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61 come
1. v приходить; идтиto come down — спускаться, опускаться
please ask him to come down — пожалуйста, попросите его сойти вниз
to come up — подниматься, идти вверх
I saw him coming up the hill — я видел, как он поднимался в гору
I saw him coming along the road — я видел, как он шёл по дороге
I will wait here until he comes by — я буду ждать здесь, пока он не пройдёт
to come forward — выходить вперёд, выступить
volunteers, come forward — добровольцы, вперёд!
to come into a room — входить, в комнату
when he came out it was dark — когда он вышел, было уже темно
to come back — вернуться, прийти назад
2. v приезжать, прибывать3. v идти; ехатьcome! — пошли!, идём!
4. v подходить, приближаться5. v доходить, достигатьcome across — быть понятным, доходить до собеседника
6. v равняться, достигатьcome short of — иметь недостаток в; не достигать; не достичь; не достигнуть; не оправдывать; не оправдать
7. v сводиться8. v прийти; достичьto come to an understanding — прийти к соглашению, договориться
come to an understanding — прийти к соглашению; договориться
he said she should come — он сказал, чтобы она пришла
I fear that I cannot come — боюсь, что не смогу прийти
9. v наступать, приходитьhis turn came — наступила его очередь, настал его черёд
come in — приходить, прибывать
come on — наступать, надвигаться
10. v ожидаться, предстоятьhow many pigs are expected to come forward this month? — какое поступление свиней на рынок ожидается в этом месяце?
11. v появляться, возникатьan idea came into his head — ему пришла в голову мысль, у него возникла идея
it comes to me that I owe you money — я припоминаю, что я вам должен
to come into the picture — появляться, выступать
to come into existence — возникать, появляться
come into existence — возникать; появляться
come into service — возникать; появляться
come into being — возникать; появляться
12. v находиться13. v случаться; происходить; проистекатьno harm will come to you — с тобой ничего не случится; тебе ничего не грозит
to come to pass — происходить, случаться
come to pass — случаться; случиться
come about — происходить, случаться
14. v выходить, получаться, приводитьno good will come of it — ничего хорошего из этого, не получится, это до добра не доведёт
15. v происходить, иметь происхождение16. v прорастать, всходить, расти17. v амер. разг. устроить, сделатьcome up in the world — сделать карьеру; преуспеть в жизни
come to a conclusion — делать вывод; приходить к заключению
18. v разг. испытать оргазм, кончить19. v выражаетcome out with it, boy — ну, парень, выкладывай
20. v упрёк, протест ну что вы!what? He here! Oh! come, come! — как? Он здесь?! Да оставьте вы!
come hell or high water — несмотря ни на что; вопреки всему
telegraph to him to come — телеграфируй, чтобы он приехал
where do I come in? — при чём тут я?, что мне до этого?
come again? — простите, не расслышал, что вы сказали?
21. v увещевание полно!, ну, ну!now come! be patient! — ну потерпите; имей терпение
22. v будущееin times to come — в будущем, в грядущие времена
in years to come — в ближайшие годы; в будущем
23. v считать, считая сСинонимический ряд:1. advance (verb) advance; come along; get along; march; move; proceed; progress2. amount (verb) add up; aggregate; amount; number; sum into; sum to; total3. amounted (verb) added up; aggregated; amounted; numbered; run into; run to; summed into; summed to; totaled or totalled4. arrive (verb) appear at; approach; arrive; attain; close in; draw near; get; get in; show5. arrived (verb) arrived; got in or gotten in; got or gotten; reached; shown or showed; shown up or showed up; turned up6. become (verb) become; go; gone; grown; run; turn; turned; wax; waxed7. happen (verb) befall; betide; break; chance; do; fall; fall out; give; hap; happen; occur; pass; transpire8. happened (verb) befallen; betided; broken; chanced; come off; developed; done; fallen out; given; happened; occurred; passed; risen; transpired9. reach (verb) develop; expand; extend; grow; join; reach; spread; stretch10. reach orgasm (verb) climax; copulate; ejaculate; enjoy sex; have an orgasm; reach orgasm; reach sexual fulfillment11. show up (verb) appear; be accessible; be at one's disposal; be convenient; be handy; be obtainable; be ready; enter; show up; turn up12. sprung (verb) arise; derive; emanate; flow; hail; issue; originate; rise; sprung; stemАнтонимический ряд:leave; withdraw -
62 flow
1. n течение, истечение; излияниеflow of gum — камедетечение, гуммоз
parallel flow — параллельное течение; ламинарный поток
2. n поток, струяpopulation flow — миграционные потоки; перемещения населения
communication flow — коммуникационный поток; поток указаний
3. n ход, течение4. n наплыв, прилив, изобилие5. n плавность линий6. n гидр. дебит воды7. n пчел. медосбор, взяток8. n спец. циркуляция в замкнутой системе9. n тех. деформация, коробление10. n физиол. менструация11. v течь; литься12. v течь, протекать13. v струиться, бить струёй, обильно литьсяblood will flow — прольётся много крови; будет большое кровопролитие
14. v непрерывно двигаться15. v прибывать, подниматься16. v ниспадать17. v вытекать, происходить, проистекать18. v заливать, покрывать водой; наводнять, затоплять19. v лить; заливать20. v изобиловать, обиловать21. v горн. фонтанировать; выбрасывать22. v физиол. менструировать23. n болото, трясина; заболоченный низкий берег24. n зыбучий песокСинонимический ряд:1. abundance (noun) abundance; cascade; effusion2. current (noun) course; current; drift; ebb; flood; flux; rush; spate; tide; torrent3. gush (noun) gush; spout; spurt4. outpouring (noun) discharge; emanation; outpouring; overflowing5. river (noun) rill; river; rivulet; stream; streamlet6. blow (verb) blow; puff7. circulate (verb) circulate; eddy; swirl; whirl8. discharge (verb) discharge; disembogue; emit; empty; give off; issue; jet; spout; spurt; vent; void9. proceed (verb) continue; march; move; pass; proceed; progress; roll on; run10. roll (verb) glide; roll; sail11. spring (verb) arise; birth; come; come from; derive; derive from; emanate; head; originate; rise; spring; stem; upspring12. teem (verb) abound; crawl; overflow; pullulate; swarm; teem13. well (verb) course; gush; pour; roll; rush; sluice; stream; surge; wellАнтонимический ряд:beat; cease; check; ebb; fail; halt; hesitate; prevent; stick; stint; stop; trickle -
63 furtherance
n продвижение; помощь, поддержкаСинонимический ряд:1. advancement (noun) advance; advancement; assisting; boosting; fostering; headway; march; progress; progression2. encouragement (noun) aid; encouragement; enhancement; help; improvement; patronage; promotion; support -
64 get along
1. phr v жить; прожить; обходитьсяhow are you getting along? — как вы поживаете?, как дела?
