machine+development

1 bench (asiento).

banco azul (politics) = seats in Spanish parliament where government ministers sit

banco de remo rowing machine

2 bank.

banco Central Europeo European Central Bank

el banco Mundial the World Bank

3 shoal.

4 bank.

banco de datos (computing) data bank

banco de sangre blood bank

banco de esperma sperm bank

5 workbench.

6 school of fish.

7 shelf.

* * *

► nombre masculino

1 bank

2 (asiento) bench; (de iglesia) pew

3 (mesa) bench, work bench

4 (de peces) shoal

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banco de carpintero workbench

banco de datos data bank

banco de hielo ice floe

banco de imágenes image bank

banco de memoria memory bank

banco de niebla fog bank

banco de órganos organ bank

banco de prueba test bench

banco de sangre blood bank

banco de semen sperm bank

* * *

1) bank

2) bench, stool

3) school

* * *

1) (=asiento) [al aire libre] bench, seat; [en iglesia] pew; [de carpintero] bench

2) (Com, Econ) bank

3) (=reserva) [de información, órganos] bank

4) (Geog) [en el mar] bank, shoal; (=estrato) stratum, layer; And (=suelo aluvial) deposit ( of alluvial soil); Caribe (=tierra elevada) raised ground

5) [de peces] shoal, school

* * *

1)

a) ( de parque) bench; ( de iglesia) pew; ( de barca) thwart; ( pupitre) (Chi) desk

b) ( de taller) workbench

- banco de carpintero

2) (Com, Fin) bank; ( de órganos) bank; ( de información) bank

- banco central/de inversiones

- banco de datos

- banco de esperma/sangre/órganos

3) ( de peces) shoal; ( bajío) bar, bank

•

- banco de arena

- banco de coral

- banco de niebla

- banco de nieve

* * *

1)

a) ( de parque) bench; ( de iglesia) pew; ( de barca) thwart; ( pupitre) (Chi) desk

b) ( de taller) workbench

- banco de carpintero

2) (Com, Fin) bank; ( de órganos) bank; ( de información) bank

- banco central/de inversiones

- banco de datos

- banco de esperma/sangre/órganos

3) ( de peces) shoal; ( bajío) bar, bank

•

- banco de arena

- banco de coral

- banco de niebla

- banco de nieve

* * *

banco¹

¹ = bank.

banco²

² = horse, bench [benches -pl.], pew, benching.

* * *

1 (asiento — de parque) bench; (— de iglesia) pew; (— de escuela) bench, form ( BrE); (— de barca) thwart

2 (taburete) stool

3 (de taller) workbench

4 ( Chi) (pupitre) desk

workbench

( Tec) test bed

esta guerra sería el banco de pruebas de sus teorías this war would be the testing ground for their theories

1 ( Com, Fin) bank

2 (de órganos) bank

3 (de información) bank

( Fin) central bank

food bank

( Fin) clearing bank

( Fin) lending bank

( Inf) data base o bank

( Med) sperm bank

( Fin) investment bank

memory bank

( Fin) investment bank; merchant bank

( Med) organ bank

( Med) blood bank

( Med) sperm bank

( Fin) issuing bank

( Fin) home banking

( Med) mortgage bank

( Fin) merchant bank

( Fin) World Bank

( Fin) joint-stock bank

1 (de peces) shoal

2 (bajío) bar, bank

sandbank

coral reef

fog bank

snowdrift

* * *

1ª persona singular (yo) presente indicativo

3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) pretérito indicativo

a) ( de parque) bench;

b) ( de carpintero) workbench

◊ banco de datos data base o bank;

◊ banco de arena sandbank

* * *

banco nm

1. [asiento] bench;

banco público public bench;

banco de remo rowing machine

2. [institución financiera] bank

el Banco Central del Uruguay = Uruguay's issuing bank, Br ≈ the Bank of England, US ≈ the Federal Reserve System;

banco comercial commercial bank;

banco emisor issuing bank;

el Banco de España = Spain's issuing bank, Br ≈ the Bank of England, US ≈ the Federal Reserve System;

Banco Europeo de Inversiones European Investment Bank;

Banco Europeo de Reconstrucción y Desarrollo European Bank for Reconstruction and Development;

banco hipotecario mortgage bank, Br ≈ building society, US ≈ savings and loan association;

banco industrial industrial bank;

Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo Inter-American Development Bank;

banco de inversiones investment bank;

banco mercantil merchant bank;

Banco de México = Mexico's issuing bank, Br ≈ Bank of England, US ≈ Federal Reserve System;

el Banco Mundial the World Bank;

Banco Nacional de Cuba = Cuba's issuing bank, Br ≈ Bank of England, US ≈ Federal Reserve System;

banco de negocios merchant bank;

3. [de peces] shoal

banco de pesca fishing ground, fishery

4. [depósito] bank

banco de órganos organ bank;

banco de sangre blood bank;

banco de semen sperm bank

5. [de carpintero, artesano] workbench

6. Tec banco de pruebas test bench;

servir de banco de pruebas para algo to be a testing ground for sth

7. banco de arena sandbank;

banco de hielo pack ice;

banco de niebla fog bank

* * *

1 COM bank

2 para sentarse bench

* * *

banco nm

1) : bank

banco central: central bank

banco de datos: data bank

banco de arena: sandbank

banco de sangre: blood bank

2) banca: stool, bench

3) : pew

4) : school (of fish)

* * *

banco n

1. (establecimiento) bank

2. (asiento) bench [pl. benches]

3. (de peces) shoal

SUBJECT AREA: Agricultural and food technology

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Carroll worked first with the Buckeye Harvester Co., then with J.J.Mitchell \& Co. In 1911 he was hired by the Argentinian distributor for Massey Harris to help in the introduction of their new horse-drawn reaper-thresher. Carroll recommended modifications to suit Argentinian conditions, and these resulted in the production of a new model. In 1917 he joined the Toronto staff of Massey Harris as a product design leader, the No. 5 reaper-thresher being the first designed under him. Many significant new developments can be attributed to Carroll: welded sections, roller chains, oil-bath gears, antifriction ball bearings and the detachable cutting table allowing easy transfer of combines between fields were all innovations of which he was the source.

