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61 спектр масс
Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > спектр масс
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62 спектр масс
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63 SIMS
1) Военный термин: Smart Integrated Monitoring System, selected item management system, sensor intelligence management system, surface-to-air intercept missile system2) Техника: Shuttle imaging microwave system, safety issues management system, secondary ion mass spectroscopy, secondary ion mass spectrum, secondary-ion mass spectrometry, stellar-inertial measurement system3) Религия: Students For International Mission Service4) Биржевой термин: Stock Exchange of Thailand Information Management System5) Грубое выражение: Something Incredibly Miserable Stupid6) Оптика: secondary ion mass spectrometry7) Сокращение: Services Information Management System, Single-Item, Multi-Source, Societal Institute of the Mathematical Sciences8) Университет: Student Information Management System9) Вычислительная техника: sun internet mail server10) Бытовая техника: вторично-ионная масс-спектрометрия11) Сетевые технологии: Solaris Internet Mail Server12) Контроль качества: single-item multisource system13) Океанография: Stable Isotope Mass Spectrometer -
64 SIMS
1. safety issues management system - система управления вопросами безопасности;2. secondary ion mass spectroscopy - масс-спектроскопия вторичных ионов;3. secondary ion mass spectrum - спектр масс вторичных ионов;4. secondary-ion mass spectrometry - масс-спектрометрия вторичных ионов; вторичная ионная масс-спектроскопия;5. Shuttle imaging microwave system - СВЧ система индикации многоразового воздушно-космического аппарата;6. shuttle inventory management system - система управления парком многоразовых транспортных космических кораблей;7. stellar-inertial measurement system - астроинерциальная измерительная система -
65 analysis
анализ; расчёт; исследованиеballistic analysis of propellant — анализ баллистических свойств твёрдого ракетного топлива [пороха]
three-dimensional grain stress analysis — трёхмерный анализ напряжений в зарядах твёрдого ракетного топлива
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66 analysis
анализ; проба; химический состав; расчёт; исследование; определение; см. тж. сочет. с determination @absorption spectroscopic analysis абсорбционный спектральный анализ @activation analysis (радио)активационный анализ @adsorption analysis адсорбционный анализ @amperometric analysis амперометрический анализ @atomic absorption analysis атомный абсорбционный анализ @atomic spectrum analysis атомный спектральный анализ, атомная спектроскопия @capillary analysis капиллярный анализ @chemical analysis химический анализ; химический состав @chromatographic analysis хроматографический анализ @colorimetric analysis колориметрический анализ @conductometric analysis кондуктометрический анализ @coulometric analysis кулонометрический анализ @crystal(lographic) analysis кристаллографический анализ @diffraction analysis структурный анализ @diffusion analysis диффузионный анализ @dropping analysis капельный анализ @elastic-plastic stress analysis упругопластический анализ напряжений @electrocapillary analysis электрокапиллярный анализ @electron beam microprobe analysis электроннолучевой микрозондовый анализ @electron microprobe analysis электронный микрозондовый анализ @elementary analysis элементарный анализ, экспресс-анализ @emission spectrochemical [spectrographic] analysis эмиссионный спектральный анализ @exchange chromatographic analysis ионообменный хроматографический анализ @extraction analysis экстракционный анализ @fatigue statistical analysis статистический анализ характеристик выносливости @filter-paper analysis капельный анализ @flame-photometric analysis пламенно-фотометрический анализ @fluometric analysis флуорометрический анализ @fluorescence analysis люминесцентный [флуоресцентный] анализ @fractographic analysis фрактографический анализ @fracture-mechanics analysis анализ механики разрушения @gas-liquid chromatographic analysis газожидкостный хроматографический анализ @heat-transfer analysis анализ [расчёт] теплопередачи @infrared analysis анализ методом инфракрасной [ИК-] дефектоскопии, инфракрасный анализ [спектроскопия] @infrared spectrophotometric analysis инфракрасный спектрофотометрический анализ @isotope dilution analysis анализ методом изотопного разбавления @macromechanical analysis определение макромеханических характеристик материала, макромеханический анализ @mass-spectral analysis масс-спектральный анализ @mass-spectrographic analysis масс-спектрографический анализ @mass-spectrometric analysis масс-спектрометрический анализ @material analysis анализ [исследование] материала @micromechanical analysis определение микромеханических характеристик материала @micromechanical stress analysis микромеханический анализ напряжений @microprobe analysis микрозондовый анализ @microroentgen spectral analysis микрорентгеноспектральный анализ @microstructural analysis исследование [анализ] микроструктуры, микроструктурный анализ @moiré stress analysis исследование напряжений методом муаровых полос @molecular chromatographic analysis молекулярный хроматографический анализ @molecular spectrum analysis молекулярный спектральный анализ @NDT analysis исследование методом неразрушающего контроля @netting analysis расчёт укладки (волокон) @neutron-activation analysis нейтронный активационный анализ @nuclear activation analysis ядерный активационный анализ @optical stress analysis поляризационно-оптический анализ напряжений @particle-size analysis гранулометрический [ситовый] анализ @partition chromatographic analysis распределительный хроматографический анализ @performance analysis анализ характеристик (материала) @photocolorimetric analysis фотоколориметрический анализ @photoelastic analysis метод фотоупругости, поляризационно-оптический анализ @photoelastic stress analysis анализ напряжений поляризационно-оптическим методом @photoelastic thermal stress analysis анализ термических напряжений поляризационно-оптическим методом @photoviscoelastic analysis метод фотовязкоупругости @polarographic analysis полярографический анализ @proximate analysis приближенный анализ; экспресс-анализ @quantitative ultraviolet analysis количественный ультрафиолетовый анализ @radioactivation analysis радиоактивационный анализ @radioactive analysis радиоактивный анализ @radiochemical analysis радиохимический анализ @radiographic analysis рентгенографический анализ @radiometric analysis радиометрический анализ @rapid analysis экспресс-анализ @rheological analysis анализ реологических свойств @screen analysis гранулометрический [ситовый] анализ @sedimentation analysis седиментационный анализ @sedi(mento)metric analysis седиментометрический анализ @shell analysis расчёт оболочек @sieve [sieving, size] analysis гранулометрический [ситовый] анализ @spectral [spectrochemical, spectrographic, spectroscopic] analysis спектральный анализ @spectrophotometric analysis спектрофотометрический анализ @spectrum analysis спектральный анализ; спектроскопия @strength [structural] analysis расчёт на прочность @theoretical stress analysis теоретический анализ напряжений; теоретический расчет на прочность @thermal analysis анализ термических свойств @thermal gravimetric analysis термогравиметрический анализ @thermal stress analysis расчет термических напряжений @thermodynamic analysis термодинамический анализ @thermoelastic analysis термоупругий анализ @thermogravimetric analysis термогравиметрический анализ @thin-film microprobe analysis тонкоплёночный микрозопдовый анализ @trace analysis анализ следов (включений) @ultra-trace analysis анализ (ультра)-следов (включений) @vibration analysis дефектоскопия методом колебаний; исследование вибраций @visco-elastic stress analysis вязкоупругий анализ напряжений @volumetric analysis объёмный анализ @X-ray analysis рентгеновский анализ @X-ray absorption analysis абсорбционный рентгеноспектральный анализ @X-ray crystal [diffraction] analysis рентгеноструктурный анализ @X-ray powder diffraction analysis рентгеноструктурный порошковый дифракционный анализ @X-ray spectrochemical analysis рентгеноспектральный анализ @X-ray spectrographic analysis рентгеноспектрографический анализ @X-ray spectrum analysis рентгеноспектральный анализ @X-ray structure analysis рентгеноструктурный анализ @Англо-русский словарь по авиационно-космическим материалам > analysis
