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121 Saldanha, Duke of
(1790-1876)Born João Carlos de Saldanha Oliveira Daun, and later called duke, marshal, count, and marquis of Saldanha, he pursued a military career and personified military intervention in 19th-century politics. Saldanha fought against the French in the Peninsular War, as well as in conflicts in Uruguay and Brazil, and he backed the constitutional monarchist cause of King Pedro IV. Perhaps the most famous of career officers during the century, in his younger years he was often in exile. Critics quipped that his true name was "Dom João VII" for his imperious manner. As minister and prime minister in various liberal governments after 1851, his name later became used as a generic term for an impetuously planned military coup, a "Saldanhada," meaning a military golpe almost whimsical in spirit, carried out by a wild, headstrong general.A soldier from the tender age of 14, Saldanha was a much-discussed figure during various generations of soldiers and politicians. The writer Oliveira Martins later described the man as "a liberal and Portuguese Cid," after El Cid, the Castilian crusading warrior who fought Muslims in medieval Spain. For the constitutional liberal cause of Regent Dom Pedro, Saldanha's personal valor and military prowess were essential in the civil wars, and his prestige in the military was important in the era of the Regeneration of 1851-70; however, this officer lacked political ideas and was out of his element in governance. Queen Maria II, however, in part owed her throne to the force of this military personality who had become a general at age 27. In later life, Saldanha, loaded with honors and freighted with medals, served as Portugal's ambassador in Paris and London, in which city he died at his last post. -
122 Women
A paradox exists regarding the equality of women in Portuguese society. Although the Constitution of 1976 gave women full equality in rights, and the right to vote had already been granted under Prime Minister Marcello Caetano during the Estado Novo, a gap existed between legal reality and social practice. In many respects, the last 30 years have brought important social and political changes with benefits for women. In addition to the franchise, women won—at least on paper—equal property-owning rights and the right of freedom of movement (getting passports, etc.). The workforce and the electorate afforded a much larger role for women, as more than 45 percent of the labor force and more than 50 percent of the electorate are women. More women than ever attend universities, and they play a larger role in university student bodies. Also, more than ever before, they are represented in the learned professions. In politics, a woman served briefly as prime minister in 1979-80: Maria de Lourdes Pintasilgo. Women are members of government cabinets ("councils"); women are in the judicial system, and, in the late 1980s, some 25 women were elected members of parliament (Assembly of the Republic). Moreover, women are now members of the police and armed forces, and some women, like Olympic marathoner Rosa Mota, are top athletes.Portuguese feminists participated in a long struggle for equality in all phases of life. An early such feminist was Ana de Castro Osório (1872-1935), a writer and teacher. Another leader in Portugal's women's movement, in a later generation, was Maria Lamas (18931983). Despite the fact that Portugal lacked a strong women's movement, women did resist the Estado Novo, and some progress occurred during the final phase of the authoritarian regime. In the general elections of 1969, women were granted equal voting rights for the first time. Nevertheless, Portuguese women still lacked many of the rights of their counterparts in other Western European countries. A later generation of feminists, symbolized by the three women writers known as "The Three Marias," made symbolic protests through their sensational writings. In 1972, a book by the three women writers, all born in the late 1930s or early 1940s (Maria Isabel Barreno, Maria Teresa Horta, and Maria Velho da Costa), was seized by the government and the authors were arrested and put on trial for their writings and outspoken views, which included the assertion of women's rights to sexual and reproductive freedom.The Revolution of 25 April 1974 overthrew the Estado Novo and established in law, if not fully in actual practice in society, a full range of rights for women. The paradox in Portuguese society was that, despite the fact that sexual equality was legislated "from the top down," a gap remained between what the law said and what happened in society. Despite the relatively new laws and although women now played a larger role in the workforce, women continued to suffer discrimination and exclusion. Strong pressures remained for conformity to old ways, a hardy machismo culture continued, and there was elitism as well as inequality among classes. As the 21st century commenced, women played a more prominent role in society, government, and culture, but the practice of full equality was lacking, and the institutions of the polity, including the judicial and law enforcement systems, did not always carry out the law. -
123 φορέω
Aφορέῃσι Od.5.328
, 9.10; [dialect] Ep. inf. φορῆναι (as if from Φόρημι) Il.2.107, 7.149, Od.17.224;φορήμεναι Il.15.310
: [tense] impf. ἐφόρεον(-εο- syniz.) Od.22.456, [ per.] 3sg.ἐφόρει Il.4.137
; [dialect] Ion.φορέεσκον 2.770
, 13.372: [tense] fut.φορήσω Scol.9
(cf. Ar.Lys. 632), X.Vect.4.32; later : [tense] aor.ἐφόρησα IG42(1).121.95
(Epid., iv B. C.), Call.Dian. 213, [dialect] Ep.φόρησα Il.19.11
, ([etym.] δια-, ἐκ-) Is.6.43,42; later , f.l. in Is.4.7, Aristid.Or.48(24).80, Sammelb.7247.33 (iii/iv A. D.):—[voice] Med., [tense] fut.φορήσομαι Hsch.
