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41 στείχω
Grammatical information: v.Meaning: `to march in (in order), to march, to rise, to draw, to go' (ep. Ion. poet. Il., also Aeol. prose).Other forms: ( στίχω Hdt. 3, 14; coni. Dind. in S. Ant. 1129 ex H.), aor. 2. στιχεῖν (aor. 1. περί-στειξας δ 277).Compounds: Often w. prefix, e.g. ἀπο-, δια-, ἐπι-, προσ-. As 2. element e.g. in μονό-στιχος `consisting of one verse' (Plu.), e.g. τρί-στοιχος `consisting of three rows' (μ 91), - εί adv. `in three rows' ( 473), μετα-στοιχεί meaning unclear (Ψ 358 a. 757); σύ-στοιχος `belonging to the same row, coordinated, corresponding' (Arist. etc.).Derivatives: From it, prob. as deverbative, but also related to στίχες (Leumann Hom. Wörter 185 f.), στιχάομαι, also w. περι-, συν-, `id.' in 3. pl. ipf. ἐστιχόωντο (Il., Theoc., Nonn.), pres. στιχόωνται (Orph.), act. στιχόωσι, ptc. n. pl. - όωντα (hell. a. late ep.); ὁμοστιχάει 3. sg. pres. `escorted' (Ο 635: *ὁμό-στιχος or for ὁμοῦ στ.?). -- Nouns. A. στίχ-ες pl., gen. sg. στιχ-ός f. `rank(s), file(s)', esp. of soldiers, `battle-array, line of battle' (ep. poet. Il.). -- B. στίχος m. `file, rank', of soldiers, trees, etc., often of words `line' in verse and prose (Att. etc.). στιχ-άς f. `id.' only in dat. pl. στιχάδεσσι ( Epigr.). Dim. - ίδιον (Plu.); - άριον `coat, tightly fitting garment' (pap.). Adj. - ινος, - ικός, - ήρης, - ηρός, adv. - ηδόν (late). Vb - ίζω `to arrange in rows' (LXX; v. l. στοιχ-) with - ιστής. - ισμός (Tz.), περι- στείχω = περιστοιχίζω (s.bel.; A.). -- C. στοῖχος m. `file or column of soldiers, choir members, ships etc., layer of building stones, row of trees, poles etc.' (IA.). From this στοιχ-άς f. `arranged in rows' ( ἐλᾶαι, Sol. ap. Poll. a.o.), - άδες ( νῆσοι) name of a group of islands near Massilia (A. R. a.o.); from this the plantname στοιχάς (Orph., Dsc.) after Strömberg 127 (with Dsc.), with - αδίτης οἶνος `wine spiced with s.' (Dsc.). Cultnames of Zeus resp. Athena: - αῖος (Thera), - αδεύς (Sikyon), - εία (Epid.) referring to the arrangement in phylai. Further adj. - ιαῖος `measuring one row' (Att. inscr.), - ικός (late); adv. - ηδόν (Arist. etc.), - ηδίς (Theognost.) `line by line'. Verbs: 1. στοιχ-έω (because of the meaning hardly deverbative with Schwyzer 720), also w. περι-, συν- a. o., `to form a row, to stand in file and rank, to match, to agree, to be content, to follow' (X., Att. inscr., Arist. hell. a. late); - ούντως `matching, consequent' (Galatia, Aug. time). 2. - ίζω, often w. περι-, also δια-, κατα-, `to arrange in a line, to order' (A. Pr. 484 a. 232, X. a.o.) with - ισμός (Poll.); περι- στείχω `to fence in all around with nets (net-poles), to ensnare' (D., Plb. etc.). -- D. στοιχεῖον, often pl. - εῖα n. `letters in freestanding, alphabetical form' (beside γράμματα `character, script'), also (arisen from this?) `lines, (systematic) dogmas, principles, (physical) element' (Pl., Arist. etc.), `heavenly bodies, elementary spirits, nature demons, magic means' (late a. Byz.); also `shadow-line' as time-measure (Att. com.; cf. σκιὰ ἀντίστοιχος E. Andr. 745) a.o.; prop. "object related to a row, entering a row, forming a part of a whole, member of a row" (on the formation cf. σημεῖον, μνημεῖον, ἐλεγεῖον a.o.); on the development of the meaning which is in many ways unclear Burkert Phil. 103, 167 ff. w. further extensive lit., esp. Diels Elementum (1899). Diff. Lagercrantz (s. Bq); to be rejected. - From it στοιχει-ώδης `belonging to the στοιχεῖα, elementary' (Arist. etc.), of barley `in several rows' as opposed to ἄ-στοιχος πυρός (Thphr.), so either = στοιχ-ώδης or miswritten for it. Denom. verb. στοιχει-όω `to introduce to the principles' (Chrysipp. a.o.), `to equip with magical powers, to charm' (Byz.; cf. Blum Eranos 44, 315ff.) with - ωσις, - ωμα, - ωτής, - ωτικός (Epicur., Phld. a.o.), - ωματικός (Ps.-Ptol.); cf. on this Mugler Dict. géom. 380 f.Etymology: Old inherited group with several representatives also in other idg. languages. The full grade thematic present στείχω agrees exactly to Germ. and Celtic forms, e.g. Goth. steigan ` steigen', OIr. tiagu `stride, go', IE *stéighō. Beside it Skt. has a zero grade nasal present stigh-no-ti `rise'; similar, inmeaning deviant, OCS po-stignǫ `get in, reach, hit' (length of the stemvowel secondary). A deviant meaning is also shown by the full grade yot-present Lit. steig-iù, inf. steĩg-ti `found, raise', also (obsolete) `hurry'; on this Fraenkel s. v. -- Further several nouns, esp. in Germ.: OHG steg m. ` Steg, small bridge', OWNo. stig n. `step' from PGm. * stiga-z, -n, IE * stigh-o-s (= στίχος), - o-m; OE stige -n. `going up, down' (i-stem from older rootnoun = στίχ-ες?). With oi-ablaut Alb. shtek `transit, entrance, road, hair-parting' (= στοῖχος), thus Goth. staiga, OHG steiga f. `mountain-path, road', Latv. staiga f. `course', cf. Lith. adv. staigà `suddenly' (would be Gr. *στοιχή) etc., s. WP. 2, 614 f., Pok. 1017 f., also W.-Hofmann s. vestīgium w. further forms a. lit.Page in Frisk: 2,783-785Greek-English etymological dictionary (Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά ετυμολογική λεξικό) > στείχω
