J. A. (1982) Problems of the superego concept. PSOC, 37.

43. Arlow. J. A. (1984) Disturbances of the sense of time. PQ, 53.

44. Arlow. J. A. (1985) Some technical problems of countertransference. PQ, 54.

45. Arlow, J. A. & Brenner, C. (1963) Psychoanalytic Concepts and the Structural Theory, New York: Int. Univ. Press.

46. Arlow, J. A. & Brenner, C. (1969) The psychopathology of the psychoses. IJP, 50.

47. Asch, S. S. (1966) Depression. PSOC, 21.

48. Asch, S. S. (1976) Varieties of negative therapeutic reactions and problems of technique. JAPA, 24.

49. Atkins, N. (1970) The Oedipus myth. Adolescence, and the succession of generations. JAPA, 18.

50. Atkinson, J. W. & Birch, D. (1970) The Dynamics of Action. New York: Wiley.

51. Bachrach, H. M. & Leaff, L. A. (1978) Analyzability. JAPA, 26.

52. Bacon, C. (1956) A developmental theory of female homosexuality. In: Perversions,ed, S. Lorand & M. Balint. New York: Gramercy.

53. Bak, R. C. (1953) Fetishism. JAPA. 1.

54. Bak, R. C. (1968) The phallic woman. PSOC, 23.

55. Bak, R. C. & Stewart, W. A. (1974) Fetishism, transvestism, and voyeurism. An American Handbook of Psychiatry, ed. S. Arieti. New York: Basic Books, vol. 3.

56. Balint, A. (1949) Love for mother and mother-love. IJP, 30.

57. Balter, L., Lothane, Z. & Spencer, J. H. (1980) On the analyzing instrument, PQ, 49.

58. Basch, M. F. (1973) Psychoanalysis and theory formation. Ann. Psychoanal., 1.

59. Basch, M. F. (1976) The concept of affect. JAPA, 24.

60. Basch, M. F. (1981) Selfobject disorders and psychoanalytic theory. JAPA, 29.

61. Basch, M. F. (1983) Emphatic understanding. JAPA. 31.

62. Balldry, F. Character. PMC. Forthcoming.

63. Balldry, F. (1983) The evolution of the concept of character in Freud's writings. JAPA. 31.

64. Begelman, D. A. (1971) Misnaming, metaphors, the medical model and some muddles. Psychiatry, 34.

65. Behrends, R. S. & Blatt, E. J. (1985) Internalization and psychological development throughout the life cycle. PSOC, 40.

66. Bell, A. (1961) Some observations on the role of the scrotal sac and testicles JAPA, 9.

67. Benedeck, T. (1949) The psychosomatic implications of the primary unit. Amer. J. Orthopsychiat., 19.

68. Beres, C. (1958) Vicissitudes of superego functions and superego precursors in childhood. FSOC, 13.

69. Beres, D. Conflict. PMC. Forthcoming.

70. Beres, D. (1956) Ego deviation and the concept of schizophrenia. PSOC, 11.

71. Beres, D. (1960) Perception, imagination and reality. IJP, 41.

72. Beres, D. (1960) The psychoanalytic psychology of imagination. JAPA, 8.

73. Beres, D. & Joseph, E. D. (1965) Structure and function in psychoanalysis. IJP, 46.

74. Beres, D. (1970) The concept of mental representation in psychoanalysis. IJP, 51.

75. Berg, M D. (1977) The externalizing transference. IJP, 58.

76. Bergeret, J. (1985) Reflection on the scientific responsi bilities of the International Psychoanalytical Association. Memorandum distributed at 34th IPA Congress, Humburg.

77. Bergman, A. (1978) From mother to the world outside. In: Grolnick et. al. (1978).

78. Bergmann, M. S. (1980) On the intrapsychic function of falling in love. PQ, 49.

79. Berliner, B. (1966) Psychodynamics of the depressive character. Psychoanal. Forum, 1.

80. Bernfeld, S. (1931) Zur Sublimierungslehre. Imago, 17.

81. Bibring, E. (1937) On the theory of the therapeutic results of psychoanalysis. IJP, 18.

82. Bibring, E. (1941) The conception of the repetition compulsion. PQ, 12.

83. Bibring, E. (1953) The mechanism of depression. In: Affective Disorders, ed. P. Greenacre. New York: Int. Univ. Press.