; in pass. sense, Plu.2.398d: [tense] aor. ἐφορησάμην ([etym.] ἐξ-) Is.6.39:—[voice] Pass., [dialect] Aeol. [tense] pres.φορήμεθα Alc.18.4
: [tense] aor. ἐφορήθην ([etym.] ἐν-) Plu.2.703b: [tense] pf. ; [tense] plpf. :—Frequentat. of φέρω, implying repeated or habitual action,ἵπποι οἳ φορέεσκον ἀμύμονα Πηλεΐωνα Il.2.770
, cf. 10.323;τά τε νῆες φορέουσι Od.2.390
; of a slave,ὕδωρ ἐφόρει 10.358
, cf. Il.6.457;μέθυ οἰνοχόος φ. Od.9.10
;θαλλὸν ἐρίφοισι φ. 17.224
; of the wind, bear to and fro, bear along,ἄνεμος ἄχνας φορέει Il.5.499
, cf. 21.337, Od.5.328;σώματα.. κύμαθ' ἁλὸς.. φορέουσι 12.68
;τόφρα δέ μ' αἰεὶ κῦμα φ. 6.171
; so ἀγγελίας ἐφόρεε conveyed messages habitually, served as a messenger. Hdt.3.34 (nisi leg. ἐσεφόρεε) ; φ. θρεπτήρια, of Oedipus carrying about food in a wallet, like a beggar, S.OC 1262;λόγχαν ἔτη ἐφόρησε ἓξ ἐν τᾷ γνάθῳ IG42(1).121.95
(Epid.. iv B. C.): abs., ἐγ γαστρὶ ἐφόρει τρία ἔτη was pregnant, ib. 14:—[voice] Pass., v. infr.11.2 most commonly of clothes, armour, and the like , bear constantly, wear, [σκῆπτρον] ἐν παλάμῃς φ. δικασπόλοι Il. 1.238
;μίτρης ἣν ἐφόρει 4.137
;θώρηξ χάλκεος, ὃν φορέεσκε 13.372
, cf. Od.15.127, Hdt.1.71, etc.;φ. ἐσθήματα S.El. 269
; ;ζεῦγος ἐμβάδων Ar.Eq. 872
; , Pl.Tht. 197b; .3 of features, qualities, etc., of mind or body, possess, hold, bear, ἀγλαΐας φ. to be pompous or splendid, Od.17.245;φ. ὄνομα S.Fr. 658
; ;δόξαν Arch.Pap. 1.220
(ii B. C.);ἕνα γομφίον μόνον φ. Ar.Pl. 1059
;γλῶτταν Pl.Com. 51
; ἀπόνοιαν φορεῖς you are mad, PGrenf.1.53.15 (iv A. D.); with gen. or adj. added,σκέλεα φ. γεράνου Hdt.2.76
;ἰσχυρὰς φ. τὰς κεφαλάς Id.3.12
, cf. 101;ποδώκη τὸν τρόπον φ. Trag.Adesp.519
;γένειον διηλιφὲς φ. S.Fr. 564
;ὑπόπτερον δέμας φ. E.Hel. 619
;λῆμα θούριον φ. Ar.Eq. 757
;ῥύγχος φ. ὕειον Anaxil.11
;καλάμινα σκέλη φ. Pl.