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67 analysis
1. ана/ лиз2. про/ба3. хими/ ческий соста/в4. расчёт6. определе/ ние (see also determination)absorption spectroscopic analysis — абсорбцио/ нный спектра/ льный ана/ лиз
activation analysis — ра/ диоактивацио/ нный ана/ лиз
adsorption analysis — адсорбцио/ нный ана/ лиз
amperometric analysis — ампе/ рометри/ ческий ана/ лиз
atomic spectrum analysis — а/ томный спектра/ льный ана/лиз, а/ томная спектроскопи/я
capillary analysis — капилля/ рный ана/ лиз
chemical analysis — 1) хими/ ческий ана/ лиз 2) хими/ ческий соста/в
chromatographic analysis — хроматографи/ ческий ана/ лиз
colorimetric analysis — колориметри/ ческий ана/ лиз
conductometric analysis — кондуктометри/ ческий ана/ лиз
coulometric analysis — кулонометри/ ческий ана/ лиз
crystallographic analysis — кристаллографи/ ческий ана/ лиз
diffraction analysis — структу/ рный ана/ лиз
diffusion analysis — диффузио/ нный ана/ лиз
dropping analysis — ка/ пельный ана/ лиз
elastic-plastic stress analysis — упру/ гопласти/ ческий ана/ лиз напряже/ ний
electrocapillary analysis — эле/ ктрокапилля/ рный ана/ лиз
electron beam microprobe analysis — электро/ нно-лучево/ й микрозо/ ндовый ана/ лиз
electron microprobe analysis — электро/ нный микрозо/ ндовый ана/ лиз
elementary analysis — элемента/ рный ана/лиз, экспре/ сс-ана/ лиз
emission spectrochemical analysis — эмиссио/ нный спектра/ льный ана/ лиз
emission spectrographical analysis — эмиссио/ нный спектра/ льный ана/ лиз
extraction analysis — экстракцио/ нный ана/ лиз
fatigue statistical analysis — статисти/ ческий ана/ лиз характери/ стик выно/ сливости
filter-paper analysis — ка/ пельный ана/ лиз
flame-photometric analysis — пла/ менно-фотометри/ ческий ана/ лиз
fluometric analysis — флуорометри/ ческий ана/ лиз
fluorescence analysis — люминесце/нтный [флуоресце/нтный] ана/ лиз
fractographic analysis — фрактографи/ ческий ана/ лиз
fracture-mechanics analysis — ана/ лиз меха/ ники разруше/ ния
heat-transfer analysis — ана/лиз [расчёт] те/ плопереда/чи
infrared analysis — ана/ лиз ме/ тодом инфракра/сной [ИК-] дефектоскопи/и, инфракра/ сный ана/лиз [спектроскопи/я]
infrared spectrophotometric analysis — инфракра/ сный спе/ ктрофотометри/ ческий ана/ лиз
isotope dilution analysis — ана/ лиз ме/ тодом изото/ пного разбавле/ ния
macromechanical analysis — определе/ ние ма/ кромехани/ ческих характери/ стик материа/ла, ма/ кромехани/ ческий ана/ лиз
mass-spectral analysis — ма/ сс-спектра/ льный ана/ лиз
material analysis — ана/лиз [иссле/дование] материа/ла
micromechanical analysis — определе/ ние ми/ кромехани/ ческих характери/ стик материа/ла
micromechanical stress analysis — ми/ кромехани/ ческий ана/ лиз напряже/ ний
microprobe analysis — микрозо/ ндовый ана/ лиз
microroentgen spectral analysis — микрорентге/ но-спектра/ льный ана/ лиз
microstructural analysis — иссле/дование [ана/лиз] ми/ крострукту/ры, ми/ крострукту/ рный ана/ лиз
moire stress analysis — иссле/ дование напряже/ ний ме/ тодом муа/ ровых поло/с
molecular chromatographic analysis — молекуля/ рный хроматографи/ ческий ана/ лиз
molecular spectrum analysis — молекуля/ рный спектра/ льный ана/ лиз
NDT analysis — иссле/ дование ме/ тодом неразруша/ ющего контро/ля
netting analysis — расчёт укла/ дки (воло/ кон)
neutron-activation analysis — нейтро/ нный активацио/ нный ана/ лиз
optical stress analysis — поляризацио/ нно-опти/ ческий ана/ лиз напряже/ ний
particle-size analysis — гранулометри/ческий [си/товый] ана/ лиз
partition chromatographic analysis — распредели/ тельный хроматографи/ ческий ана/ лиз
performance analysis — ана/ лиз характери/ стик (материа/ла)
photocolorimetric analysis — фо/ токолориметри/ ческий ана/ лиз
photoelastic analysis — ме/ тод фотоупру/гости, поляризацио/ нно-опти/ ческий ана/ лиз
photoelastic stress analysis — ана/ лиз напряже/ ний поляризацио/ нно-опти/ ческим ме/ тодом
photoelastic thermal stress analysis — ана/ лиз терми/ ческих напряже/ ний поляризацио/ нно-опти/ ческим ме/ тодом
photoviscoelastic analysis — ме/ тод фо/ товязкоупру/ гости
polarographic analysis — полярографи/ ческий ана/ лиз
proximate analysis — 1) приближённый ана/ лиз 2) экспре/ сс-ана/ лиз
radioactivation analysis — радиоактивацио/ нный ана/ лиз
radioactive analysis — радиоакти/ вный ана/ лиз
radiochemical analysis — радиохими/ ческий ана/ лиз
radiographic analysis — рентгенографи/ ческий ана/ лиз
radiometric analysis — радиометри/ ческий ана/ лиз
rapid analysis — экспре/ сс-ана/ лиз
rheological analysis — ана/ лиз реологи/ ческих сво/ йств
screen analysis — гранулометри/ческий [си/товый] ана/ лиз
sedimentation analysis — седиментацио/ нный ана/ лиз
sedimentometric analysis — седиме/ нтометри/ ческий ана/ лиз
shell analysis — расчёт оболо/ чек
sieve analysis — гранулометри/ческий [си/товый] ана/ лиз
sieving analysis — гранулометри/ческий [си/товый] ана/ лиз
size analysis — гранулометри/ческий [си/товый] ана/ лиз
spectral analysis — спектра/ льный ана/ лиз
spectrochemical analysis — спектра/ льный ана/ лиз
spectгоgraphic analysis — спектра/ льный ана/ лиз
spectroscopic analysis — спектра/ льный ана/ лиз
spectrophotometric analysis — спе/ ктрофотометри/ ческий ана/ лиз
spectrum analysis — 1) спектра/ льный анализ 2) спектроскопи/я
strength analysis — расчёт на про/ чность
structural analysis — расчёт на про/ чность
theoretical stress analysis — 1) теорети/ ческий ана/ лиз напряже/ ний 2) теорети/ ческий расчёт на про/ чность
thermal analysis — ана/ лиз терми/ ческих сво/ йств
thermal gravimetric analysis — термогравиметри/ ческий ана/ лиз
thermal stress analysis — расчёт терми/ ческих напряже/ ний
thermodynamic analysis — термодинами/ ческий ана/ лиз
thermoelastic analysis — термоупру/ гий ана/ лиз
thermogravimetric analysis — те/ рмогравиметри/ ческий ана/ лиз
thin-film microprobe analysis — тонкоплёночный микрозо/ ндовый ана/ лиз
trace analysis — ана/ лиз следо/в (включе/ ний)
ultra-trace analysis — ана/ лиз у/ льтраследо/в (включе/ ний)
vibration analysis — 1) дефе/ ктоскопи/ я ме/ тодом колеба/ ний 2) иссле/ дование вибра/ ций
visco-elastic stress analysis — вя/ зкоупру/ гий ана/ лиз напряже/ ний
volumetric analysis — объёмный ана/ лиз
X-гау analysis — рентге/ новский ана/ лиз
X-ray absorption analysis — абсорбцио/ нный рентге/ носпектра/ льный ана/ лиз
X-ray crystal analysis — рентге/ нострукту/ рный ана/ лиз
X-ray diffraction analysis — рентге/ нострукту/ рный ана/ лиз
X-ray powder diffraction analysis — рентге/ нострукту/ рный порошко/ вый дифракцио/ нный ана/ лиз
X-ray spectrochemical analysis — рентге/ носпектра/ льный ана/ лиз
X-ray spectrographs analysis — рентге/ носпектрографи/ ческий ана/ лиз
X-ray spectrum analysis — рентге/ носпектра/ льный ана/ лиз
X-ray structure analysis — рентге/ нострукту/ рный ана/ лиз
English-Russian dictionary of aviation and space materials > analysis
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68 analyzer
1) анализатор3) пищ. бражная колонна•-
absorptiometric analyzer
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ac network analyzer
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acoustic gas analyzer
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admittance analyzer
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airborne lidar haze analyzer
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airborne lidar plume analyzer
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amino acid analyzer
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amplitude analyzer
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antenna pattern analyzer
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atomic absorptive analyzer