how are you? — Getting along! — как поживаешь? — Помаленьку!
worry along — продержаться, выжить, уцелеть
2. phr v преуспевать, делать успехи3. phr v уходить; двигаться; продвигатьсяgo along — идти, двигаться
push along — продолжать путь; уходить
4. phr v стареть5. phr v ладить, быть в хороших отношенияхrub along — ладить, уживаться
all along the line — во всём, во всех отношениях
Синонимический ряд:1. age (verb) age; get on; harmonise; senesce2. come (verb) advance; come; come along; get on; march; move; proceed; progress3. shift (verb) do; fare; fend; get by; manage; muddle through; shift; stagger along; stagger on -
65 get on
1. phr v надеватьget your hat on — надень, шляпу
2. phr v преуспевать, делать успехиget ahead — преуспевать; процветать; добиваться успеха
to get there — добиться своего; добиться успеха, преуспеть
3. phr v продвигатьсяwhile he was getting on with the job … — пока он занимался делом …
4. phr v заставлять двигаться или идти вперёдto get a shop — занять первое, второе или третье место
5. phr v поправляться6. phr v пользоваться успехом7. phr v узнаватьget to hear — узнать; узнавать
get to know — узнать; узнавать
get to learn — узнать; узнавать
8. phr v связываться; вступать в контакт9. phr v приставатьСинонимический ряд:1. advance (verb) advance; march; move; proceed; progress2. age (verb) age; get along; harmonise; senesce3. arrive (verb) arrive; get ahead; rise; succeed4. don (verb) assume; don; draw on; huddle on; pull on; put on; slip into; slip on; throw5. improve (verb) come along; do well; improve; prosper6. shift (verb) do; fare; get by; manage; muddle through; shift; stagger along; stagger on -
66 go
1. n разг. ход, ходьба; движениеthe boat rolled gently with the come and go of small waves — лодка мягко покачивалась на мелких волнах
on the go — на ходу; на ногах
passing go — решающий ход в настольной игре «го»
2. n разг. обстоятельство, положение; неожиданный поворот делtell me how things go ? — расскажите мне, как идут дела?
3. n разг. попыткаto have a go at — попытаться, рискнуть, попытать счастья
4. n разг. приступ5. n разг. порция6. n разг. сделка, соглашение7. n разг. разг. энергия, воодушевление; рвение; увлечение8. n разг. разг. успех; удача; успешное предприятиеto make a go of it — добиться успеха, преуспеть
he is convinced that he can make a go of it — он уверен, что добьётся в этом деле успеха
9. n разг. редк. походка10. n разг. ход; бросок«мимо»
quite the go — последний крик моды; предмет всеобщего увлечения
first go — первым делом, сразу же
at a go — сразу, зараз
11. a амер. разг. быть в состоянии готовности; работать12. v идти, ходить13. v направляться, следовать; ехать, поехатьto go on a journey — поехать в путешествие; совершать путешествие
to go on a visit — поехать с визитом; поехать погостить
14. v ездить, путешествовать, передвигатьсяto go at a crawl — ходить, ездить или двигаться медленно
15. v ходить, курсировать16. v уходить, уезжатьwe came at six and went at nine — мы пришли в шесть, а ушли в девять
I must be going now, I must be gone — теперь мне нужно уходить
she is gone — она ушла, её нет
17. v отходить, отправлятьсяto go gunning — охотиться, ходить на охоту
18. v двигаться, быть в движенииgo along — идти, двигаться
go forth — быть опубликованным, изданным
19. v двигаться с определённой скоростьюto go along — двигаться дальше; идти своей дорогой
to go nap — поставить всё на карту, идти на большой риск
20. v работать, действовать, функционировать21. v жить, действовать, функционироватьhe manages to keep going — он как-то тянет, ему удаётся держаться
22. v тянуться, проходить, пролегать, простиратьсяmountains that go from east to west — горы, тянущиеся с востока на запад
go by — проходить, проезжать мимо
23. v дотягиваться; доходитьto go to the races — ходить на скачки; ходить на бега
go about — расхаживать, ходить туда и сюда; слоняться
24. v протекать, проходитьvacation goes quickly — не успеваешь оглянуться, а отпуск кончился
I hope all goes well with you — надеюсь, что у вас всё хорошо
how did the voting go? — как завершилось голосование?; каковы результаты голосования?