Com.184;ὥσπερ σέλινον οὖλα τὰ σκέλη φ. Com.Adesp.208
;τὸ στόμ' ὡς κομψὸν φ. Alex.98.21
(troch.).4 bear, suffer, Phld.Lib.pp.59,62O. (dub. l. in both), Plu.2.692d, Opp.C.1.298.5 of Time, extend, last, ἃ φορεῖ ἐπὶ ἡμέρας δεκαπέντε dub. sens. in PFlor.384.54 (v A. D.).II [voice] Pass., to be borne along,ἐν ῥοθίοις A.Th. 362
(lyr.);φορούμενος πρὸς οὖδας S.El. 752
; κόνις δ' ἄνω φορεῖθ' ib. 715;ἄνω τε καὶ κάτω φ. E.Supp. 689
;πολλοῖς διαύλοις κυμάτων φ. Id.Hec.29
, cf. Plu.2.398d; πεφορημένον ἀεί always in motion, Pl.Ti. 52a: hence, to be storm-tossed,νᾶϊ φορήμεθα σὺν μελαίνᾳ Alc.18.4
, cf. Ar. Pax 144;ποσσὶ φ. Theoc.1.83
, cf. Bion 1.23: metaph.,δόξαις φορεῖται τοπαζόμενα Pl.Epin. 976a
.III [voice] Med., fetch for oneself, fetch regularly, E.El. 309; λευκανίηνδε φορεύμενος putting food into one's mouth, A.R.2.192. -
124 Acres, Birt
SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics[br]b. 23 July 1854 Virginia, USAd. 1918[br]American photographer, inventor and pioneer cinematographer.[br]Born of English parents and educated in Paris, Acres travelled to England in the 1880s. He worked for the photographic manufacturing firm Elliott \& Co. in Barnet, near London, and became the Manager. He became well known through his frequent lectures, demonstrations and articles in the photographic press. The appearance of the Edison kinetoscope in 1893 seems to have aroused his interest in the recording and reproduction of movement.At the beginning of 1895 he took his idea for a camera to Robert Paul, an instrument maker, and they collaborated on the building of a working camera, which Acres used to record the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race on 30 March 1895. He filmed the Derby at Epsom on 29 May and the opening of the Kiel Canal in June, as well as ten other subjects for the kinetoscope, which were sold by Paul. Acres's association with Paul ended in July 1895. Acres had patented the camera design, the Kinetic Lantern, on 27 May 1895 and then went on to design a projector with which he gave the first successful presentation of projected motion pictures to take place in Britain, at the Royal Photographic Society's meeting on 14 January 1896. At the end of the month Acres formed his own business, the Northern Photographic Company, to supply film stock, process and print exposed film, and to make finished film productions.His first shows to the public, using the renamed Kineopticon projector, started in Piccadilly Circus on 21 March 1896. He later toured the country with his show. He was honoured with a Royal Command Performance at Marlborough House on 21 July 1896 before members of the royal family. Although he made a number of films for his own use, they and his equipment were used only for his own demonstrations. His last contribution to cinematography was the design and patenting in 1898 of the first low-cost system for amateur use, the Birtac, which was first shown on 25 January 1899 and marketed in May of that year. It used half-width film, 17.5 mm wide, and the apparatus served as camera, printer and projector.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFellow of the Royal Photographic Society 1895.Bibliography27 May 1895 (the Kinetic Lantern).9 June 1898 (the Birtac).Further ReadingJ.Barnes, 1976, The Beginnings of the Cinema in England, London. B.Coe, 1980, The History of Movie Photography, London.BC -
125 Armstrong, Sir William George, Baron Armstrong of Cragside
[br]b. 26 November 1810 Shieldfield, Newcastle upon Tyne, Englandd. 27 December 1900 Cragside, Northumbria, England[br]English inventor, engineer and entrepreneur in hydraulic engineering, shipbuilding and the production of artillery.[br]The only son of a corn merchant, Alderman William Armstrong, he was educated at private schools in Newcastle and at Bishop Auckland Grammar School. He then became an articled clerk in the office of Armorer Donkin, a solicitor and a friend of his father. During a fishing trip he saw a water-wheel driven by an open stream to work a marble-cutting machine. He felt that its efficiency would be improved by introducing the water to the wheel in a pipe. He developed an interest in hydraulics and in electricity, and became a popular lecturer on these subjects. From 1838 he became friendly with Henry Watson of the High Bridge Works, Newcastle, and for six years he visited the Works almost daily, studying turret clocks, telescopes, papermaking machinery, surveying instruments and other equipment being produced. There he had built his first hydraulic machine, which generated 5 hp when run off the Newcastle town water-mains. He then designed and made a working model of a hydraulic crane, but it created little interest. In 1845, after he had served this rather unconventional apprenticeship at High Bridge Works, he was appointed Secretary of the newly formed Whittle Dene Water Company. The