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autocorrelation analyzer
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automatic dead reckoning analyzer
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baseband analyzer
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brake analyzer
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bus analyzer
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chromatographic analyzer
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circuit analyzer
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coincidence analyzer
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color analyzer
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colorimetric analyzer
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combustible gas analyzer
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complex plane analyzer
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continuous analyzer
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coulometric analyzer
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curve analyzer
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cylindrical mirror analyzer
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dc network analyzer
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dead reckoning analyzer
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dew-cell gas analyzer
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differential analyzer
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digital differential analyzer
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distillating analyzer
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electrical aerosol analyzer
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electron paramagnetic analyzer
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electron probe analyzer
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electrostatic analyzer
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energy dispersive X-ray analyzer
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exhaust gas analyzer
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fault analyzer
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flame photometric analyzer
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flame-ionization gas analyzer
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fluorometric analyzer
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Fourier analyzer
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frequency-response analyzer
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frequency analyzer
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fuel-air mixture analyzer
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functional analyzer
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gas analyzer
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harmonic-wave analyzer
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harmonic analyzer
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height analyzer
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IC analyzer
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infrared gas analyzer
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ion microprobe analyzer
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ion microprobe mass analyzer
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lexical analyzer
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lightning position analyzer
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logic analyzer
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luminescence analyzer
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machine tool analyzer
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magnetooptical analyzer
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mass-spectrometric analyzer
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mass analyzer
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microprobe analyzer
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mine air analyzer
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mine dust incombustibles analyzer
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mobility analyzer
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multichannel analyzer
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multifrequency analyzer
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multiport network analyzer
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multirange analyzer
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narrow-band proportional bandwidth analyzer
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net oil analyzer
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network analyzer
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noise analyzer
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noise spectrum analyzer
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nondispersive infrared analyzer
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nuclear magnetic resonance analyzer
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on-stream analyzer
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optical-acoustic gas analyzer
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ore grade analyzer
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panoramic sonic analyzer
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partial pressure analyzer
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personal gas analyzer
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photoelectric analyzer
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picture analyzer
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pulse analyzer
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quadrupole mass analyzer
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quadrupole residual gas analyzer
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radio interference analyzer
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radio noise analyzer
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radioisotopic analyzer
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radiospectrometric analyzer
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redoxometric analyzer
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refractometric analyzer
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residual gas analyzer
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semantic analyzer
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set analyzer
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signal analyzer
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signature analyzer
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smart spectrum analyzer
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sound analyzer
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spectropolarimetric analyzer
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spectroscope analyzer
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spectrum analyzer
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speech analyzer
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surface analyzer
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syntactic analyzer
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television color analyzer
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thermoconductometric analyzer
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thermomagnetic analyzer
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time-distribution analyzer
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timing analyzer
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titrometric analyzer
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transfer function analyzer
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transient analyzer
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turbidimetric analyzer