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42 Cai Lun (Tsai Lun)
SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing[br]b. c.57 AD Chinad. c.121 AD China[br]Chinese Director of Imperial Workshops who is usually credited with the invention of paper.[br]He was a confidential secretary to the Emperor. He became Director of the Imperial Workshops and he is said to have invented, or sponsored the invention of, paper around the year 105 AD. Recent studies, however, suggest that paper was already known in China two centuries earlier. The method of making it has hardly varied in principle since that time. The raw materials, then usually old fishing nets and clothing rags, were boiled with water, to which alkali in the form of wood ash was sometimes added. The resulting pulp was then beaten in a stone mortar with a stone or a wooden mallet. The pulp was then mixed and stirred with a large amount of water, and a sieve or mould (formed on a wooden frame carrying a mat of thin reeds sewn together) was dipped into it and was shaken to help the fibres in the layer of pulp to interlock and thus form a sheet of paper. The rest of the process consisted, then as now, of getting rid of the water: the sheets of paper were dried and bleached by leaving them to lie in the sun.Some of China's many inventions were achieved independently in Western Europe, but it seems that Europe's knowledge of papermaking stems from the Chinese. It was not until the eighth century that it passed into the Islamic world and so, first by contact with the Moors in Spain in the twelfth century, into Western Europe.Cai Lun was later made a marquis. Further promotion followed when he was regarded as the god of papermaking.[br]Further ReadingJ.Needham, 1985, Science and Civilisation in China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Vol. V (1): Clerks and Craftsmen in China and the West, 1970.LRD -
43 Dickinson, John
SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing[br]b. 29 March 1782d. 11 January 1869 London, England[br]English papermaker and inventor of a papermaking machine.[br]After education at a private school, Dickinson was apprenticed to a London stationer. In 1806 he started in business as a stationer, in partnership with George Longman; they transferred to 65 Old Bailey, where the firm remained until their premises were destroyed during the Second World War. In order to secure the supply of paper and be less dependent on the papermakers, Dickinson turned to making paper on his own account. In 1809 he acquired Apsley Mill, near Hemel Hempstead on the river Gade in Hertfordshire. There, he produced a new kind of paper for cannon cartridges which, unlike the paper then in use, did not smoulder, thus reducing the risk of undesired explosions. The new paper proved very useful during the Napoleonic War.Dickinson developed a continuous papermaking machine about the same time as the Fourdrinier brothers, but his worked on a different principle. Instead of a continuous flat wire screen, Dickinson used a wire-covered cylinder which dipped into the dilute pulp as it revolved. A felt-covered roller removed the layer of wet pulp, which was then subjected to drying, as in the Fourdrinier machine. The latter was first in use at Frogmore, just upstream from Apsley Mill on the river Gade. Dickinson patented his machine in 1809 and claimed that it was superior for some kinds of paper. In feet, both types of machine have survived, in much enlarged and modified form: the Fourdrinier for general papermaking, the Dickinson cylinder for the making of board. In 1810 Dickinson acquired the nearby Nash Mill, and over the years he extended the scope of his papermaking business, introducing many technical improvements. Among his inventions was a machine to paste together continuous webs of paper to form cardboard. Another, patented in 1829, was a process for incorporating threads of cotton, flax or silk into the body of the paper to make forgery more difficult. He became increasingly prosperous, overcoming labour disputes with unemployed hand-papermakers. and lawsuits against a canal company which threatened the water supply to his mills. Dickinson was the first to use percolation gauges to predict river flow, and his work on water supply brought him election to a Fellowship of the Royal Society in 1845.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFRS 1845.Further ReadingR.H.Clapperton, 1967, The Paper-making Machine, Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp. 331–5 (provides a biography and full details of Dickinson's inventions).LRD -
44 Ducos du Hauron, Arthur-Louis
SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics[br]b. 1837 Langon, Bordeaux, Franced. 19 August 1920 Agen, France[br]French scientist and pioneer of colour photography.[br]The son of a tax collector, Ducos du Hauron began researches into colour photography soon after the publication of Clerk Maxwell's experiment in 1861. In a communication sent in 1862 for presentation at the Académie des Sciences, but which was never read, he outlined a number of methods for photography of colours. Subsequently, in his book Les Couleurs en photographie, published in 1869, he outlined most of the principles of additive and subtractive colour photography that were later actually used. He covered additive processes, developed from Clerk Maxwell's demonstrations, and subtractive processes which could yield prints. At the time, the photographic materials available prevented the processes from being employed effectively. The design of his Chromoscope, in which transparent reflectors could be used to superimpose three additive images, was sound, however, and formed the basis of a number of later devices. He also proposed an additive system based on the use of a screen of fine red, yellow and blue lines, through which the photograph was taken and viewed. The lines blended additively when seen from a certain distance. Many years later, in 1907, Ducos du Hauron was to use this principle in an early commercial screen-plate process, Omnicolore. With his brother Alcide, he published a further work in 1878, Photographie des Couleurs, which described some more-practical subtractive processes. A few prints made at this time still survive and they are remarkably good for the period. In a French patent of 1895 he described yet another method for colour photography. His "polyfolium chromodialytique" involved a multiple-layer package of separate red-, green-and blue-sensitive materials and filters, which with a single exposure would analyse the scene in terms of the three primary colours. The individual layers would be separated for subsequent processing and printing. In a refined form, this is the principle behind modern colour films. In 1891 he patented and demonstrated the anaglyph method of stereoscopy, using superimposed red and green left and right eye images viewed through green and red filters. Ducos du Hauron's remarkable achievement was to propose theories of virtually all the basic methods of colour photography at a time when photographic materials were not adequate for the purpose of proving them correct. For his work on colour photography he was awarded the Progress Medal of the Royal Photographic Society in 1900, but despite his major contributions to colour photography he remained in poverty for much of his later life.[br]Further ReadingB.Coe, 1978, Colour Photography: The First Hundred Years, London. J.S.Friedman, 1944, History of Colour Photography, Boston. E.J.Wall, 1925, The History of Three-Colour Photography, Boston. See also Cros, Charles.BCBiographical history of technology > Ducos du Hauron, Arthur-Louis
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45 Lucas, Anthony Francis
SUBJECT AREA: Mining and extraction technology[br]b. 9 September 1855 Spalato, Dalmatia, Austria-Hungary (now Split, Croatia)d. 2 September 1921 Washington, DC, USA[br]Austrian (naturalized American) mining engineer who successfully applied rotary drilling to oil extraction.[br]A former Second Lieutenant of the Austrian navy (hence his later nickname "Captain") and graduate of the Polytechnic Institute of Graz, Lucas decided to stay in Michigan when he visited his relatives in 1879. He changed his original name, Lucie, into the form his uncle had adopted and became a naturalized American citizen at the age of 30. He worked in the lumber industry for some years and then became a consulting mechanical and mining engineer in Washington, DC. He began working for a salt-mining company in Louisiana in 1893 and became interested in the geology of the Mexican Gulf region, with a view to prospecting for petroleum. In the course of this work he came to the conclusion that the hills in this elevated area, being geological structures distinct from the surrounding deposits, were natural reservoirs of petroleum. To prove his unusual theory he subsequently chose Spindle Top, near Beaumont, Texas, where in 1899 he began to bore a first oil-well. A second drill-hole, started in October 1900, was put through clay and quicksand. After many difficulties, a layer of rock containing marine shells was reached. When the "gusher" came out on 10 January 1901, it not only opened up a new era in the oil and gas business, but it also led to the future exploration of the terrestrial crust.Lucas's boring was a breakthrough for the rotary drilling system, which was still in its early days although its principles had been established by the English engineer Robert Beart in his patent of 1884. It proved to have advantages over the pile-driving of pipes. A pipe with a simple cutter at the lower end was