same year he proposed to the town council of Newcastle the conversion of one of the quayside cranes to his hydraulic operation which, if successful, should also be applied to a further four cranes. This was done by the Newcastle Cranage Company at High Bridge Works. In 1847 he gave up law and formed W.G.Armstrong \& Co. to manufacture hydraulic machinery in a works at Elswick. Orders for cranes, hoists, dock gates and bridges were obtained from mines; docks and railways.Early in the Crimean War, the War Office asked him to design and make submarine mines to blow up ships that were sunk by the Russians to block the entrance to Sevastopol harbour. The mines were never used, but this set him thinking about military affairs and brought him many useful contacts at the War Office. Learning that two eighteen-pounder British guns had silenced a whole Russian battery but were too heavy to move over rough ground, he carried out a thorough investigation and proposed light field guns with rifled barrels to fire elongated lead projectiles rather than cast-iron balls. He delivered his first gun in 1855; it was built of a steel core and wound-iron wire jacket. The barrel was multi-grooved and the gun weighed a quarter of a ton and could fire a 3 lb (1.4 kg) projectile. This was considered too light and was sent back to the factory to be rebored to take a 5 lb (2.3 kg) shot. The gun was a complete success and Armstrong was then asked to design and produce an equally successful eighteen-pounder. In 1859 he was appointed Engineer of Rifled Ordnance and was knighted. However, there was considerable opposition from the notably conservative officers of the Army who resented the intrusion of this civilian engineer in their affairs. In 1862, contracts with the Elswick Ordnance Company were terminated, and the Government rejected breech-loading and went back to muzzle-loading. Armstrong resigned and concentrated on foreign sales, which were successful worldwide.The search for a suitable proving ground for a 12-ton gun led to an interest in shipbuilding at Elswick from 1868. This necessitated the replacement of an earlier stone bridge with the hydraulically operated Tyne Swing Bridge, which weighed some 1450 tons and allowed a clear passage for shipping. Hydraulic equipment on warships became more complex and increasing quantities of it were made at the Elswick works, which also flourished with the reintroduction of the breech-loader in 1878. In 1884 an open-hearth acid steelworks was added to the Elswick facilities. In 1897 the firm merged with Sir Joseph Whitworth \& Co. to become Sir W.G.Armstrong Whitworth \& Co. After Armstrong's death a further merger with Vickers Ltd formed Vickers Armstrong Ltd.In 1879 Armstrong took a great interest in Joseph Swan's invention of the incandescent electric light-bulb. He was one of those who formed the Swan Electric Light Company, opening a factory at South Benwell to make the bulbs. At Cragside, his mansion at Roth bury, he installed a water turbine and generator, making it one of the first houses in England to be lit by electricity.Armstrong was a noted philanthropist, building houses for his workforce, and endowing schools, hospitals and parks. His last act of charity was to purchase Bamburgh Castle, Northumbria, in 1894, intending to turn it into a hospital or a convalescent home, but he did not live long enough to complete the work.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsKnighted 1859. FRS 1846. President, Institution of Mechanical Engineers; Institution of Civil Engineers; British Association for the Advancement of Science 1863. Baron Armstrong of Cragside 1887.Further ReadingE.R.Jones, 1886, Heroes of Industry', London: Low.D.J.Scott, 1962, A History of Vickers, London: Weidenfeld \& Nicolson.IMcNBiographical history of technology > Armstrong, Sir William George, Baron Armstrong of Cragside
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126 Aubert, Jean
[br]b. 7 February 1894 Paris, Franced. 25 November 1984 Paris, France[br]French civil engineer.[br]Aubert was educated at the Lycée Louis-leGrand in Paris, and entered the Ecole Polytechnique in 1913. His studies were interrupted by the First World War, when he served as an artillery officer, being wounded twice and awarded the Croix de Guerre in 1916. He returned to the Ecole Polytechnique in 1919, and from 1920 to 1922 he attended the Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées; he graduated as Bachelor of Law from the University of Paris.In 1922 he began his long career, devoted principally to river and canal works. He was engineer in charge of the navigation works in Paris until 1932; he was then appointed Professor in the Chair of Internal Navigation at the Ecole des Ponts et Chaussées, a post he held until his retirement in 1961. From 1933 to 1945 he was general manager and later chairman of