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vibration analyzer
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wave analyzer
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waveform analyzer
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X-ray emission analyzer -
69 analyzer
1) анализатор•- amplitude analyzer
- antenna pattern analyzer
- anticoincidence analyzer - automatic circuit analyzer - baseband analyzer
- battery analyzer
- bottom-up analyzer
- bottom-up acoustic analyzer
- bus state analyzer
- circuit analyzer
- color analyzer
- command analyzer
- continuous analyzer
- cross-correlation analyzer
- curve analyzer
- differential analyzer - digital spectrum analyzer
- distortion analyzer
- electronic differential analyzer
- fault analyzer
- Fourier analyzer
- fractional-octave spectrum analyzer
- frequency-response analyzer
- half-shade analyzer
- half-shadow analyzer
- harmonic analyzer
- harmonic-wave analyzer
- height analyzer
- heterodyne harmonic analyzer
- heterodyne spectral noise analyzer
- heterodyne wave analyzer
- impact-noise analyzer
- integrated-circuit analyzer
- interferometric analyzer
- juncture analyzer
- Keuffel-Esser color analyzer
- lexical analyzer
- line analyzer
- logic analyzer
- loudness analyzer
- magnetic reaction analyzer
- mass analyzer
- Mössbauer-effect analyzer
- multichannel analyzer
- multifrequency analyzer
- network analyzer
- noise analyzer
- octave analyzer
- octave-band noise analyzer
- optical spectrum analyzer
- panoramic spectrum analyzer
- ping analyzer
- polarized-light analyzer
- protocol analyzer
- pulse analyzer
- pulse-amplitude analyzer
- pulse-height analyzer
- pulse-spacing analyzer
- radio interference analyzer - set analyzer
- signal analyzer
- signature analyzer
- single-channel analyzer
- smart spectrum analyzer
- sound analyzer
- spectrum analyzer
- speech analyzer
- surface analyzer - time-distribution analyzer
- time-interval analyzer
- time-of-flight analyzer
- top-down analyzer
- transient analyzer
- vibration analyzer
- wave analyzer
- waveform analyzer -
70 analyzer
1) анализатор•- amplitude analyzer
- antenna pattern analyzer
- anticoincidence analyzer
- Auger cylindrical-mirror analyzer
- autocorrelation analyzer
- automatic circuit analyzer
- automatic network analyzer
- automatic spectrum analyzer
- baseband analyzer
- battery analyzer
- bottom-up acoustic analyzer
- bottom-up analyzer
- bus state analyzer
- circuit analyzer
- color analyzer
- command analyzer
- continuous analyzer
- cross-correlation analyzer
- curve analyzer
- differential analyzer
- digital differential analyzer
- digital signal analyzer
- digital spectrum analyzer
- distortion analyzer
- electronic differential analyzer
- fault analyzer
- Fourier analyzer
- fractional-octave spectrum analyzer
- frequency-response analyzer
- half-shade analyzer
- half-shadow analyzer
- harmonic analyzer
- harmonic-wave analyzer
- height analyzer
- heterodyne harmonic analyzer
- heterodyne spectral noise analyzer
- heterodyne wave analyzer
- impact-noise analyzer
- integrated-circuit analyzer
- interferometric analyzer
- juncture analyzer
- Keuffel-Esser color analyzer
- lexical analyzer
- line analyzer
- logic analyzer
- loudness analyzer
- magnetic reaction analyzer
- mass analyzer
- Mössbauer-effect analyzer
- multichannel analyzer
- multifrequency analyzer
- network analyzer
- noise analyzer
- octave analyzer
- octave-band noise analyzer
- optical spectrum analyzer
- panoramic spectrum analyzer
- ping analyzer
- polarized-light analyzer
- protocol analyzer
- pulse analyzer
- pulse-amplitude analyzer
- pulse-height analyzer
- pulse-spacing analyzer
- radio interference analyzer
- recording optical spectrum analyzer
- semantic analyzer
- set analyzer
- signal analyzer
- signature analyzer
- single-channel analyzer
- smart spectrum analyzer
- sound analyzer
- spectrum analyzer
- speech analyzer
- surface analyzer
- telegraphy channel reliability analyzer
- time-delay analyzer
- time-distribution analyzer
- time-interval analyzer
- time-of-flight analyzer
- top-down analyzer
- transient analyzer
- vibration analyzer
- wave analyzer
- waveform analyzerThe New English-Russian Dictionary of Radio-electronics > analyzer
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71 analysis
1) анализ2) исследование, изучение4) расчет ( обычно проверочный)5) состав6) теория•-
activation analysis
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algorithmic analysis
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amino acid analysis
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approximate analysis
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Auger-electron analysis
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backward analysis
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base ratio analysis
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behavioral analysis
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bending analysis
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bottom-up analysis
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boundary-element analysis
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brittle coating analysis
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buckling analysis
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bulk analysis
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carbon group analysis
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cepstral analysis
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chemical analysis
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chromatographic analysis
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circuit analysis
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circuit malfunotion analysis
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closed boundary analysis
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clustering analysis
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cluster analysis
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coal-sizing analysis
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combustion analysis
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comfirmatory analysis
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comparative analysis
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compensation analysis
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component analysis of casing head gas
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computer aided analysis
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core analysis
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correlation analysis
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coupled-mode analysis
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covariance analysis
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criticality analysis
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cross correlation analysis
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cross-field analysis
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cryoscopic analysis
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crystal analysis
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cylindrical mirror Auger analysis
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data analysis
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depth-area-duration analysis
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destructive analysis
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diagnostic analysis
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differential thermal analysis
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diffraction analysis
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dilatometric analysis
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discourse analysis
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discriminant analysis
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dispersion analysis