25. v исчезать; проходить26. v исчезнуть, пропастьthe key has gone somewhere — ключ куда-то распространяться; передаваться
27. v передаваться28. v иметь хождение, быть в обращенииto go out of curl — быть выбитым из колеи; утратить форму
to go to oblivion — быть преданным забвению, быть забытым
29. v идти; брать на себя; решатьсяto go snacks — делить поровну; делиться ; брать свою долю
30. v податься; рухнуть; сломаться, расколотьсяfirst the sail went and then the mast — сперва подался парус, а затем и мачта
there goes another button! — ну вот, ещё одна пуговица отлетела!
31. v потерпеть крах, обанкротитьсяto go phut — лопнуть, потерпеть крах
go to smash — разориться; обанкротиться
to go to smash — разориться, обанкротиться
to go bust — остаться без копейки, обанкротиться
32. v отменяться, уничтожаться33. v отказываться; избавляться34. v быть расположенным, следовать в определённом порядкеto go by the title of … — быть известным под именем …
35. v храниться, находиться; становиться36. v умещаться, укладыватьсяthe thread is too thick to go into the needle — нитка слишком толстая, чтобы пролезть в иголку
37. v равняться38. v заканчиваться определённым результатом39. v гласить, говоритьthe story goes that he was murdered — говорят, что его убили
properly speaking, you ought to go — собственно говоря, вы должны уйти
40. v звучатьthe tune goes something like this … — вот как, примерно, звучит этот мотив
41. v звонитьI hear the bells going — я слышу, как звонят колокола
42. v бить, отбивать время43. v умирать, гибнутьshe is gone — она погибла, она умерла
to go to rack and ruin — обветшать; разрушиться; погибнуть
44. v пройти, быть принятымto take a turn, to go for a turn — пройтись
to go for a trot — быстро пройтись, пробежаться
45. v быть приемлемым46. v разг. выдерживать, терпеть47. v справляться, одолевать48. v ходить определённым шагомgo and see — заходить; зайти; навещать; навестить
go to see — заходить; зайти; навещать; навестить
49. v спариватьсяСинонимический ряд:1. energy (noun) birr; energy; hardihood; pep; potency; tuck2. fling (noun) crack; fling; pop; shot; slap; stab; try; whack; whirl3. occurrence (noun) circumstance; episode; event; happening; incident; occasion; occurrence; thing4. success (noun) arrival; flying colors; prosperity; success; successfulness5. time (noun) bout; hitch; innings; shift; siege; spell; stint; time; tour; trick; turn; watch6. vigor (noun) bang; drive; getup; get-up-and-go; punch; push; snap; starch; vigor; vitality7. agree (verb) accord; agree; check; check out; cohere; comport; conform; consist; consort; correspond; dovetail; fit in; harmonise; harmonize; jibe; march; quadrate; rhyme; square; tally8. bear (verb) abide; bear; brook; digest; endure; lump; stand; stick out; stomach; suffer; support; sustain; swallow; sweat out; take; tolerate9. become (verb) become; come; get; grow; wax10. decline (verb) decline; deteriorate; fade11. depart (verb) depart; exit; get away; get off; leave; pop off; pull out; push off; quit; retire; retreat; run along; shove off; take off; withdraw12. die (verb) cash in; conk; decease; demise; die; drop; expire; go away; go by; pass away; pass out; peg out; perish; pip; succumb13. disappear (verb) disappear; dissolve; vanish14. enjoy (verb) enjoy; like; relish15. fit (verb) belong; fit16. give (verb) bend; break; break down; buckle; cave; cave in; collapse; crumple; fold up; give; yield17. go on (verb) continue; go on; maintain; persist18. go with (verb) go with; suit19. happen (verb) befall; betide; chance; develop; do; fall out; hap; happen; occur; rise; transpire20. make (verb) head; make; set out; strike out21. move (verb) move; travel; walk22. offer (verb) bid; offer23. proceed (verb) advance; cruise; elapse; fare; hie; journey; pass; proceed; progress; push on; wend24. resort (verb) apply; recur; refer; repair; resort; resort to; turn25. run (verb) carry; extend; lead; range; reach; run; stretch; vary26. set (verb) bet; gamble; lay; risk; set; stake; venture; wager27. spend (verb) conclude; consume; exhaust; expend; finish; run through; spend; stop; terminate; use up; wash up28. succeed (verb) arrive; click; come off; come through; flourish; go over; make out; pan out; prosper; prove out; score; succeed; thrive; work out29. work (verb) act; function; operate; perform; workАнтонимический ряд:appear; approach; arrive; become; break down; clash; come; endure; enter; fail; improve; lack; live; persist; quit; regress; remain; rest; stand; stay -
67 progression
1. n продвижение, движение2. n последовательность3. n муз. прогрессия4. n муз. секвенцияСинонимический ряд:1. advance (noun) advance; advancement; climb; continuance; furtherance; headway; impetus; improvement; march; procedure; procession; progress; rise; way2. development (noun) development; evolution; evolvement; flowering; growth; unfolding; upgrowth3. succession (noun) alternation; chain; consecution; course; order; row; sequel; sequence; series; string; succession; suite; trainАнтонимический ряд: -
68 roll on
1. phr v поэт. часто неуклонно продвигаться вперёдroll on, time! — время, вперёд!