driven with a constantly revolving motion, grinding down on the bottom of the well, thus gouging and chipping its way downward. To deal with the quicksand he adopted the use of large and heavy casings successively telescoped one into the other. According to Fauvelle's method, water was forced through the pipe by means of a pump, so the well was kept full of circulating liquid during drilling, flushing up the mud. When the salt-rock was reached, a diamond drill was used to test the depth and the character of the deposit.When the well blew out and flowed freely he developed a preventer in order to save the oil and, even more importantly at the time, to shut the well and to control the oil flow. This assembly, patented in 1903, consisted of a combined system of pipes, valves and casings diverting the stream into a horizontal direction.Lucas's fame spread around the world, but as he had to relinquish the larger part of his interest to the oil company supporting the exploration, his financial reward was poor. One year after his success at Spindle Top he started oil exploration in Mexico, where he stayed until 1905, when he resumed his consulting practice in Washington, DC.[br]Bibliography1899, "Rock-salt in Louisiana", Transactions of the American Institution of Mining Engineers 29:462–74.1902, "The great oil-well near Beaumont, Texas", Transactions of the AmericanInstitution of Mining Engineers 31:362–74.Further ReadingR.S.McBeth, 1918, Pioneering the Gulf Coast, New York (a very detailed description of Lucas's important accomplishments in the development of the oil industry).R.T.Hill, 1903, "The Beaumont oil-field, with notes on other oil-fields of the Texas region", Transactions of the American Institution of Mining Engineers 33:363–405;Transactions of the American Institution of Mining Engineers 55:421–3 (contain shorter biographical notes).WK -
46 Tuve, Merle Antony
[br]b. 27 June 1901 Canton, South Dakota, USAd. 20 May 1982 Bethesda, Maryland, USA[br]American physicist and geophysicist who developed radio exploration of the ionosphere and made contributions to seismology and atomic physics.[br]After BS and AM degrees from the University of Minnesota, Tuve gained a PhD in physics from Johns Hopkins University in 1926. He then joined the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institute, Washington, DC, where with Breit he established by experiment the existence and characteristics of the ionosphere. He also studied gamma and beta rays, artificial radioactivity and atomic transmutation, verified the existence of the neutron and measured nuclear binding forces. During the Second World War he performed military research, producing a proximity fuse for use against the VI flying bomb. He returned to Carnegie in 1946 as Director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, where he remained until 1966, making many contributions to the study of the earth and space.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science Prize for atomic and nuclear research 1931. National Academy of Science 1946. Research Corporation Award 1947. Comstock Prize 1948. National Academy of Science Barnard Medal 1955. Presidential Medal of Merit and Distinguished Service Member of the Carnegie Institute 1966.Bibliography1926, with G.Breit, "A test of the existence of the conducting layer", Physical Review 28:554 (gives an account of the early ionospheric studies).See also: Appleton, Sir Edward VictorKF -
47 kat
",-tı 1. story, floor, Brit. storey. 2. layer, stratum; fold. 3. set (of clothes). 4. presence, the presence of a distinguished personage. 5. time(s). 6. math. multiple. -ında in his opinion. - çıkmak to add a story (to a building). - irtifakı a sharing by each of a building´s owners in the ownership of any story added to their building. - kat 1. in layers. 2. many times more, much more. - mülkiyeti condominium, ownership of one unit within a multi-unit building. - yeri crease, fold. " -
48 атмосферный озон
атмосферный озон
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[ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]EN
atmospheric ozone
A triatomic molecule of oxygen; a natural constituent of the atmosphere, with the highest concentrations in the ozone layer or stratosphere; it is found at a level between 15 and 30 km above the Earth, which prevents harmful ultraviolet B radiation, which causes skin cancer and threatens plant life, from reaching the ground. The fragile shield is being damaged by chemicals released on Earth. The main chemicals that are depleting stratospheric ozone are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which are used in refrigerators, aerosols and as cleaners in many industries and halons, which are used in fire extinguishers. The damage is caused when these chemicals release highly reactive forms of chlorine and bromine. (Source: GILP96 / WRIGHT)
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