In the 1930s he became Chief Engineer with responsibility for the design of a self-propelled harvester. The 20 SP was tested in Argentina only eight months after design work had begun, and it was to this machine that the name "combine harvester" was applied for the first time. Improvements to this original design produced a lighter 12 ft (3.65 m) cut machine which came off the production line in 1941. Three years later 500 of these machines were transported to the southern United States, and then gradually harvested their way northwards as the corn ripened. It has been estimated that the famous "Harvest Brigade" harvested over 1 million acres, putting 25 million bushels into store, with a saving in excess of 300,000 labour hours and half a million gallons of fuel.

Carroll retired from Massey Ferguson in 1961.

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SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics

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Dickson was born in France of English and Scottish parents. As a young man of almost 19 years, he wrote in 1879 to Thomas Edison in America, asking for a job. Edison replied that he was not taking on new staff at that time, but Dickson, with his mother and sisters, decided to emigrate anyway. In 1883 he contacted Edison again, and was given a job at the Goerk Street laboratory of the Edison Electric Works in New York. He soon assumed a position of responsibility as Superintendent, working on the development of electric light and power systems, and also carried out most of the photography Edison required. In 1888 he moved to the Edison West Orange laboratory, becoming Head of the ore-milling department. When Edison, inspired by Muybridge's sequence photographs of humans and animals in motion, decided to develop a motion picture apparatus, he gave the task to Dickson, whose considerable skills in mechanics, photography and electrical work made him the obvious choice. The first experiments, in 1888, were on a cylinder machine like the phonograph, in which the sequence pictures were to be taken in a spiral. This soon proved to be impractical, and work was delayed for a time while Dickson developed a new ore-milling machine. Little progress with the movie project was made until George Eastman's introduction in July 1889 of celluloid roll film, which was thin, tough, transparent and very flexible. Dickson returned to his experiments in the spring of 1891 and soon had working models of a film camera and viewer, the latter being demonstrated at the West Orange laboratory on 20 May 1891. By the early summer of 1892 the project had advanced sufficiently for commercial exploitation to begin. The Kinetograph camera used perforated 35 mm film (essentially the same as that still in use in the late twentieth century), and the kinetoscope, a peep-show viewer, took fifty feet of film running in an endless loop. Full-scale manufacture of the viewers started in 1893, and they were demonstrated on a number of occasions during that year. On 14 April 1894 the first kinetoscope parlour, with ten viewers, was opened to the public in New York. By the end of that year, the kinetoscope was seen by the public all over America and in Europe. Dickson had created the first commercially successful cinematograph system. Dickson left Edison's employment on 2 April 1895, and for a time worked with Woodville Latham on the development of his Panoptikon projector, a projection version of the kinetoscope. In December 1895 he joined with Herman Casier, Henry N.Marvin and Elias Koopman to form the American Mutoscope Company. Casier had designed the Mutoscope, an animated-picture viewer in which the sequences of pictures were printed on cards fixed radially to a drum and were flipped past the eye as the drum rotated. Dickson designed the Biograph wide-film camera to produce the picture sequences, and also a projector to show the films directly onto a screen. The large-format images gave pictures of high quality for the period; the Biograph went on public show in America in September 1896, and subsequently throughout the world, operating until around 1905. In May 1897 Dickson returned to England and set up as a producer of Biograph films, recording, among other subjects, Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee celebrations in 1897, Pope Leo XIII in 1898, and scenes of the Boer War in 1899 and 1900. Many of the Biograph subjects were printed as reels for the Mutoscope to produce the "what the butler saw" machines which were a feature of fairgrounds and seaside arcades until modern times. Dickson's contact with the Biograph Company, and with it his involvement in cinematography, ceased in 1911.

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SUBJECT AREA: Electricity, Public utilities

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Ferranti, who had taken an interest in electrical and mechanical devices from an early age, was educated at St Augustine's College in Ramsgate and for a short time attended evening classes at University College, London. Rather than pursue an academic career, Ferranti, who had intense practical interests, found employment in 1881 with the Siemens Company (see Werner von Siemens) in their experimental department. There he had the opportunity to superintend the installation of electric-lighting plants in various parts of the country. Becoming acquainted with Alfred Thomson, an engineer, Ferranti entered into a short-lived partnership with him to manufacture the Ferranti alternator. This generator, with a unique zig-zag armature, had an efficiency exceeding that of all its rivals. Finding that Sir William Thomson had invented a similar machine, Ferranti formed a company with him to combine the inventions and produce the Ferranti- Thomson machine. For this the Hammond Electric Light and Power Company obtained the sole selling rights.