2. phr v натягиватьСинонимический ряд:proceed (verb) continue; flow; march; move; pass; pour; proceed; progress; run -
69 slow
1. n разг. копуша, копун; копунья2. n разг. лентяй3. n разг. кляча4. n разг. слабо поданный мяч5. a медленный, небыстрый6. a неспешащий; неторопливый, медлительныйa person slow to anger — человек, которого трудно вывести из себя
he is slow to take offence — его трудно обидеть; он не обижается по пустякам
he is slow to act — он долго раскачивается, прежде чем действовать
7. a несообразительный, тупой8. a умственно отсталый; с замедленным развитием9. a медленно действующий, постепенный10. a длительный, тягучий, тянущийся бесконечно долгоslow virus — вирус с длительным инкубационным процессом, медленный вирус
11. a обыкн. c12. a отстающий13. a запаздывающий, непунктуальный14. a скучный, неинтересный15. a вялый; мёртвый16. a замедленный17. a фото малочувствительный18. a неровный, затрудняющий быстрое движениеslow tennis-court — «медленная» площадка
19. a не рассчитанный на большую скорость20. adv медленноslow and sure — медленно, но верно
slow sale — плохой сбыт; медленная продажа
slow foxtrot — слоуфокс, медленный фокстрот
21. v замедлять, сбавлять22. v замедляться, снижатьсяСинонимический ряд:1. belated (adj.) behindhand; belated; delayed; detained; dull-witted; hindered; impeded; late; overdue; unpunctual2. dense (adj.) apathetic; dense; leaden; phlegmatic; stupid; torpid3. dragging (adj.) dilatory; dragging; flagging; laggard; lagging; slow-paced; tardy4. drowsy (adj.) dormant; drowsy; inert; languorous; lethargic; listless; passive; sleepy; supine5. dull (adj.) boring; dull; humdrum; stolid; tame; tedious; uninteresting6. extended (adj.) extended; lingering; long; prolonged7. gradual (adj.) deliberate; gradual; leisurely; moderate; unhasty; unhurried8. lazy (adj.) idle; inactive; lazy; negligent; procrastinating; remiss; slothful9. off (adj.) down; off; slack; sluggish; soft10. retarded (adj.) backward; dim-witted; feebleminded; half-witted; imbecile; moronic; quarter-witted; retarded; simple; simpleminded; slow-witted11. brake (verb) brake; check; curb; curtail; decelerate; reef12. decrease (verb) decrease; diminish; postpone; reduce; regulate13. delay (verb) delay; detain; hang up; hold up; set back14. hinder (verb) hinder; impede; obstruct; retard15. slowly (other) leisurely; slowlyАнтонимический ряд:advance; alert; early; exciting; fast; hurry; immediate; precocious; prompt; quick; rapid; ready; sudden -
70 stride
1. n большой шаг2. n спорт. маховый шаг3. n спорт. бег маховым шагом4. n спорт. расстояние между расставленными ногами5. n спорт. обыкн. l6. n спорт. успехи; прогресс, продвижение7. n спорт. рост, развитие8. n спорт. сл. брюки9. n спорт. страйдwait till he gets into his stride — подожди, пока он не возьмётся за дело; посмотришь, что будет, когда он возьмётся за дело
10. v шагатьto throw the runner off stride — выбить бегуна из шага, сбить темп
11. v спорт. бежать маховым шагом12. v перешагнутьstride over — перешагивать; перешагнуть
13. v сидеть верхомСинонимический ряд:1. development (noun) development; headway; improvement; progress2. step (noun) gait; pace; step; tread3. walk (verb) bestride; march; pace; parade; sling; stalk; stamp; straddle; walkАнтонимический ряд: -
71 Cavaco Silva, Aníbal Antônio
(1939-)Leading figure in post-1974 Portugal, Social Democrat leader, prime minister (1985-95), president of the Republic since 2006. Born in the Algarve in 1939, Cavaco Silva was educated in Faro and Lisbon and, in 1964, obtained a degree in finance at the University of Lisbon. Like many of the younger leaders of post-1974 Portugal, Cavaco Silva underwent an important part of his professional training abroad; in December 1973, he received a doctorate in economics from York University, Great Britain. He entered academic life as an economics and finance professor in 1974 and taught until he entered politics full-time in 1980, when he was named minister of finance in the sixth constitutional government of Social Democratic Party (PSD) leader and prime minister Sá Carneiro. He was elected a PSD deputy to the Republican Assembly in October 1980. Following the general legislative elections of October 1985, Cavaco Silva was named prime minister of the 10th constitutional government. His party, the PSD, strengthened its hold on the legislature yet again in the 1987 election when, for the first time since the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal was ruled by a party with a clear majority of seats in the legislature.Cavaco Silva, who has emphasized a strong free-enterprise and denationalization policy in the framework of economic rejuvenation, served as prime minister (1985-95) and, in the elections of 1987 and 1991, his party won a clear majority of seats in the Assembly of the Republic (more than 50 percent), which encouraged stability and economic progress in postrevolutionary Portugal. In the 1995 general elections, the Socialist Party (PS) defeated the PSD; he ran for the presidency of the republic in 1995 and lost to Jorge Sampaio. Cavaco Silva retired briefly from politics to teach at the Catholic University. In October 2005, he announced his return to politics and became a candidate for the upcoming presidential election. On 22 January 2006, he received 50.5 percent of the vote and was sworn in on 9 March 2006.Historical dictionary of Portugal > Cavaco Silva, Aníbal Antônio
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72 Social Democratic Party / Partido Social Democrático