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distortion analysis
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dynamic force analysis
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ecological analysis
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economic analysis
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elastic-plastic stress analysis
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electron diffraction analysis
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electron microprobe analysis
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electron probe analysis
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emission analysis
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end-point analysis
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energy-dispersive analysis
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environmental analysis
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error analysis
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event-sequence analysis
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extinction analysis
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factor analysis
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failure analysis
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failure cause analysis
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fast neutron activation analysis
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field analysis
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fine-mesh analysis
-
fingerprint analysis
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finite-element analysis
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float-and-sink analysis
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fluorescence analysis
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formation damage analysis
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four-dimensional analysis
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Fourier analysis
-
fractional analysis
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frequency analysis
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frequency-domain analysis
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frequency-response analysis
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frontal analysis
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fuel analysis
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gamma-ray analysis
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gradation analysis of soil
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grading analysis
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gravimetric analysis
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grid-point analysis
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group analysis
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harmonic analysis
-
Hempel analysis
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heteroduplex analysis
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hot-extraction gas analysis
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hydrograph analysis
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immunoblot analysis
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infrared analysis
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Interactive analysis
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interactive image analysis
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ion microprobe mass analysis
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ladle analysis
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large-sample analysis
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least-square analysis
-
limit state analysis
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linear analysis
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logical analysis
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logic analysis
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magnetometric analysis
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malfunction analysis
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market analysis
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mass spectrographic analysis
-
mass spectrometric analysis
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mathematical analysis
-
matrix analysis
-
measure analysis
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mechanical analysis
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mesh analysis
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microprobe analysis
-
microprobe-inclusion analysis
-
microscopical analysis
-
microstructure analysis
-
mobility-shift analysis
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modal analysis
-
model-based analysis
-
model analysis
-
moire stress analysis
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molecular spectrum analysis
-
multilevel analysis
-
multivariate analysis
-
NDT analysis
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nearest neighbor analysis
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nephelometric analysis
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network analysis
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neutron diffraction analysis
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nodal analysis
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noise analysis
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nondestructive test analysis
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noninvasive analysis
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numerical analysis
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observational analysis
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octave analysis
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oil type analysis
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on-line analysis
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operations analysis
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opticospectral analysis
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parametric analysis
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particle-size analysis
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periodogram analysis
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perturbation analysis
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petrographic analysis
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phase shift analysis of the scattering
-
phase-plane analysis
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photoelastic-coating analysis
-
photoelasticity analysis
-
polarographic analysis
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pore-size analysis
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postaccident criticality analysis
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posttest analysis
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predictive analysis
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pretest analysis
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probit analysis
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proximate analysis
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qualitative analysis
-
quantitative analysis
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radioactive tracer analysis
-
radiographic analysis
-
RAM analysis
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rapid analysis
-
real-time analysis
-
regression analysis
-
release analysis
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reliability analysis
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reliability availability maintainability analysis
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revolving field analysis
-
ring analysis
-
Rutherford scattering analysis
-
safety transit analysis
-
sample analysis
-
sampling analysis
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scale analysis
-
screen analysis