In 1885 the Grosvenor Gallery Electricity Supply Corporation was having serious problems with its Gaulard and Gibbs series distribution system. Ferranti, when consulted, reviewed the design and recommended transformers connected across constant-potential mains. In the following year, at the age of 22, he was appointed Engineer to the company and introduced the pattern of electricity supply that was eventually adopted universally. Ambitious plans by Ferranti for London envisaged the location of a generating station of unprecedented size at Deptford, about eight miles (13 km) from the city, a departure from the previous practice of placing stations within the area to be supplied. For this venture the London Electricity Supply Corporation was formed. Ferranti's bold decision to bring the supply from Deptford at the hitherto unheard-of pressure of 10,000 volts required him to design suitable cables, transformers and generators. Ferranti planned generators with 10,000 hp (7,460 kW)engines, but these were abandoned at an advanced stage of construction. Financial difficulties were caused in part when a Board of Trade enquiry in 1889 reduced the area that the company was able to supply. In spite of this adverse situation the enterprise continued on a reduced scale. Leaving the London Electricity Supply Corporation in 1892, Ferranti again started his own business, manufacturing electrical plant. He conceived the use of wax-impregnated paper-insulated cables for high voltages, which formed a landmark in the history of cable development. This method of flexible-cable manufacture was used almost exclusively until synthetic materials became available. In 1892 Ferranti obtained a patent which set out the advantages to be gained by adopting sector-shaped conductors in multi-core cables. This was to be fundamental to the future design and development of such cables.

A total of 176 patents were taken out by S.Z. de Ferranti. His varied and numerous inventions included a successful mercury-motor energy meter and improvements to textile-yarn produc-tion. A transmission-line phenomenon where the open-circuit voltage at the receiving end of a long line is greater than the sending voltage was named the Ferranti Effect after him.

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SUBJECT AREA: Agricultural and food technology

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In 1864 Charles Henry Holt led three other brothers to California in response to the gold rush. In 1868 he founded C.H.Holt \& Co. in San Francisco with the help of his brothers Williams and Ames. The company dealt in timber as well as wagon and carriage materials, as did the business they had left behind in Concord in the care of their youngest brother, Benjamin. In 1883 Benjamin joined the others in California and together they formed the Stockton Wheel Company with offices in San Francisco and Stockton. The brothers recognized the potential of combine harvesters and purchased a number of patents, enlarged their works and began to experiment. Their first combine was produced in 1886, and worked for forty-six days that year. With the stimulus of Benjamin Holt the company produced the first hillside combine in 1891 and introduced the concept of belt drive. The Holt harvesting machine produced in 1904 was the first to use an auxiliary gas engine. By 1889 Benjamin was sole family executive. In 1890 the company produced its first traction engine. He began experimenting with track-laying machines, building his first in 1904. It was this machine which earned the nickname "Caterpillar", which has remained the company trade name to the present day. In 1906 thecompany produced its first gasoline-engined Caterpillar, and the first production model was introduced two years later. The development of Caterpillar tractors had a significant impact on the transport potential of the Allies during the First World War, and the Holt production of track-laying traction engines was of immense importance to the supply of the armed forces. In 1918 Benjamin Holt was still actively involved in the company, but he died in Stockton in 1920.

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SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Photography, film and optics, Public utilities

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While he was attending the Military School at Mannheim, Reichenbach drew attention to himself due to the mathematical instruments that he had designed. On the recommendation of Count Rumford in Munich, the Bavarian government financed a two-year stay in Britain so that Reichenbach could become acquainted with modern mechanical engineering. He returned to Mannheim in 1793, and during the Napoleonic Wars he was involved in the manufacture of arms. In Munich, where he was in the service of the Bavarian state from 1796, he started producing precision instruments in his own time. His basic invention was the design of a dividing machine for circles, produced at the end of the eighteenth century. The astronomic and geodetic instruments he produced excelled all the others for their precision. His telescopes in particular, being perfect in use and of solid construction, soon brought him an international reputation. They were manufactured at the MathematicMechanical Institute, which he had jointly founded with Joseph Utzschneider and Joseph Liebherr in 1804 and which became a renowned training establishment. The glasses and lenses were produced by Joseph Fraunhofer who joined the company in 1807.

In the same year he was put in charge of the technical reorganization of the salt-works at Reichenhall. After he had finished the brine-transport line from Reichenhall to Traunstein in 1810, he started on the one from Berchtesgaden to Reichenhall which was an extremely difficult task because of the mountainous area that had to be crossed. As water was the only source of energy available he decided to use water-column engines for pumping the brine in the pipes of both lines. Such devices had been in use for pumping purposes in different mining areas since the middle of the eighteenth century. Reichenbach knew about the one constructed by Joseph Karl Hell in Slovakia, which in principle had just been a simple piston-pump driven by water which did not work satisfactorily. Instead he constructed a really effective double-action water-column engine; this was a short time after Richard Trevithick had constructed a similar machine in England. For the second line he improved the system and built a single-action pump. All the parts of it were made of metal, which made them easy to produce, and the pumps proved to be extremely reliable, working for over 100 years.

At the official opening of the line in 1817 the Bavarian king rewarded him generously. He remained in the state's service, becoming head of the department for roads and waterways in 1820, and he contributed to the development of Bavarian industry as well as the public infrastructure in many ways as a result of his mechanical skill and his innovative engineering mind.

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1. past part vedere fare

2. adj done

agriculture ripe

fatto a mano hand-made

fatto di legno made of wood

fatto in casa home-made

fatto per qualcuno/qualcosa (tailor-)made for someone/sth

3. m fact

( avvenimento) event

( faccenda) affair, business

il fatto è che... the fact is that...

cogliere sul fatto catch red-handed

di fatto adj real

adv in fact, actually

passare a vie di fatto come to blows

in fatto di as regards

* * *

fatto¹ agg.