(PSD)One of the two major political parties in democratic Portugal. It was established originally as the Popular Democratic Party / Partido Popular Democrático (PPD) in May 1974, following the Revolution of 25 April 1974 that overthrew the Estado Novo. The PPD had its roots in the "liberal wing" of the União Nacional, the single, legal party or movement allowed under the Estado Novo during the last phase of that regime, under Prime Minister Marcello Caetano. A number of future PPD leaders, such as Francisco Sá Carneiro and Francisco Balsemão, hoped to reform the Estado Novo from within, but soon became discouraged. After the 1974 Revolution, the PPD participated in two general elections (April 1975 and April 1976), which were crucial for the establishment and consolidation of democracy, and the party won sufficient votes to become the second largest political party after the Socialist Party (PS) in the number of seats held in the legislature, the Assembly of the Republic. The PPD voting results in those two elections were 26.4 percent and 24.4 percent, respectively.After the 1976 elections, the party changed its name from Partido Popular Democrático to Partido Social Democrático (PSD). As political opinion swung from the left to the center and center-right, and with the leadership of Francisco Sá Carneiro, the PSD gained greater popularity and strength, and from 1979 on, the party played an important role in government. After Sá Carneiro died in the air crash of December 1980, he was replaced as party chief and then prime minister by Francisco Balsemão, and then by Aníbal Cavaco Silva. As successors, these two leaders guided the PSD to a number of electoral victories, especially beginning in 1985. After 1987, the PSD held a majority of seats in parliament, a situation that lasted until 1995, when the Socialist Party (PS) won the election.The PSD's principal political program has featured the de-Marxi-fication of the 1976 Constitution and the economic system, a free-market economy with privatization of many state enterprises, and close ties with the European Economic Community (EEC) and subsequently the European Union (EU). After the PSD lost several general elections in 1995 and 1999, and following the withdrawal from office of former prime minister Cavaco Silva, a leadership succession crisis occurred in the party. The party leadership shifted from Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa to Manuel Durão Barroso, and, in 2004, Pedro Santana Lopes.During 2000 and 2001, as Portugal's economic situation worsened, the PS's popularity waned. In the December 2001 municipal elections, the PSD decisively defeated the PS and, as a result, Prime Minister António Guterres resigned. Parliamentary elections in March 2002 resulted in a Social Democratic victory, although its margin of victory over the PS was small (40 percent to 38 percent). Upon becoming premier in the spring of 2002, then, PSD leader Durão Barroso, in order to hold a slim majority of seats in the Assembly of the Republic, was obliged to govern in a coalition with the Popular Party (PP), formerly known as the Christian Democratic Party (CDS). Although the PSD had ousted the PS from office, the party confronted formidable economic and social problems. When Durão Barroso resigned to become president of the EU Commission, Pedro Santana Lopes became the PSD's leader, as prime minister in July 2004. Under Santana Lopes's leadership, the PSD lost the parliamentary elections of 2005 to the PS. Since then, the PSD has sought to regain its dominant position with the Portuguese electorate. It made some progress in doing so when its former leader, Cavaco Silva, was elected president of the Republic of 2006.Historical dictionary of Portugal > Social Democratic Party / Partido Social Democrático
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73 Anschütz, Ottomar
SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics[br]b. 1846 Lissa, Prussia (now Leszno, Poland) d. 1907[br]German photographer, chronophotographer ana inventor.[br]The son of a commercial photographer, Anschütz entered the business in 1868 and developed an interest in the process of instantaneous photography. The process was very difficult with the contemporary wet-plate process, but with the introduction of the much faster dry plates in the late 1870s he was able to make progress. Anschütz designed a focal plane shutter capable of operating at speeds up to 1/1000 of a second in 1883, and patented his design in 1888. it involved a vertically moving fabric roller-blind that worked at a fixed tension but had a slit the width of which could be adjusted to alter the exposure time. This design was adopted by C.P.Goerz, who from 1890 manufactures a number of cameras that incorporated it.Anschütz's action pictures of flying birds and animals attracted the attention of the Prussian authorities, and in 1886 the Chamber of Deputies authorized financial support for him to continue his work, which had started at the Hanover Military Institute in October 1885. Inspired by the work of Eadweard Muybridge in America, Anschütz had set up rows of cameras whose focal-plane shutters were released in sequence by electromagnets, taking twenty-four pictures in about three-quarters of a second. He made a large number of studies of the actions of people, animals and birds, and at the Krupp artillery range at Meppen, near Essen, he recorded shells in flight. His pictures were reproduced, and favourably commented upon, in scientific and photographic journals.To bring the pictures to the public, in 1887 he created the Electro-Tachyscope. The sequence negatives were printed as 90 x 120 mm transparencies and fixed around the circumference of a large steel disc. This was rotated in front of a spirally wound Geissler tube, which produced a momentary brilliant flash of light when a high voltage from an induction coil was applied to it, triggered by contacts on the steel disc. The flash duration, about 1/1000 of a second, was so short that it "froze" each picture as it passed the tube. The pictures succeeded each other at intervals of about 1/30 of a second, and the observer saw an apparently continuously lit moving picture. The Electro-Tachyscope was shown publicly in Berlin at the Kulturministerium from 19 to 21 March 1887; subsequently Siemens \& Halske manufactured 100 machines, which were shown throughout Europe and America in the early 1890s. From 1891 his pictures were available for the home in the form of the Tachyscope viewer, which used the principle of the zoetrope: sequence photographs were printed on long strips of thin card, perforated with narrow slots between the pictures. Placed around the circumference of a shallow cylinder and rotated, the pictures could be seen in life-like movement when viewed through the slots.In November 1894 Anschütz displayed a projector using two picture discs with twelve images each, which through a form of Maltese cross movement were rotated intermittently and alternately while a rotating shutter allowed each picture to blend with the next so that no flicker occurred. The first public shows, given in Berlin, were on a screen 6×8 m (20×26 ft) in size. From 22 February 1895 they were shown regularly to audiences of 300 in a building on the Leipzigstrasse; they were the first projected motion pictures seen in Germany.[br]Further ReadingJ.Deslandes, 1966, Histoire comparée du cinéma, Vol. I, Paris. B.Coe, 1992, Muybridge and the Chronophotographers, London.BC -