-
sea-level analysis
-
sedimentation analysis
-
shear analysis
-
sieve analysis
-
signature analysis
-
simulated network analysis
-
single burst analysis
-
slag analysis
-
small signal analysis
-
solar resource analysis
-
spatial frequency analysis
-
spectral analysis
-
spectrophotometric analysis
-
speculative analysis
-
spot test analysis
-
stack-gas analysis
-
standing wave analysis
-
statistical analysis
-
stiffness analysis
-
strain-gage analysis
-
strength analysis
-
stress analysis
-
structural analysis
-
subsynoptic-scale analysis
-
symbolic analysis
-
syntactic analysis
-
systems analysis
-
system analysis
-
tapping analysis
-
temporal pulse analysis
-
tensor analysis
-
test sieve analysis
-
thermal analysis
-
thermoeconomic analysis
-
thermographic analysis
-
thermogravimetric analysis
-
thermomagneto-gravimetric analysis
-
three-dimensional analysis
-
time series analysis
-
timing analysis
-
top-down analysis
-
trace analysis
-
transient analysis
-
triangular hydrograph analysis
-
ultimate analysis
-
upper-level analysis
-
variance analysis
-
vault-pathways analysis
-
vector analysis
-
wandering spot analysis
-
water analysis
-
wave analysis
-
weather analysis
-
wet analysis
-
worst-case analysis
-
X-ray absorption analysis
-
X-ray analysis
-
X-ray crystal analysis
-
X-ray dispersive analysis
-
X-ray emission analysis
-
X-ray image analysis
-
X-ray spectrum analysis
-
X-ray structure analysis
-
Zuber's hydrodynamic analysis -
72 MDR
1) Компьютерная техника: Memory Disc Register, Midas Data Recorder2) Медицина: Multiple Drug Resistant, мультирезистентность (в контексте про туберкулез; означает устойчивость к изониазиду и рифампицину (как минимум)), multi-drug resistant (в контексте про туберкулез; означает устойчивость к изониазиду и рифампицину (как минимум)), мультирезистентный, multi-drug resistance3) Спорт: Maiden Dirt Route, Mojave Desert Racing, Inc., Most Dangerous Receiver4) Военный термин: MASINT Data Request, maintenance data report, maintenance demand rate, master discrepancy report, materiel deficiency report, maximum detection range, mean detection range, minor discrepancy repair, missile deviation report, missing data report, mission data reduction, motion detection radar5) Техника: main storage data register, maintenance data recorder, maintenance data reporting, mass dispersion relation, master data records, multichannel data recorder, Manufacturing Dimension Report6) Сельское хозяйство: minimum daily requirement7) Железнодорожный термин: Kansas City Southern Railway Company8) Сокращение: Median Detection Range, Memory Data Register, Moyen de Deminage Rapide (France), master data record9) Университет: Medical Doctors Research10) Физика: Maximum Detectable Rigidity11) Физиология: Multiple Disease Resistance12) Вычислительная техника: Mark-sense Document Reader13) Нефть: представление данных о техническом обслуживании (maintenance data reporting), устройство регистрации данных о техническом обслуживании (maintenance data recorder)14) Иммунология: macrophage disappearance reaction15) множественная лекарственная устойчивость (milti-drug resistance, например, о туберкулезе)16) Онкология: Multi Drug Resistant17) Деловая лексика: Manorial Document Register, Marketing that Delivers Results, Оценка развития руководящего состава ( компания Марс) (Management development review)18) Менеджмент: master document register19) Сетевые технологии: Multiservices Dynamic Reservation, medium data rate, регистр данных запоминающего устройства, средняя скорость передачи данных20) Полимеры: moving die rheometer21) Медицинская техника: Medical Device Reporting (отчетность по медицинским устройствам)22) Химическое оружие: Milestone Decision Review23) Расширение файла: Minimum Design Requirement, Microdrive file (Spectrum emulator), ZX Spectrum (emulator by (g.a.lunter:)24) Нефть и газ: Manufacturer's Data Report25) NYSE. McDermott International, Inc.26) Программное обеспечение: Multifactor Dimensionality Reduction27) Базы данных: Mass Data Reporting, Meta Data Repository -
73 model
1. модель; макет; образец; эталон/ модельный/ моделировать2. модель; вариант; типactuator modelactuator disk modeladvanced development modelaerodynamic modelaeroelastic modelaeroelastically scaled modelair combat modelairplane modelairplane-like modelapproach modelarrow-wing modelatmospheric modelautopilot modelautorotation modelautothrottle modelBaldwin-Lomax modelbasic modelbeam modelbeam/lumped mass modelbiomorphic modelblowing modelbody alone modelbreadboard modelcable-mounted modelcargo load modelCFD modelcombustion modelcombustion-flow modelcommand modelcompensatory modelcomposite modelcompressibility modified modelcomputer modelcone-cylinder modelcone-finned modelconical-flow modelconsistent modelconstant amplitude fatigue modelconstitutive modelcontinuous-mass modelcontinuum modelcontroller modelcorrelation modelcounter-rotation modelcrack modelcrack growth modelcrack growth retardation modelcrossover modelcumulative damage modeldamage accumulation modeldamper modeldatabase modeldeterministic modeldevelopment-type modeldifferential-game modeldiscrete modeldistributed lift modeldisturbance modeldowndraft modeldrop modelDryden modelDugdale modeldynamically scaled modeldynamics modelenergy-conservation modelengagement modelengine modelengineering development modelerror modelfailure modelfatigue modelfilament modelfine grid modelfinite element modelfixed-base modelfixed-wing modelflow modelflutter modelflutter-suppression modelfour-input/four-output modelfractional derivative modelfracture modelfree to roll modelfree-flight modelfree-flying modelfree-spinning modelfreely flying modelfrequency-domain modelfull modelfull-order modelfull-span modelfull-span wing modelgame modelgeneric modelgeometric modelgeometrically scaled modelgravity modelgravity anomaly modelgust modelhalf-plane modelhalf-wing modelhigh-fineness-ratio modelhuman operator modelidentified modelilluminated modelinfinite-blade modelinput modelinstrumented modelinverse modelisolated wing modelk-e modelk-W modelkinematic modelkinetic modellarge-scale modellead-lag pilot modellead-only pilot modellinear modellongitudinal modellower-order modellumped parameter modellumped-mass modelMach-scaled modelmagnetically suspended modelmass-and-spring modelmass-spring modelMaxwell modelmembrane and rod modelmeteorological modelmicromechanical modelMiner-Palmgren damage modelminimum phase modelmissile modelmodal modelmomentum-conserved modelmoving modelmultiaxis modelmultidegree of freedom modelmultiloop modelmultiscale modelneuromuscular modelobservation modelover-parameterized modelparabolized Navier-Stokes modelpendulation modelperformance modelperturbation modelphenomenological modelphysical modelpilot-aircraft modelpilot-vehicle modelpiston modelpitch modelpitch-plunge modelpitch-lateral-directional modelplant modelplastic modelpneumodynamic modelpowered modelpowered-lift modelprecision modelprediction modelpreview modelproduction modelproperly parameterized modelpropfan modelpropulsion modelpure gain pilot modelquantized modelquasi-static modelR&M modelradar modelradial spring modelradio control modelradio controlled modelreal-world modelreduced order modelreference modelreflectivity modelreingestion modelreplica modelreplica-type modelrocket-propelled modelroll modelrotor-body modelrotorcraft modelscale modelscaled modelscattering modelself-consistent modelsemiempirical modelsemispan modelsemispan wing modelsensitivity modelsimulation modelsingle-axis modelsingle-body modelsingle-rotation modelspectrum fatigue modelspray modelstall modelstate modelstate space modelstatistical modelstiffness modelstochastic modelstress modelstructural modelstudy modelsupersonic cruise modeltask modelterrain modelthin-jet modelthree-degree-of-a-freedom modelthree-state modelthrust modeltire modeltransfer-function modeltransparent modeltruth modeltunnel-supported modelturbulence modeltwin-body modeltwo layer turbulence modeltwo-control modeltwo-degrees-of-freedom modeltwo-equation turbulence modelunquantized modeluntuned modelusage modelV/STOL modelvaporization modelvehicle stability modelvertical dynamic modelvestibular modelviscous/inviscid modelvisual cueing modelwake modelwake/wing modelwater tunnel modelWheeler retardation modelwind-tunnel modelwindshear modelwing-canard modelwing-rotor modelwireframe modelyaw model -