1 done; made: un letto fatto di legno, a wooden bed; una torta fatta in casa, a homemade cake; ricamo fatto a mano, a macchina, handmade, machine-made embroidery; (comm.) fatto su ordinazione, custom-built; questo lavoro sembra fatto apposta per me, this job seems to have been made especially for me // a conti fatti non mi sembra convenga, all things considered (o all in all) I don't think it's worthwhile // io sono fatto così, I'm that sort of person (o that's the way I am) // ben fatto!, well done!, ( ben ti sta) it serves you right! // detto fatto, no sooner said than done, ( subito) thereupon (o immediately) // ciò che è fatto è fatto, what's done is done // ( finalmente) è fatta!, at long last it's done!, ( è finita) at long last it's over! // a questo punto vien fatto di chiedersi se..., at this point the question arises whether... // mi vien fatto di pensare che..., I'm led (o inclined) to think that...

2 ( adatto) fit: non sono fatto per questa vita, I am not fit for this sort of life; sono fatti l'uno per l'altra, they are made for eachother

3 ( maturo) ripe: formaggio fatto, ripe cheese; uomo fatto, fullgrown man; donna fatta, fullgrown woman; era giorno fatto, it was broad daylight

4 (sl.) ( drogato) doped (up), drugged, stoned

5 (fam.) ( stanchissimo) dead beat, fagged out, knackered.

fatto² s.m.

1 fact; ( azione) deed; act, action: a me interessano solo i fatti, I'm interested only in facts; vogliamo fatti, non parole, we want deeds, not words; veniamo ai fatti, let's come to the facts; il fatto è che non lo sopporto più, the point is that I can't stand him anymore; gli rimproverò il fatto di non averla avvisata, she reproached him for not having told her; non si spiegava il fatto del suo rifiuto, she didn't understand his refusal // fatto compiuto, accomplished fact (o fait accompli) // fatto di sangue, bloodshed, (dir.) ( ferimento) wounding, ( omicidio) murder: nuovi fatti di sangue nel Libano, more bloodshed in Lebanon // cogliere sul fatto, to catch s.o. red-handed // passare dalle parole ai fatti, to pass from words to blows (o to resort to force) // (dir.): in fatto e in diritto, in fact and in law; questione di fatto, issue of fact; fatto illecito, unlawful act (o tort)

2 ( avvenimento) event: conosci i fatti che hanno portato alle dimissioni del primo ministro?, do you know the events that led to the Prime Minister's resignation?; questo fatto ebbe delle conseguenze gravissime, this event had very serious consequences; mi è successo un fatto strano..., something strange happened to me...

3 ( faccenda) affair; business [U]; matter: bada ai fatti tuoi!, mind your own business!; egli sa il fatto suo, he knows his business (o he knows what he is about); ha un fatto personale con me, he has a personal grievance with me // è sicuro del fatto suo, ( sicuro di quel che fa) he is sure of himself // dire il fatto suo a qlcu., to pitch into s.o. (o to give s.o. a piece of one's mind); gli dissi il fatto suo, I gave him a piece of my mind

4 in fatto di, as regards: in fatto di musica, nessuno lo batte, as far as music is concerned (o goes) he is second to none

5 di fatto, (agg.) real, sure; (avv.) actually; virtually: l'unico dato di fatto è che per ora i lavori sono sospesi, the only sure thing is that the work has been suspended; sta di fatto che è partito da solo, the point is that (o actually) he left alone; è suo fratello che di fatto dirige l'azienda, it's his brother who actually runs the firm // coppia, unione di fatto, de facto married couple, common-law marriage.

* * *

1. pp

fare

2. agg

1) (prodotto) made

2)

1) (accaduto) fact

2) (azione) deed, act

3) (avvenimento) event, occurrence, (di romanzo, film) action, story

* * *

participio passato fare I

1) (realizzato, compiuto)

2) (formato)

3) (adatto)

4) (adulto)

5) (inoltrato)

6) gerg. (drogato) stoned, zonked

••

sostantivo maschile

1) (atto concreto) fact

2) (avvenimento) event

3) in fatto di as regards, as far as [sth.] is concerned

4) di fatto [situazione, potere, governatore] de facto attrib.; [marito, moglie, matrimonio] common-law attrib.

5) sta di fatto che, fatto sta che the fact o point is that

sostantivo maschile plurale fatti (affari, questioni personali)

••

* * *

/'fatto/

I participio passato

 → 1. fare

II aggettivo

 1 (realizzato, compiuto) ben fatto, mal fatto well, badly done; ben fatto! well done! fatto in casa homemade; fatto a macchina, a mano machine-made, handmade

 2 (formato) fatto di o in made of; ben -a [ ragazza] well set-up; fatto a stella star-shaped

 3 (adatto) fatto per qcs., per fare made o fit for sth., to do; sono -i l'uno per l'altra they're made o meant for each other; non è fatto per lavorare, per l'insegnamento he's not cut out for work, for teaching

 4 (adulto) un uomo fatto a grown man

 5 (inoltrato) giorno fatto broad daylight; è tornato a notte -a he came back when it was dark

 6 gerg. (drogato) stoned, zonked

IDIOMS

ecco fatto! here you are! è -a! it's done! we did it! detto fatto no sooner said than done.

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/'fatto/

I sostantivo m.