74 Clark, Edwin
SUBJECT AREA: Civil engineering[br]b. 7 January 1814 Marlow, Buckinghamshire, Englandd. 22 October 1894 Marlow, Buckinghamshire, England[br]English civil engineer.[br]After a basic education in mathematics, latin, French and geometry, Clark was articled to a solicitor, but he left after two years because he did not like the work. He had no permanent training otherwise, and for four years he led an idle life, becoming self-taught in the subjects that interested him. He eventually became a teacher at his old school before entering Cambridge, although he returned home after two years without taking a degree. He then toured the European continent extensively, supporting himself as best he could. He returned to England in 1839 and obtained further teaching posts. With the railway boom in progress he decided to become a surveyor and did some work on a proposed line between Oxford and Brighton.After being promised an interview with Robert Stephenson, he managed to see him in March 1846. Stephenson took a liking to Clark and asked him to investigate the strains on the Britannia Bridge tubes under various given conditions. This work so gained Stephenson's full approval that, after being entrusted with experiments and designs, Clark was appointed Resident Engineer for the Britannia Bridge across the Menai Straits. He not only completed the bridge, which was opened on 19 October 1850, but also wrote the history of its construction. After the completion of the bridge—and again without any professional experience—he was appointed Engineer-in-Chief to the Electric and International Telegraph Company. He was consulted by Captain Mark Huish of the London \& North Western Railway on a telegraphic system for the railway, and in 1853 he introduced the Block Telegraph System.Clark was engaged on the Crystal Palace and was responsible for many railway bridges in Britain and abroad. He was Engineer and part constructor of the harbour at Callao, Peru, and also of harbour works at Colón, Panama. On canal works he was contractor for the marine canal, the Morskoy Canal, in 1875 between Kronstadt and St Petersburg. His great work on canals, however, was the concept with Edward Leader Williams of the hydraulically operated barge lift at Anderton, Cheshire, linking the Weaver Navigation to the Trent \& Mersey Canal, whose water levels have a vertical separation of 50 ft (15 m). This was opened on 26 July 1875. The structure so impressed the French engineers who were faced with a bottleneck of five locks on the Neuffossée Canal south of Saint-Omer that they commissioned Clark to design a lift there. This was completed in 1878 and survives as a historic monument. The design was also adopted for four lifts on the Canal du Centre at La Louvière in Belgium, but these were not completed until after Clark's death.JHB -
75 Halske, Johann Georg
[br]b. 30 July 1814 Hamburg, Germanyd. 18 March 1890 Berlin, Germany[br]German engineer who introduced precision methods into the manufacture of electrical equipment; co-founder of Siemens \& Halske.[br]Halske moved to Berlin when he was a young man, and in 1844 was working for the university, at first independently and then jointly with F. Bötticher, developing and building electric medical appliances. In 1845 he met Werner von Siemens and together they became founder members of the Berlin Physics Society. It was in Halske's workshop that Siemens, assisted by the skill of the former, was able to work out his inventions in telegraphy. In 1847 the two men entered into partnership to manufacture telegraph equipment, laying the foundations of the successful firm of Siemens \& Halske. At the outset, before Werner von Siemens gave up his army career, Halske acted as the sole manager of the firm and was also involved in testing the products. Inventions they developed included electric measuring instruments and railway signalling equipment, and they installed many telegraph lines, notably those for the Russian Government. When gutta-percha became available on the market, the two men soon developed an extrusion process for applying this new material to copper conductors. To the disappointment of Halske, who was opposed to mass production, the firm introduced series production and piece wages in 1857. The expansion of the business, particularly into submarine cable laying, caused some anxiety to Halske, who left the firm on amicable terms in 1867. He then worked for a few years developing the Arts and Crafts Museum in Berlin and became a town councillor.[br]Further ReadingS. von Weihr and H.Götzeler, 1983, The Siemens Company. Its Historical Role in the Progress of Electrical Engineering 1847–1983, Berlin (provides a full account).Neue Deutsche Biographie, 1966, Vol. 7, Berlin, pp. 572–3.S.von Weiher, 1972–3, "The Siemens brothers, pioneers of the electrical age in Europe", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 45:1–11.GW -
76 Hancock, Thomas