84. Bibring, E. (1954) Psychoanalysis and the dynamic psychotherapies. JAPA, 2.

85. Binswanger, H. (1963) Positive aspects of the animus. Zьrich: Spring.

86. Bion Francesca Abingdon: Fleetwood Press.

87. Bion, W. R. (1952) Croup dynamics. IJP, 33.

88. Bion, W. R. (1961) Experiences in Groups. London: Tavistock.

89. Bion, W. R. (1962) A theory of thinking. IJP, 40.

90. Bion, W. R. (1962) Learning from Experience. London: William Heinemann.

91. Bion, W. R. (1963) Elements of Psychoanalysis. London: William Heinemann.

92. Bion, W. R. (1965) Transformations. London: William Heinemann.

93. Bion, W. R. (1970) Attention and Interpretation. London: Tavistock.

94. Bion, W. R. (1985) All My Sins Remembered, ed. Francesca Bion. Adingdon: Fleetwood Press.

95. Bird, B. (1972) Notes on transference. JAPA, 20.

96. Blanck, G. & Blanck, R. (1974) Ego Psychology. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.

97. Blatt, S. J. (1974) Levels of object representation in anaclitic and introjective depression. PSOC, 29.

98. Blau, A. (1955) A unitary hypothesis of emotion. PQ, 24.

99. Bleuler, E. (1911) Dementia Praecox or the Group of Schizophrenias. New York: Int. Univ. Press, 1951.

100. Blos, P. (1954) Prolonged adolescence. Amer. J. Orthopsychiat., 24.

101. Blos, P. (1962) On Adolescence. New York: Free Press.

102. Blos, P. (1972) The epigenesia of the adult neurosis. 27.

103. Blos, P. (1979) Modification in the traditional psychoanalytic theory of adolescent development. Adolescent Psychiat., 8.

104. Blos, P. (1984) Son and father. JAPA_. 32.

105. Blum, G. S. (1963) Prepuberty and adolescence, In Studies ed. R. E. Grinder. New York: McMillan.

106. Blum, H. P. Symbolism. FMC. Forthcoming.

107. Blum, H. P. (1976) Female Psychology. JAPA, 24 (suppl.).

108. Blum, H. P. (1976) Masochism, the ego ideal and the psychology of women. JAPA, 24 (suppl.).

109. Blum, H. P. (1980) The value of reconstruction in adult psychoanalysis. IJP, 61.

110. Blum, H. P. (1981) Forbidden quest and the analytic ideal. PQ, 50.

111. Blum, H. P. (1983) Defense and resistance. Foreword. JAFA, 31.

112. Blum, H. P., Kramer, Y., Richards, A. K. & Richards, A. D., eds. (1988) Fantasy, Myth and Reality: Essays in Honor of Jacob A. Arlow. Madison, Conn.: Int. Univ. Press.

113. Boehm, F. (1930) The femininity-complex In men. IJP,11.

114. Boesky, D. Structural theory. PMC. Forthcoming.

115. Boesky, D. (1973) Deja raconte as a screen defense. PQ, 42.

116. Boesky, D. (1982) Acting out. IJP, 63.

117. Boesky, D. (1986) Questions about Sublimation In Psychoanalysis the Science of Mental Conflict, ed. A. D. Richards & M. S. Willick. Hillsdale, N. J.: Analytic Press.

118. Bornstein, B. (1935) Phobia in a 2 1/2-year-old child. PQ, 4.

119. Bornstein, B. (1951) On latency. PSOC, 6.

120. Bornstein, M., ed. (1983) Values and neutrality in psychoanalysis. Psychoanal. Inquiry, 3.

121. Bowlby, J. (1960) Grief and morning in infancy and early childhood. PSOC. 15.

122. Bowlby, J. (1961) Process of mourning. IJP. 42.

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246. Freud, S. (1896) Heredity and aetiology of neurosis. SE, 3.

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248. Freud, S. (1899) Screen memories. SE, 3.

249. Freud, S. (1900) The interpretation of dreams. SE, 4—5.

250. Freud, S. (1901) Childhood memories and screen memories SE, 6.

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252. Freud, S. (1901) The psychopathology of everyday life. SE, 6.