 1 (atto concreto) fact; il fatto di fare (the fact of) doing; questo è il fatto this is the point, that's the fact of the matter; il fatto è che the fact o point is that; il fatto stesso che, di fare the very fact that, of doing; vogliono -i, non parole they want deeds, not words; i -i parlano chiaro the facts are clear; veniamo ai -i let's get to the point o facts

 2 (avvenimento) event

 3 in fatto di as regards, as far as [sth.] is concerned

 4 di fatto [situazione, potere, governatore] de facto attrib.; [marito, moglie, matrimonio] common-law attrib.; è lui che di fatto dirige l'azienda it is he who actually runs the company

 5 sta di fatto che, fatto sta che the fact o point is that

II fatti m.pl.

 (affari, questioni personali) questi sono -i miei! that's my (own) business! badare ai o farsi i -i propri to mind one's own business; andarsene per i -i propri to go about one's business

IDIOMS

di nome e di fatto in word and deed; sa il fatto suo he knows what he is about; gli ha detto il fatto suo he gave him a piece of his mind; cogliere qcn. sul fatto to catch sb. in the act o red-handed

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COMPOUNDS

fatto compiuto accomplished fact, fait accompli; mettere qcn. davanti al fatto compiuto to present sb. with a fait accompli; fatto di cronaca news item; - i di sangue bloodshed.

SUBJECT AREA: Electricity, Public utilities

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Gramme trained as a carpenter and showed an early talent for working with machinery. Moving to Paris he found employment in the Alliance factory as a model maker. With a growing interest in electricity he left to become an instrument maker with Heinrich Daniel Rühmkorff. In 1870 he patented the uniformly wound ring-armature dynamo with which his name is associated. Together with Hippolyte Fontaine, in 1871 Gramme opened a factory to manufacture his dynamos. They rapidly became a commercial success for both arc lighting and electrochemical purposes, international publicity being achieved at exhibitions in Vienna, Paris and Philadelphia. It was the realization that a Gramme machine was capable of running as a motor, i.e. the reversibility of function, that illustrated the entire concept of power transmission by electricity. This was first publicly demonstrated in 1873. In 1874 Gramme reduced the size and increased the efficiency of his generators by relying completely on the principle of self-excitation. It was the first practical machine in which were combined the features of continuity of commutation, self-excitation, good lamination of the armature core and a reasonably good magnetic circuit. This dynamo, together with the self-regulating arc lamps then available, made possible the innumerable electric-lighting schemes that followed. These were of the greatest importance in demonstrating that electric lighting was a practical and economic means of illumination. Gramme also designed an alternator to operate Jablochkoff candles. For some years he took an active part in the operations of the Société Gramme and also experimented in his own workshop without collaboration, but made no further contribution to electrical technology.

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SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology

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George B.Grant was descended from families who came from Britain in the seventeenth century and was educated at the Bridgton (Maine) Academy, the Chandler Scientific School of Dartmouth College and the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard College, where he graduated with the degree of BS in 1873. As an undergraduate he became interested in calculating machines, and his paper "On a new difference engine" was published in the American Journal of Science in August 1871. He also took out his first patents relating to calculating machines in 1872 and 1873. A machine of his design known as "Grant's Difference Engine" was exhibited at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876. Similar machines were also manufactured for sale; being sturdy and reliable, they did much to break down the prejudice against the use of calculating machines in business. Grant's work on calculating machines led to a requirement for accurate gears, so he established a machine shop for gear cutting at Charlestown, Massachusetts. He later moved the business to Boston and incorporated it under the name of Grant's Gear Works Inc., and continued to control it until his death. He also established two other gear-cutting shops, the Philadelphia Gear Works Inc., which he disposed of in 1911, and the Cleveland Gear Works Inc., which he also disposed of after a few years. Grant's commercial success was in connection with gear cutting and in this field he obtained several patents and contributed articles to the American Machinist. However, he continued to take an interest in calculating machines and in his later years carried out experimental work on their development.

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SUBJECT AREA: Horology, Ports and shipping

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John Harrison was the son of a carpenter and was brought up to that trade. He was largely self-taught and learned mechanics from a copy of Nicholas Saunderson's lectures that had been lent to him. With the assistance of his younger brother, James, he built a series of unconventional clocks, mainly of wood. He was always concerned to reduce friction, without using oil, and this influenced the design of his "grasshopper" escapement. He also invented the "gridiron" compensation pendulum, which depended on the differential expansion of brass and steel. The excellent performance of his regulator clocks, which incorporated these devices, convinced him that they could also be used in a sea dock to compete for the longitude prize. In 1714 the Government had offered a prize of £20,000 for a method of determining longitude at sea to within half a degree after a voyage to the West Indies. In theory the longitude could be found by carrying an accurate timepiece that would indicate the time at a known longitude, but the requirements of the Act were very exacting. The timepiece would have to have a cumulative error of no more than two minutes after a voyage lasting six weeks.