SUBJECT AREA: Chemical technology[br]b. 8 May 1786 Marlborough, Wiltshire, Englandd. 26 March 1865 Stoke Newington, London, England[br]English founder of the British rubber industry.[br]After education at a private school in Marlborough, Hancock spent some time in "mechanical pursuits". He went to London to better himself and c.1819 his interest was aroused in the uses of rubber, which until then had been limited. His first patent, dated 29 April 1820, was for the application of rubber in clothing where some elasticity was useful, such as braces or slip-on boots. He noticed that freshly cut pieces of rubber could be made to adhere by pressure to form larger pieces. To cut up his imported and waste rubber into small pieces, Hancock developed his "masticator". This device consisted of a spiked roller revolving in a hollow cylinder. However, when rubber was fed in to the machine, the product was not the expected shredded rubber, but a homogeneous cylindrical mass of solid rubber, formed by the heat generated by the process and pressure against the outer cylinder. This rubber could then be compacted into blocks or rolled into sheets at his factory in Goswell Road, London; the blocks and sheets could be used to make a variety of useful articles. Meanwhile Hancock entered into partnership with Charles Macintosh in Manchester to manufacture rubberized, waterproof fabrics. Despite these developments, rubber remained an unsatisfactory material, becoming sticky when warmed and losing its elasticity when cold. In 1842 Hancock encountered specimens of vulcanized rubber prepared by Charles Goodyear in America. Hancock worked out for himself that it was made by heating rubber and sulphur, and obtained a patent for the manufacture of the material on 21 November 1843. This patent also included details of a new form of rubber, hardened by heating to a higher temperature, that was later called vulcanite, or ebonite. In 1846 he began making solid rubber tyres for road vehicles. Overall Hancock took out sixteen patents, covering all aspects of the rubber industry; they were a leading factor in the development of the industry from 1820 until their expiry in 1858.[br]Bibliography1857, Personal Narrative of the Origin and Progress of the Caoutchouc or Indiarubber Manufacture in England, London.Further ReadingH.Schurer, 1953, "The macintosh: the paternity of an invention", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 28:77–87.LRD -
77 Lumière, Auguste
SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics[br]b. 19 October 1862 Besançon, Franced. 10 April 1954 Lyon, France[br]French scientist and inventor.[br]Auguste and his brother Louis Lumière (b. 5 October 1864 Besançon, France; d. 6 June 1948 Bandol, France) developed the photographic plate-making business founded by their father, Charles Antoine Lumière, at Lyons, extending production to roll-film manufacture in 1887. In the summer of 1894 their father brought to the factory a piece of Edison kinetoscope film, and said that they should produce films for the French owners of the new moving-picture machine. To do this, of course, a camera was needed; Louis was chiefly responsible for the design, which used an intermittent claw for driving the film, inspired by a sewing-machine mechanism. The machine was patented on 13 February 1895, and it was shown on 22 March 1895 at the Société d'Encouragement pour l'In-dustrie Nationale in Paris, with a projected film showing workers leaving the Lyons factory. Further demonstrations followed at the Sorbonne, and in Lyons during the Congrès des Sociétés de Photographie in June 1895. The Lumières filmed the delegates returning from an excursion, and showed the film to the Congrès the next day. To bring the Cinématographe, as it was called, to the public, the basement of the Grand Café in the Boulevard des Capuchines in Paris was rented, and on Saturday 28 December 1895 the first regular presentations of projected pictures to a paying public took place. The half-hour shows were an immediate success, and in a few months Lumière Cinématographes were seen throughout the world.The other principal area of achievement by the Lumière brothers was colour photography. They took up Lippman's method of interference colour photography, developing special grainless emulsions, and early in 1893 demonstrated their results by lighting them with an arc lamp and projecting them on to a screen. In 1895 they patented a method of subtractive colour photography involving printing the colour separations on bichromated gelatine glue sheets, which were then dyed and assembled in register, on paper for prints or bound between glass for transparencies. Their most successful colour process was based upon the colour-mosaic principle. In 1904 they described a process in which microscopic grains of potato starch, dyed red, green and blue, were scattered on a freshly varnished glass plate. When dried the mosaic was coated with varnish and then with a panchromatic emulsion. The plate was exposed with the mosaic towards the lens, and after reversal processing a colour transparency was produced. The process was launched commercially in 1907 under the name Autochrome; it was the first fully practical single-plate colour process to reach the public, remaining on the market until the 1930s, when it was followed by a film version using the same principle.Auguste and Louis received the Progress Medal of the Royal Photographic Society in 1909 for their work in colour photography. Auguste was also much involved in biological science and, having founded the Clinique Auguste Lumière, spent many of his later years working in the physiological laboratory.[br]Further ReadingGuy Borgé, 1980, Prestige de la photographie, Nos. 8, 9 and 10, Paris. Brian Coe, 1978, Colour Photography: The First Hundred Years, London ——1981, The History of Movie Photography, London.Jacques Deslandes, 1966, Histoire comparée du cinéma, Vol. I, Paris. Gert Koshofer, 1981, Farbfotografie, Vol. I, Munich.BC -
78 Randall, Sir John Turton