253. Freud, S. (1905) Fragments of an analysis of a case of hysteria. SE, 7.

254. Freud, S. (1905) Jokes and their relation to the unconscious. SE, 8.

255. Freud, S. (1905) Psysical (or mental) treatment. SE, 7.

256. Freud, S. (1905) Three essays on the theory of sexuality. SE. 7.

257. Freud, S. (1908) Character and anal erotism. SE, 9.

258. Freud, S. (1908) On the sexual theories of children. SE, 9.

259. Freud, S. (1908) Preface to Wilhelm Stekel's Nervous Anxiety-States and Their Treatment. SE, 9.

260. Freud, S. (1909) Analysis of a phobia in a five-year-old boy. SE, 10.

261. Freud, S. (1909) Family romances. SE, 9.

262. Freud, S. (1909) Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis. SE, 10.

263. Freud, S. (1910) A special type of choice of object made by men. SE, 11.

264. Freud, S. (1910) The autithentical meaning of primal words. SE, 11.

265. Freud, S. (1910) The future prospects of psychoanalytic therapy. SE, 11.

266. Freud, S. (1910) The psychoanalytic view of psychogenic disturbance of vision. SE, 11.

267. Freud, S. (1911) Formulations on the two principles of mental functioning. SE, 12.

268. Freud, S. (1911) Notes on a case of paranoia. SE, 12.

269. Freud, S. (1911) Psychoanalytic notes on an autobiographical account of a case of paranoia. SE, 12.

270. Freud, S. (1911—15) Papers on technique. SE, 12.

271. Freud, S. (1912) Contribution to a discussion on masturbation. SE, 12.

272. Freud, S. (1912) On the universal tendency to abasement in the sphere of love. SE, 11.

273. Freud, S. (1912) The dynamics of transference. SE, 12.

274. Freud, S. (1913) Editor's note The disposition to obsessional neurosis. SE, 12.

275. Freud, S. (1913) On beginning the treatment. SE, 12.

276. Freud, S. (1913) Totem and taboo. SE, 13.

277. Freud, S. (1914) Fausse reconnaissance (deja reconte) in psychoanalytic treatment. SE, 13.

278. Freud, S. (1914) Mourning and melancholia. SE, 15.

279. Freud, S. (1914) Observations on transference love. SE, 12.

280. Freud, S. (1914) On narcissism. SE. 14.

281. Freud, S. (1914) On the history of the psychoanalytic movement. SE, 14.

282. Freud, S. (1914) Remembering, repeating, and working-through. SE, 12.

283. Freud, S. (1914—16) Some character types met with in psychoanalysis. (II) Those wrecked by success SE, 14.

284. Freud, S. (1915) Das UnbewuЯte. Gesammelte Werke, 10.

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287. Freud, S. (1915) Repression. SE, 14.

288. Freud, S. (1915) The unconscious. SE, 14.

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293. Freud, S. (1917) Introductory lectures on psychoanalysis. SE, 16.

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295. Freud, S. (1917) On transformations of instinct as exemplified in anal erotism. SE, 17.

296. Freud, S. (1918) From the history of an infantile neurosis. SE, 17.

297. Freud, S. (1919) "A child is being beaten". SE, 17.

298. Freud, S. (1919) Lines of advance in psychoanalytic therapy. SE, 17.

299. Freud, S. (1919) The uncanny. SE, 17.

300. Freud, S. (1920) Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18.

301. Freud, S. (1920) The Psychogenesis of a case of homosexuality in a woman. SE, 18.

302. Freud, S. (1921) Group psychology and the analysis of the ego. SE, 18.

303. Freud, S. (1923) The ego and the id. SE, 19.

304. Freud, S. (1923) The infantile genital organization. SE, 19.

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308. Freud, S. (1924) The economic problem of masochism. SE, 19.

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310. Freud, S. (1925) Negation. SE, 19.

311. Freud, S. (1925) Some psychical consequences of the anatomical distinction between the sexes. SE, 19.

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313. Freud, S. (1926) The question of lay analysis. SE, 20.

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315. Freud, S. (1930) Civilization and its discontents. SE, 21.

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317. Freud, S. (1931) Libidinal types. SE, 21.

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319. Freud, S. (1933) New introductory lectures on psycho-analysis. SE, 22.

320. Freud, S. (1933) The psychology of women. New introductory lectures on psychoanalysis. SE, 22.

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663. Panel (1970) The development of the child's sense of his sexual identity. Virginia, L. Glower, reporter. JAPA, 18.

664. Panel (1970) The negative therapeutic reaction. S. L. Olinick, reporter. JAPA, 18.

665. Panel (1972) Levels of confidentiality in the psychoanalytic situation. A. S. Watson, reporter JAPA, 20.

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668. Panel (1980) New directions in affect theory. E. P. Lester, reporter. JAPA, 30.

669. Panel (1981) Insight. K. H. Blacker, reporter. JAPA, 29.

670. Panel (1981) Masochism. W. Fischer, reporter. JAPA, 29.

671. Panel (1982) Beyond lay analysis. H. Fischer, reporter. JAPA, 30.

672. Panel (1983) Clinical aspects of character. M. Willick, reporter. JAPA, 31.

673. Panel (1983) Theory of character. S. M. Abend, reporter. JAPA, 31.

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904. Wurmser, L. (1981) The Mask of Shame. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.