In 1730 Harrison went to London with his proposal for a sea clock, supported by examples of his grasshopper escapement and his gridiron pendulum. His proposal received sufficient encouragement and financial support, from George Graham and others, to enable him to return to Barrow and construct his first sea clock, which he completed five years later. This was a large and complicated machine that was made out of brass but retained the wooden wheelwork and the grasshopper escapement of the regulator clocks. The two balances were interlinked to counteract the rolling of the vessel and were controlled by helical springs operating in tension. It was the first timepiece with a balance to have temperature compensation. The effect of temperature change on the timekeeping of a balance is more pronounced than it is for a pendulum, as two effects are involved: the change in the size of the balance; and the change in the elasticity of the balance spring. Harrison compensated for both effects by using a gridiron arrangement to alter the tension in the springs. This timekeeper performed creditably when it was tested on a voyage to Lisbon, and the Board of Longitude agreed to finance improved models. Harrison's second timekeeper dispensed with the use of wood and had the added refinement of a remontoire, but even before it was tested he had embarked on a third machine. The balance of this machine was controlled by a spiral spring whose effective length was altered by a bimetallic strip to compensate for changes in temperature. In 1753 Harrison commissioned a London watchmaker, John Jefferys, to make a watch for his own personal use, with a similar form of temperature compensation and a modified verge escapement that was intended to compensate for the lack of isochronism of the balance spring. The time-keeping of this watch was surprisingly good and Harrison proceeded to build a larger and more sophisticated version, with a remontoire. This timekeeper was completed in 1759 and its performance was so remarkable that Harrison decided to enter it for the longitude prize in place of his third machine. It was tested on two voyages to the West Indies and on both occasions it met the requirements of the Act, but the Board of Longitude withheld half the prize money until they had proof that the timekeeper could be duplicated. Copies were made by Harrison and by Larcum Kendall, but the Board still continued to prevaricate and Harrison received the full amount of the prize in 1773 only after George III had intervened on his behalf.

Although Harrison had shown that it was possible to construct a timepiece of sufficient accuracy to determine longitude at sea, his solution was too complex and costly to be produced in quantity. It had, for example, taken Larcum Kendall two years to produce his copy of Harrison's fourth timekeeper, but Harrison had overcome the psychological barrier and opened the door for others to produce chronometers in quantity at an affordable price. This was achieved before the end of the century by Arnold and Earnshaw, but they used an entirely different design that owed more to Le Roy than it did to Harrison and which only retained Harrison's maintaining power.

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See also: Burgi, Jost; Huygens, Christiaan

SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

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John Lombe's father, Henry Lombe, was a worsted weaver who married twice. John was the second son of the second marriage and was still a baby when his father died in 1695. John, a native of the Eastern Counties, was apprenticed to a trade and employed by Thomas Cotchett in the erection of Cotchett's silk mill at Derby, which soon failed however. Lombe went to Italy, or was sent there by his elder half-brother, Thomas, to discover the secrets of their throwing machinery while employed in a silk mill in Piedmont. He returned to England in 1716 or 1717, bringing with him two expert Italian workmen.

Thomas Lombe was a prosperous London merchant who financed the construction of a new water-powered silk mill at Derby which is said to have cost over £30,000. John arranged with the town Corporation for the lease of the island in the River Derwent, where Cotchett had erected his mill. During the four years of its construction, John first set up the throwing machines in other parts of the town. The machines were driven manually there, and their product helped to defray the costs of the mill. The silk-throwing machine was very complex. The water wheel powered a horizontal shaft that was under the floor and on which were placed gearwheels to drive vertical shafts upwards through the different floors. The throwing machines were circular, with the vertical shafts running through the middle. The doubled silk threads had previously been wound on bobbins which were placed on spindles with wire flyers at intervals around the outer circumference of the machine. The bobbins were free to rotate on the spindles while the spindles and flyers were driven by the periphery of a horizontal wheel fixed to the vertical shaft. Another horizontal wheel set a little above the first turned the starwheels, to which were attached reels for winding the silk off the bobbins below. Three or four sets of these spindles and reels were placed above each other on the same driving shaft. The machine was very complicated for the time and must have been expensive to build and maintain.

John lived just long enough to see the mill in operation, for he died in 1722 after a painful illness said to have been the result of poison administered by an Italian woman in revenge for his having stolen the invention and for the injury he was causing the Italian trade. The funeral was said to have been the most superb ever known in Derby.

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SUBJECT AREA: Electricity

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Mechanical devices to transform energy from a mechanical to an electrical form followed shortly after Faraday's discovery of induction. One of the earliest was Pixii's magneto generator. Pixii had been an instrument maker to Arago and Ampère for a number of years and his machine was first announced to the Academy of Sciences in Paris in September 1832. In this hand-driven generator a permanent magnet was rotated in close proximity to two coils on soft iron cores, producing an alternating current. Subsequently Pixii adapted to a larger version of his machine a "see-saw" switch or commutator devised by Ampère, in order to obtain a unidirectional current. The machine provided a current similar to that obtained with a chemical cell and was capable of decomposing water into oxygen and hydrogen. It was the prototype of many magneto-electric machines which followed.

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SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Weapons and armour

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Amos Whitney was a member of the same distinguished family as Eli Whitney. His father was a locksmith and machinist and he was apprenticed at the age of 14 to the Essex Machine Company of Lawrence, Massachusetts. In 1850 both he and his father were working at the Colt Armory in Hartford, Connecticut, where he first met his future partner, F.A. Pratt. They both subsequently moved to the Phoenix Iron Works, also at Hartford, and in 1860 they started in a small way doing machine work on their own account. In 1862 they took a third partner, Monroe Stannard, and enlarged their workshop. The business continued to expand, but Pratt and Whitney remained at the Phoenix Iron Works until 1864 and in the following year they built their first new factory. The Pratt \& Whitney Company was incorporated in 1869 with a capital of $350,000, Amos Whitney being appointed General Superintendent. The firm specialized in making machine tools and tools particularly for the armament industry. Pratt \& Whitney was one of the leading firms developing the system of interchangeable manufacture which led to the need to establish national standards of measurement. The Rogers-Bond Comparator, developed with the backing of Pratt \& Whitney, played an important part in the establishment of these standards, which formed the basis of the gauges of many various types made by the firm.