SUBJECT AREA: Medical technology[br]b. 23 March 1905 Newton-le-Willows, Lancashire, Englandd. 16 June 1984 Edinburgh, Scotland[br]English physicist and biophysicist, primarily known for the development, with Boot of the cavity magnetron.[br]Following secondary education at Ashton-inMakerfield Grammar School, Randall entered Manchester University to read physics, gaining a first class BSc in 1925 and his MSc in 1926. From 1926 to 1937 he was a research physicist at the General Electric Company (GEC) laboratories, where he worked on luminescent powders, following which he became Warren Research Fellow of the Royal Society at Birmingham University, studying electronic processes in luminescent solids. With the outbreak of the Second World War he became an honorary member of the university staff and transferred to a group working on the development of centrimetric radar. With Boot he was responsible for the development of the cavity magnetron, which had a major impact on the development of radar.When Birmingham resumed its atomic research programme in 1943, Randall became a temporary lecturer at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge. The following year he was appointed Professor of Natural Philosophy at the University of St Andrews, but in 1946 he moved again to the Wheatstone Chair of Physics at King's College, London. There his developing interest in biophysical research led to the setting up of a multi-disciplinary group in 1951 to study connective tissues and other biological components, and in 1950– 5 he was joint Editor of Progress in Biophysics. From 1961 until his retirement in 1970 he was Professor of Biophysics at King's College and for most of that time he was also Chairman of the School of Biological Sciences. In addition, for many years he was honorary Director of the Medical Research Council Biophysics Research Unit.After he retired he returned to Edinburgh and continued to study biological problems in the university zoology laboratory.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsKnighted 1962. FRS 1946. FRS Edinburgh 1972. DSc Manchester 1938. Royal Society of Arts Thomas Gray Memorial Prize 1943. Royal Society Hughes Medal 1946. Franklin Institute John Price Wetherill Medal 1958. City of Pennsylvania John Scott Award 1959. (All jointly with Boot for the cavity magnetron.)Bibliography1934, Diffraction of X-Rays by Amorphous Solids, Liquids \& Gases (describes his early work).1953, editor, Nature \& Structure of Collagen.1976, with H.Boot, "Historical notes on the cavity magnetron", Transactions of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ED-23: 724 (gives an account of the cavity-magnetron development at Birmingham).Further ReadingM.H.F.Wilkins, "John Turton Randall"—Bio-graphical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, London: Royal Society.KFBiographical history of technology > Randall, Sir John Turton
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79 Sholes, Christopher Latham
SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing[br]b. 14 February 1819 Mooresburg, Pennsylvania, USAd. 17 February 1890 USA[br]American inventor of the first commercially successful typewriter.[br]Sholes was born on his parents' farm, of a family that had originally come from England. After leaving school at 14, he was apprenticed for four years to the local newspaper, the Danville Intelligencer. He moved with his parents to Wisconsin, where he followed his trade as journalist and printer, within a year becoming State Printer and taking charge of the House journal of the State Legislature. When he was 20 he left home and joined his brother in Madison, Wisconsin, on the staff of the Wisconsin Enquirer. After marrying, he took the editorship of the Southport Telegraph, until he became Postmaster of Southport. His experiences as journalist and postmaster drew him into politics and, in spite of the delicate nature of his health and personality, he served with credit as State Senator and in the State Assembly. In 1860 he moved to Milwaukee, where he became Editor of the local paper until President Lincoln offered him the post of Collector of Customs at Milwaukee.That position at last gave Sholes time to develop his undoubted inventive talents. With a machinist friend, Samuel W.Soule, he obtained a patent for a paging machine and another two years later for a machine for numbering the blank pages of a book serially. At the small machine shop where they worked, there was a third inventor, Carlos Glidden. It was Glidden who suggested to Sholes that, in view of his numbering machine, he would be well equipped to develop a letter printing machine. Glidden drew Sholes's attention to an account of a writing machine that had recently been invented in London by John Pratt, and Sholes was so seized with the idea that he devoted the rest of his life to perfecting the machine. With Glidden and Soule, he took out a patent for a typewriter on June 1868 followed by two further patents for improvements. Sholes struggled unsuccessfully for five years to exploit his invention; his two partners gave up their rights in it and finally, on 1 March 1873, Sholes himself sold his rights to the Remington Arms Company for $12,000. With their mechanical skills and equipment, Remingtons were able to perfect the Sholes typewriter and put it on the market. This, the first commercially successful typewriter, led to a revolution not only in office work, but also in work for women, although progress was slow at first. When the New York Young Women's Christian Association bought six Remingtons in 1881 to begin classes for young women, eight turned up for the first les-son; and five years later it was estimated that there were 60,000 female typists in the USA. Sholes said, "I feel that I have done something for the women who have always had to work so hard. This will more easily enable them to earn a living."Sholes continued his work on the typewriter, giving Remingtons the benefit of his results. His last patent was granted in 1878. Never very strong, Sholes became consumptive and spent much of his remaining nine years in the vain pursuit of health.[br]Bibliography23 June 1868, US patent no. 79,265 (the first typewriter patent).Further ReadingM.H.Adler, 1973, The Writing Machine, London: Allen \& Unwin.LRDBiographical history of technology > Sholes, Christopher Latham
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