74 point
1) пункт
2) запятая
3) кегль
4) острие
5) острый конец
6) очко
7) расшивать
8) расшить
9) точечный
10) шпицевать
11) деление
12) <topogr.> мыс
13) точка
14) место
15) указывать
16) ставить знаки препинания
17) заострение
18) наконечник
19) предмет
20) <engin.> балл
– accessible point
– accumulation point
– adherent point
– altimetric point
– ambiguous point
– amplitude of a point
– anchoring point
– antipodal point
– at a point
– at point
– attaching point
– attachment point
– automatic set point
– barometrical point
– base point
– bending point
– binary point
– boiling point
– boundary point
– branch point
– branching point
– breaker point
– brilliant point
– burble point
– cardinal point
– center point
– check point
– chisel point
– compass-card point
– condensation point
– conjugate point
– contact point
– continuous at a point
– contraction to point
– convergence point
– corner point
– cultivator point
– Curie point
– cuspidal point
– cut point
– cutter point
– data point
– datum point
– dead point
– decimal point
– degree of point
– departure point
– dew point
– diacritical point
– diamond point
– diramation point
– discontinuity point
– divider point
– dividing point
– double point
– drill point
– east point
– enclose a point
– entry point
– equilibrium point
– equivalence point
– evaporating point
– extra-axis point
– extreme point
– finishing point
– firing point
– fix point in position
– fixed point
– flash point
– flex point
– floating point
– form point
– freezing point
– fusion point
– generic point
– glass-transition point
– glaziers' point
– gold point
– grid point
– half-power point
– hinge point
– ice formation point
– ideal point
– ignition point
– image of a point
– indication point
– infinite point
– inflection point
– initial point
– intersection point
– inverse point
– isolated point
– junction point
– labile point
– lattice point
– limit point
– linkage point
– load point
– lubrication point
– main point
– mark a point
– marker point
– mass point
– material point
– measuring point
– melting point
– mirror point
– movable point
– multiple point
– nadir point
– Neel point
– neutral point
– nodal point
– north point
– null point
– operating point
– pitch point
– point approximation
– point at infinity
– point bar
– point brilliance
– point cathode
– point conic
– point contact
– point contacts
– point corrosion
– point diode
– point disturbance
– point eikonal
– point focus
– point force
– point harmonic
– point hologram
– point in time
– point joints
– point lock
– point locking
– point mass
– point of application
– point of break
– point of connection
– point of contact
– point of control
– point of departure
– point of destination
– point of emanation
– point of inflection
– point of interpolation
– point of intersection
– point of junction
– point of lattice
– point of levelling
– point of observation
– point of osculation
– point of reference
– point of separation
– point of sight
– point of support
– point of tangency
– point of the compass
– point of tooth
– point of view
– point pile
– point radiator
– point resolution
– point scale
– point scatterer
– point set
– point source
– point spectrum
– point temperature
– point tool
– point wire
– position of a point
– power of a point
– precipitation point
– principal point
– radix point
– rail point
– ramification point
– reefing point
– reference point
– regular point
– ridge point
– saddle point
– sampling point
– saturation point
– sense point
– separation point
– sequence point
– share point
– silver point
– singing point
– singular point
– softening point
– solidification point
– spark-plug point
– spinodal point
– spiral point
– sputter point
– stagnation point
– starting point
– stationary point
– stock point
– switching point
– terminal point
– tooth point
– touch-down point
– transfer point
– transformation point
– transition point
– triangulation point
– triple point
– turning point
– umbilical point
– unit point
– up to this point
– valley point
– vanishing point
– work point
– world point
– yield point
– zenith point
azimuth of distant point — <topogr.> азимут направления на отдаленную наблюдаемую
bisecting point of a segment — <geom.> середина отрезка
control point adjustment — настройка точки регулирования, <engin.> задатчик
facing point lock — < railways> замок ригельный оконечный
fixed point computation — вычисление с фиксированной запятой
floating decimal point — <comput.> точка плавающая
including the point at infinity — включая бесконечно удаленную точку
phase separation point — <phys.> критическая точка расслаивания
point spread function — <opt.> функция аппаратная, <opt.> функция рассеяния точки
true boiling point — <phys.> температура кипения истинная
-
75 relation
отношение, соотношение; связь@effective temperature-spectral type relationсоотношение эффективная температура-спектральный класс@mass-luminosity relationсоотношение масса-светимость@mass-luminosity-radius relationзависимость масса-светимость-радиус@mass-radius relationсоотношение масса-радиус@period-luminosity relationсоотношение период-светимость@solar-terrestrial relationsсолнечно-земные связи@spectrum-luminosity relationсоотношение спектр-светимость@ -
76 Historical Portugal
Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims inPortugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and theChurch (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict untilUN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU. -
77 analysis
1) анализ
2) анализирование
3) состав
4) исследование
5) разбор
6) проба
– activation analysis
– activity analysis
– analysis by scanning
– analysis by synthesis
– analysis is in control
– analysis of causes
– analysis of variance
– anticipatory analysis
– approximate analysis
– arbitrary analysis
– ash analysis
– biochemical analysis
– blow-pipe analysis
– break-even analysis
– bulk analysis
– bunch map analysis
– carry out analysis
– cause-and-effect analysis
– circuit analysis
– cluster analysis
– colorimetric analysis
– combinatorial analysis
– combustion analysis
– complete analysis
– component analysis
– composite analysis
– compound analysis
– conductimetric analysis
– confluence analysis
– conformational analysis
– correlation analysis
– cost analysis
– coulometric analysis
– covariance analysis
– cross-impact analysis
– cross-sectional analysis
– crystallographic analysis
– decantation analysis
– decision analysis
– demand analysis
– dimensional analysis
– distillation analysis
– drop analysis
– dry analysis
– error analysis
– factor analysis
– failure analysis
– float-and-sink analysis
– flue-gas analysis
– fluorimetric analysis
– Fourier analysis
– fractional analysis
– frequency analysis
– fusion analysis
– guaranteed analysis
– harmonic analysis
– immersion analysis
– impact analysis
– in the last analysis
– inorganic analysis
– input analysis
– input-output analysis
– isotope-dilution analysis
– jet analysis
– kinematic analysis
– ladle analysis
– limit analysis
– loop analysis
– magnetothermal analysis
– marginal analysis
– marketing analysis
– mesh analysis
– metallographic analysis
– microvolumetric analysis
– model analysis
– multivariate analysis
– nephelometric analysis
– network analysis
– nodal analysis
– noise analysis
– numerical analysis
– on-stream analysis
– ore analysis
– organoleptic analysis
– partial analysis
– particle-size analysis
– petrographic analysis
– pressure-field analysis
– proximate analysis
– pulse-height analysis
– pyrochemical analysis
– quantitative analysis
– radioactivation analysis
– radiographic analysis
– radiometric analysis
– refractometric analysis
– regression analysis
– sampling analysis
– scanning analysis
– sedimentation analysis
– sequential analysis
– sewage analysis