Amos Whitney was made Vice-President of Pratt \& Whitney Company in 1893 and was President from 1898 until 1901, when the company was acquired by the Niles- Bement-Pond Company: he then remained as one of the directors. He was elected a Member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in 1913.

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   1) A Comparison of the Digital Computer and the Brain

   The brain has been compared to a digital computer because the neuron, like a switch or valve, either does or does not complete a circuit. But at that point the similarity ends. The switch in the digital computer is constant in its effect, and its effect is large in proportion to the total output of the machine. The effect produced by the neuron varies with its recovery from [the] refractory phase and with its metabolic state. The number of neurons involved in any action runs into millions so that the influence of any one is negligible.... Any cell in the system can be dispensed with.... The brain is an analogical machine, not digital. Analysis of the integrative activities will probably have to be in statistical terms. (Lashley, quoted in Beach, Hebb, Morgan & Nissen, 1960, p. 539)

   2) Computers Do Not Crunch Numbers, They Manipulate Symbols

   It is essential to realize that a computer is not a mere "number cruncher," or supercalculating arithmetic machine, although this is how computers are commonly regarded by people having no familiarity with artificial intelligence. Computers do not crunch numbers; they manipulate symbols.... Digital computers originally developed with mathematical problems in mind, are in fact general purpose symbol manipulating machines....

   The terms "computer" and "computation" are themselves unfortunate, in view of their misleading arithmetical connotations. The definition of artificial intelligence previously cited-"the study of intelligence as computation"-does not imply that intelligence is really counting. Intelligence may be defined as the ability creatively to manipulate symbols, or process information, given the requirements of the task in hand. (Boden, 1981, pp. 15, 16-17)

   3) Getting Computers to Explain Things to Themselves

   The task is to get computers to explain things to themselves, to ask questions about their experiences so as to cause those explanations to be forthcoming, and to be creative in coming up with explanations that have not been previously available. (Schank, 1986, p. 19)

   4) Some Limits of Artificial Intelligence

   In What Computers Can't Do, written in 1969 (2nd edition, 1972), the main objection to AI was the impossibility of using rules to select only those facts about the real world that were relevant in a given situation. The "Introduction" to the paperback edition of the book, published by Harper & Row in 1979, pointed out further that no one had the slightest idea how to represent the common sense understanding possessed even by a four-year-old. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 102)

   5) The Computer as a Humanizing Influence

   A popular myth says that the invention of the computer diminishes our sense of ourselves, because it shows that rational thought is not special to human beings, but can be carried on by a mere machine. It is a short stop from there to the conclusion that intelligence is mechanical, which many people find to be an affront to all that is most precious and singular about their humanness.

   In fact, the computer, early in its career, was not an instrument of the philistines, but a humanizing influence. It helped to revive an idea that had fallen into disrepute: the idea that the mind is real, that it has an inner structure and a complex organization, and can be understood in scientific terms. For some three decades, until the 1940s, American psychology had lain in the grip of the ice age of behaviorism, which was antimental through and through. During these years, extreme behaviorists banished the study of thought from their agenda. Mind and consciousness, thinking, imagining, planning, solving problems, were dismissed as worthless for anything except speculation. Only the external aspects of behavior, the surface manifestations, were grist for the scientist's mill, because only they could be observed and measured....

   It is one of the surprising gifts of the computer in the history of ideas that it played a part in giving back to psychology what it had lost, which was nothing less than the mind itself. In particular, there was a revival of interest in how the mind represents the world internally to itself, by means of knowledge structures such as ideas, symbols, images, and inner narratives, all of which had been consigned to the realm of mysticism. (Campbell, 1989, p. 10)

   6) The Intentionality of Computers Is Essentially Borrowed, Hence Derivative

   [Our artifacts] only have meaning because we give it to them; their intentionality, like that of smoke signals and writing, is essentially borrowed, hence derivative. To put it bluntly: computers themselves don't mean anything by their tokens (any more than books do)-they only mean what we say they do. Genuine understanding, on the other hand, is intentional "in its own right" and not derivatively from something else. (Haugeland, 1981a, pp. 32-33)

   7) The Possibility of Computer Thought

   he debate over the possibility of computer thought will never be won or lost; it will simply cease to be of interest, like the previous debate over man as a clockwork mechanism. (Bolter, 1984, p. 190)

   8) We Are Getting Better at Building Even Better Computers, an Ever- Escalating Upward Spiral

   t takes us a long time to emotionally digest a new idea. The computer is too big a step, and too recently made, for us to quickly recover our balance and gauge its potential. It's an enormous accelerator, perhaps the greatest one since the plow, twelve thousand years ago. As an intelligence amplifier, it speeds up everything-including itself-and it continually improves because its heart is information or, more plainly, ideas. We can no more calculate its consequences than Babbage could have foreseen antibiotics, the Pill, or space stations.

   According to weak AI, the principle value of the computer in the study of the mind is that it gives us a very powerful tool. For example, it enables us to formulate and test hypotheses in a more rigorous and precise fashion than before. But according to strong AI the computer is not merely a tool in the study of the mind; rather the appropriately programmed computer really is a mind in the sense that computers given the right programs can be literally said to understand and have other cognitive states. And according to strong AI, because the programmed computer has cognitive states, the programs are not mere tools that enable us to test psychological explanations; rather, the programs are themselves the explanations. (Searle, 1981b, p. 353)

    10) Why People Are Smarter Than Computers

   What makes people smarter than machines? They certainly are not quicker or more precise. Yet people are far better at perceiving objects in natural scenes and noting their relations, at understanding language and retrieving contextually appropriate information from memory, at making plans and carrying out contextually appropriate actions, and at a wide range of other natural cognitive tasks. People are also far better at learning to do these things more accurately and fluently through processing experience.