905. Zetzel, E. R. (1956) Current concepts of transference. TJP, 37.

1) (a formal talk given to students or other audiences: a history lecture.) conferencia, clase

2) (a long and boring or irritating speech, warning or scolding: The teacher gave the children a lecture for running in the corridor.) reprimenda, sermón

- lecturer

lecture n

1. clase

2. conferencia

tr['lekʧə^SMALLr/SMALL]

noun

1 conferencia

2 (in university) clase nombre femenino

3 (telling-off) reprimenda, sermón nombre masculino

intransitive verb

1 dar una conferencia (on, sobre)

2 (in university) dar clase

transitive verb

1 (scold) sermonear, echar una reprimenda a

lecture ['lɛkʧər] v, - tured ; - turing vi

: dar clase, dictar clase, dar una conferencia

lecture vt

scold: sermonear, echar una reprimenda a, regañar

lecture n

1) : conferencia f

2) reprimand: reprimenda f

• conferencia s.f.

• discurso s.m.

• lección s.f.

• dar conferencias v.

• dar una conferencia v.

• disertar v.

• leer v.

• sermonear v.

a) ( public address) conferencia f; ( more informal) charla f; ( Educ) clase f; (before n)

b) ( talking-to) sermón m

intransitive verb ( Educ) dar* clase, dictar clase (AmL frml), hacer* clase (Chi)

vt (scold, reprove) sermonear, darle* un sermón a

1. N

1) (Univ) clase f ; (by visitor) conferencia f ; (less formal) charla f

2) (fig) sermón m

VT (=scold) sermonear

* * *

a) ( public address) conferencia f; ( more informal) charla f; ( Educ) clase f; (before n)

b) ( talking-to) sermón m

intransitive verb ( Educ) dar* clase, dictar clase (AmL frml), hacer* clase (Chi)

vt (scold, reprove) sermonear, darle* un sermón a

SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology, Telecommunications

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As a child, Shannon tinkered with radio kits and enjoyed solving puzzles, particularly crypto-graphic ones. He graduated from the University of Michigan in 1936 with a Bachelor of Science in mathematics and electrical engineering, and earned his Master's degree from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1937. His thesis on applying Boolean algebra to switching circuits has since been acclaimed as possibly the most significant this century. Shannon earned his PhD in mathematics from MIT in 1940 with a dissertation on the mathematics of genetic transmission.

Shannon spent a year at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, then in 1941 joined Bell Telephone Laboratories, where he began studying the relative efficiency of alternative transmission systems. Work on digital encryption systems during the Second World War led him to think that just as ciphers hide information from the enemy, "encoding" information could also protect it from noise. About 1948, he decided that the amount of information was best expressed quantitatively in a two-value number system, using only the digits 0 and 1. John Tukey, a Princeton colleague, named these units "binary digits" (or, for short, "bits"). Almost all digital computers and communications systems use such on-off, or two-state logic as their basis of operation.

Also in the 1940s, building on the work of H. Nyquist and R.V.L. Hartley, Shannon proved that there was an upper limit to the amount of information that could be transmitted through a communications channel in a unit of time, which could be approached but never reached because real transmissions are subject to interference (noise). This was the beginning of information theory, which has been used by others in attempts to quantify many sciences and technologies, as well as subjects in the humanities, but with mixed results. Before 1970, when integrated circuits were developed, Shannon's theory was not the preferred circuit-and-transmission design tool it has since become.

Shannon was also a pioneer in the field of artificial intelligence, claiming that computing machines could be used to manipulate symbols as well as do calculations. His 1953 paper on computers and automata proposed that digital computers were capable of tasks then thought exclusively the province of living organisms. In 1956 he left Bell Laboratories to join the MIT faculty as Professor of Communications Science.

On the lighter side, Shannon has built many devices that play games, and in particular has made a scientific study of juggling.

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SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology

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After obtaining his AB degree from De Pere University, Wisconsin (1937), and his AM and PhD from the University of Michigan (1938 and 1941, respectively), Burks carried out research at the Moore School of Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, during the Second World War, and at the same time taught philosophy in another department. There, with Herman Goldstine, he was involved in the construction of ENIAC (the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer).

In 1946 he took a post as Assistant Professor of Engineering at Michigan University, and subsequently became Associate Professor (1948) and Full Professor (1954). Between 1946 and 1948 he was also associated with the computer activities of John von Neumann at the Institute of Advanced Studies, Princeton, and was involved in the development of the Whirlwind I computer (the first stored-program computer) by Jay Forrester at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. From 1948 until 1954 he was a consultant for the Burroughs Corporation and also contributed to the Oak Ridge computer ORACLE. He was Chairman of the Michigan University Department of Communications Science in 1967–71 and at various times was Visiting Professor at Harvard University and the universities of Illinois and Stanford. In 1975 he became Editor of the Journal of Computer and System Sciences.

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