– side analysis
– simulation analysis
– specify analysis
– spectrographic analysis
– spectrophotometric analysis
– spectrum analysis
– strength analysis
– stress analysis
– stroboscopic analysis
– structural analysis
– substantial analysis
– successive analysis
– systematic analysis
– systems analysis
– tapping analysis
– tensor analysis
– thermogravimetric analysis
– time-and-frequency analysis
– titimetric analysis
– titrimetric analysis
– trace analysis
– tracer analysis
– trade-off analysis
– transient analysis
– turbidimetric analysis
– ultimate analysis
– vacuum-fusion analysis
– vector analysis
– volumetric analysis
– weight analysis
– wet analysis
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78 system
1) система || системный3) вчт операционная система; программа-супервизор5) вчт большая программа6) метод; способ; алгоритм•system halted — "система остановлена" ( экранное сообщение об остановке компьютера при наличии серьёзной ошибки)
- CPsystem- H-system- h-system- hydrogen-air/lead battery hybrid system- Ksystem- Lsystem- L*a*b* system- master/slave computer system- p-system- y-system- Δ-system -
79 analysis
анализ
analysis by dry way сухой анализ;
analysis by measure объёмный анализ;
analysis by titration титровальный анализ;
analysis by wet way мокрый анализ
analysis of discovery index and exploration success историко-статистический анализ разведки
analysis of variance дисперсионный анализ
activation analysis активационный анализ
age-frequency analysis посистемный анализ
architectural-element analysis анализ элементов и строения (водных отложений)
area-altitude analysis гипсометрический анализ
bioiacies analysis биофациальный анализ
check analysis контрольный анализ
cluster analysis групповой (гроздевой) анализ, кластер-анализ
colorimetric analysis колориметрический анализ
covariance analysis ковариационный анализ
cross-spectrum analysis сопряжённый анализ
differential thermal — дифференциально-термический анализ
digital analysis цифровой анализ
dimensional analysis анализ размерности
discriminant analysis дискриминантный анализ
discriminant function analysis анализ дискриминантных функций
elementary analysis элементарный анализ
factor analysis факторный анализ
four-variable analysis четырёхмерный анализ
fractional analysis фракционный анализ
grade analysis гранулометрический анализ
gravimetric analysis весовой анализ
gravity analysis гравитационный анализ
harmonic analysis гармонический анализ
hierarchial analysis иерархический анализ
humid analysis мокрый анализ
hypsometric analysis гипсометрический анализ
isallo analysis изалло-анализ
least-squares analysis анализ методом наименьших квадратов
lineament analysis анализ линеаментов
mass-spectrographic analysis масс-спектрографический анализ
mesh analysis ситовый анализ
micrometric analysis микрометрический метод анализа
microprobe analysis электронно-зондовый анализ
modal analysis модальный анализ, минералогический подсчёт
multidimensional analysis многомерный анализ
multivariate analysis комплексный (многомерный) анализ
numerical analysis числовой расчёт
on-stream analysis анализ в потоке
particle(-size) analysis гранулометрический анализ
petrofabric analysis петроструктурный анализ
pipette analysis пипеточный анализ (гранулометрический анализ тонкозернистых осадков с применением пипетки для отбора образцов из взвеси)
planimetric analysis планиметрический анализ (диаграмма строения, распределения точек и сравнения по участкам)
point-counter analysis точечный анализ
polarographic analysis полярографический анализ
pollen analysis пыльцевой анализ
pore-structure analysis пороструктурный анализ
proximate analysis 1. приближённый (частный, технический) анализ, экспресс-анализ 2. определение составных частей смеси
Q-mode analysis анализ Q-методом
qualitative analysis качественный анализ
quantitative analysis количественный анализ
quantitative mineralogical analysis количественный минералогический анализ
radiation analysis анализ излучения
response surface analysis анализ характеристических поверхностей
R-mode factor analysis факторный анализ R методом
Rosiwal analysis метод Розиваля (количественный метод определения содержания минералов в породе в объёмных процентах)
screen analysis ситовый анализ
sedimentation analysis седиментационный анализ
seismic facies analysis сейсмофациальный анализ
seismic sequence analysis анализ сейсмических серий
semiquantitative analysis полуколичественный анализ
sieve analysis ситовый анализ
size (frequency) analysis гранулометрический анализ
soil analysis почвенный анализ (методом геохимической разведки)
spectral analysis спектральный анализ
spectrographs analysis спектрографический анализ
spectrum analysis спектральный анализ
spherical harmonic analysis сферический гармонический анализ
spores and pollen analysis спорово-пыльцевой анализ
structural analysis структурный анализ
template analysis палеточный анализ
terrain analysis анализ естественных данных опре делённого участка
textural analysis структурный анализ
thermal analysis дифференциальный термальный анализ
thermochemical analysis термохимический анализ
three-dimensional analysis трёхмерный анализ
time-term analysis анализ годографов
trace analysis анализ следов
tree-ring analysis древесно-кольцевой анализ
turbidity size analysis гранулометрический анализ взвеси
ultimate analysis полный элементарный анализ
umpire analysis третейская проба
volumetric analysis объёмный анализ
wet analysis мокрый анализ
X-ray analysis рентгенографический анализ
X-ray crystal analysis рентгеноструктурный анализ
analyze анализировать
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80 analysis
1) анализ; исследование; изучение2) разбор3) анализ, состав•analysis in time domain — матем. временной анализ
analysis is in control — хим. состав попадает в анализ
analysis situs — матем. топология
См. также в других словарях:
mass spectrum — n the spectrum of a stream of gaseous ions separated according to their mass and charge … Medical dictionary
Mass spectrum — Electron ionization mass spectrum of toluene [4]. Note parent peak corresponding to molecular mass M = 92 (C7H8+) and highest peak at M 1 = 91 (C7H7+, quasi stable tropylium cation). A mass spectrum is an inten … Wikipedia
mass spectrum — masių spektras statusas T sritis Standartizacija ir metrologija apibrėžtis Spektras, gaunamas masių spektroskopijos metodu. atitikmenys: angl. Aston spectrum; mass spectrum vok. Massenspektrum, n rus. масс спектр, m; спектр масс, m pranc. spectre … Penkiakalbis aiškinamasis metrologijos terminų žodynas
mass spectrum — masių spektras statusas T sritis chemija apibrėžtis Spektras, gaunamas masių spektroskopijos metodu. atitikmenys: angl. Aston spectrum; mass spectrum rus. масс спектр; спектр масс … Chemijos terminų aiškinamasis žodynas
mass spectrum — masių spektras statusas T sritis fizika atitikmenys: angl. mass spectrum vok. Massenspektrum, n rus. массовый спектр, m; масс спектр, m; спектр масс, m pranc. spectre de masses, m … Fizikos terminų žodynas
Mass spectrum analysis — is an integral part of mass spectrometry.[1][2] Organic chemists obtain mass spectra of chemical compounds as part of structure elucidation and the analysis is part of every organic chemistry curriculum. Co … Wikipedia
mass spectrum — mass′ spec′trum n. phs a spectrum of charged particles arranged in order of mass or mass to charge ratios • Etymology: 1915–20 … From formal English to slang
mass spectrum — /mæs ˈspɛktrəm/ (say mas spektruhm) noun a spectrum obtained with a mass spectrograph or mass spectrometer, which displays the isotopes present in a sample in order of increasing charge to mass ratio …
mass spectrum — Physics. a spectrum of charged particles, arranged in order of mass or mass to charge ratios. [1915 20] * * * … Universalium
mass spectrum — noun a distribution of ions as shown by a mass spectrograph or a mass spectrometer • Hypernyms: ↑spectrum … Useful english dictionary
mass spectrum — noun Date: 1920 the spectrum of a stream of gaseous ions separated according to their differing mass and charge … New Collegiate Dictionary