   What is the basis for these differences? One answer, perhaps the classic one we might expect from artificial intelligence, is "software." If we only had the right computer program, the argument goes, we might be able to capture the fluidity and adaptability of human information processing. Certainly this answer is partially correct. There have been great breakthroughs in our understanding of cognition as a result of the development of expressive high-level computer languages and powerful algorithms. However, we do not think that software is the whole story.

   In our view, people are smarter than today's computers because the brain employs a basic computational architecture that is more suited to deal with a central aspect of the natural information processing tasks that people are so good at.... hese tasks generally require the simultaneous consideration of many pieces of information or constraints. Each constraint may be imperfectly specified and ambiguous, yet each can play a potentially decisive role in determining the outcome of processing. (McClelland, Rumelhart & Hinton, 1986, pp. 3-4)

1) General subject: development, drill (приёмов и т.п.), drill-machine (приёмов и т.п.), labour-rent, (чего-л.)(например, навыков) practising, labor repayment

2) Military: drill (действий, приёмов), exercise, exercise (напр. порядка действий), workup

3) Engineering: development (напр. конструкции), optimization (напр. конструкции)

4) Law: base service, labor-rent

5) Textile: ravelling courses

6) Oil: debugging

7) Astronautics: developing, development test, workout

8) Geophysics: acquisition

9) Textiles: hand-hold courses, looping courses, raveling courses, waste courses

10) Education: ( compulsory) summer internship

11) Automation: refining (напр. УП), tryout

12) Quality control: final adjustment (аппаратуры)

13) Robots: servoing (напр. заданного движения сервоприводом)

14) Makarov: completion (нормы, времени, срока), control in response to (управляющее воздействие в ответ на какой-л. сигнал), development (доводка; конструкции, технологии), drill (тренировка по выполнению действий), exercise (тренировка по выполнению действий), generation (выдача данных), optimization (оптимизация), refinement (усовершенствование), reproduction (воспроизведение величин), response by reproduction (воспроизведение величин), trial (опробование; конструкции, технологии), try-out (опробование; конструкции, технологии)

15) Gold mining: mining, stoping

16) Karachaganak: flowback (скважин)

SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering

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Richard Edmund Reason was educated at Tonbridge School and the Royal College of Science (Imperial College), where he studied under Professor A.F.C.Pollard, Professor of Technical Optics. After graduating in 1925 he joined Taylor, Taylor and Hobson Ltd, Leicester, manufacturers of optical, electrical and scientific instruments, and remained with that firm throughout his career. One of his first contributions was in the development, with E.F.Fincham, of the Fincham Coincidence Optometer. At this time the firm, under William Taylor, was mainly concerned with optical instruments and lens manufacture, but in the 1930s Reason was also engaged in developing means for measuring the roughness of machined surfaces. The need for establishing standards and methods of measurement of surface finish was called for when the subcontracting of aero-engine components became necessary during the Second World War. This led to the development by Reason of an instrument in which a stylus was moved across the surface and the profile recorded electronically. This was called the Talysurf and was first produced in 1941. Further development followed, and from 1947 Reason tackled the problem of measuring roundness, producing the first Talyrond machine in 1949. The technology developed for these instruments was used in the production of others such as the Talymin Comparator and the Talyvel electronic level. Reason was also associated with the development of optical projection systems to measure the profile of parts such as gear teeth, screw threads and turbine blades. He retired in 1968 but continued as a consultant to the company. He served for many years on committees of the British Standards Institution on surface metrology and was a representative of Britain at the International Standards Organization.

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1) Medicine: gauging

2) Engineering: cal, calibration measurement (измерение, проводимое с целью поверки или градуировки), calibration test, calibration testing, design of grooves, gaging, grader, graduation, standardization, bench set (клапана)

3) Chemistry: gauge

4) Mathematics: Minkowsky functional, Minkowsky gage, calibration (against, with), gage, graduating, sizing

5) Automobile industry: calibration

6) Metallurgy: calibrating, correction (в холодном состоянии), design (валков), designing (валков), grooving, grooving (валков)

7) Information technology: male gage

8) Oil: trimming

9) Food industry: size grader, sizer, sizling

10) Advertising: size classification, size grading, size separation

11) Drilling: adjustment, grading, matching

12) Sakhalin energy glossary: (ТОЛЬКО ТАК - это принципиально) calibration, rolling (заворачивание в трубу)

13) Oil&Gas technology proving

14) Automation: coining, sizing work

15) Plastics: load verification

16) Arms production: sizing die

17) Cables: verification

18) Makarov: calibration (измерительных приборов), calibration (прибора), grading machine, metering, size-grading machine, sizing machine

19) Research and development: calibrations

1) Geology: light coal cutter

2) Engineering: development machine, kerving machine

3) Mining: light coalcutter, sawing machine (для вертикального вруба)

1) General subject: Development Unit

2) Engineering: film processing apparatus, film processor (для кино- или фотоплёнки), processing machine

3) Cinema: developing machine, photographic developing machine, processor

4) Polygraphy: computer-controlled film processor, computerized film processor

5) Makarov: processor (фото, кино)