the Compagnie Nationale du Rhône; from 1945 to 1953, chairman of the electricity board of the Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer français; and from 1949 to 1967, chairman of the Rhine Navigation Company. Following his retirement, he was chairman of the Société des Constructions des Batignolles, and from 1966 consulting engineer and honorary chairman of SPIE Batignolles; he was also chairman of several other companies.In 1919 he published La Probabilité dans les tires de guerre, for which he was awarded the Pierson-Perrim prize by the Académie des Sciences in 1922. During his career he wrote numerous articles and papers on technical and economic subjects, his last, entitled "Philosophic de la pente d'eau", appearing in the journal Travaux in 1984 when he was ninety years old.Aubert's principal works included the construction of the Pont Edouard-Herriort on the Rhône at Lyon; the design and construction of the Génissiat and Lonzères-Mondragon dams on the Rhône; and the conception and design of the Denouval dam on the Seine near Andresy, completed in 1980. He was awarded the Caméré prize in 1934 by the Académie des Sciences for a new type of movable dam. Overseas governments and the United Nations consulted him on river navigation inter alia in Brazil, on the Mahanadi river in India, on the Konkomé river in Guinea, on the Vistula river in Poland, on the Paraguay river in South America and others.In 1961 he published his revolutionary ideas on the pente d'eau, or "water slope", which was designed to eliminate delays and loss of water in transferring barges from one level to another, without the use of locks. This design consisted of a sloping flume or channel through which a wedge of water, in which the barge was floating, was pushed by a powered unit. A prototype at Mon tech on the Canal Latéral at La Garonne, bypassing five locks, was opened in 1973. A second was opened in 1984 on the Canal du Midi at Fonserannes, near Béziers.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsCroix de Guerre 1916. Académie des Sciences: Prix Pierson-Perrim 1922, Prix Caméré 1934. Ingénieur Général des Ponts et Chaussées 1951. Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur 1960.Further ReadingDavid Tew, 1984, Canal Inclines and Lifts, Gloucester: Alan Sutton.JHB -
127 Bell, Imrie
[br]b. 1836 Edinburgh, Scotlandd. 21 November 1906 Croydon, Surrey, England[br]Scottish civil engineer who built singular and pioneering structures.[br]Following education at the Royal High School of Edinburgh, Bell served an apprenticeship with a Mr Bertram, engineer and shipwright of Leith, before continuing as a regular pupil with Bell and Miller, the well-known civil engineers of Glasgow. A short period at Pelton Colliery in County Durham followed, and then at the early age of 20 Bell was appointed Resident Engineer on the construction of the Meadowside Graving Dock in Glasgow.The Meadowside Dry Dock was opened on 28 January 1858 and was a remarkable act of faith by the proprietors Messrs Tod and McGregor, one of the earliest companies in iron shipbuilding in the British Isles. It was the first dry dock in the City of Glasgow and used the mouth of the river Kelvin for canting ships; at the time the dimensions of 144×19×5.5m depth were regarded as quite daring. This dock was to remain in regular operation for nearly 105 years and is testimony to the skills of Imrie Bell and his colleagues.In the following years he worked for the East India Railway Company, where he was in charge of the southern half of the Jumna Railway Bridge at Allahabad, before going on to other exciting civil engineering contracts in India. On his return home, Bell became Engineer to Leith Docks, and three years later he became Executive Engineer to the States of Jersey, where he constructed St Helier's Harbour and the lighthouse at La Corbiere—the first in Britain to be built with Portland cement. In 1878 he rejoined his old firm of Bell and Miller, and ultimately worked from their Westminster office. One of his last jobs in Scotland was supervising the building of the Great Western Road Bridge in Glasgow, one of the beautiful bridges in the West End of the city.Bell retired from business in 1898 and lived in Surrey for the rest of his life.[br]Bibliography1879–80, "On the St Helier's Harbour works", Transactions of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland 23.Further ReadingFred M.Walker, 1984, Song of the Clyde, Cambridge: PSL.FMW -
128 Duddell, William du Bois
SUBJECT AREA: Electricity[br]b. 1872 Kensington, London, Englandd. 4 November 1917 London, England[br]English engineer, inventor of the first practical oscillograph.[br]After an education at the College of Stanislas, Cannes, Duddell served an apprenticeship with Davy Paxman of Colchester. Studying under Ayrton and Mather at the Central Technical College in South Kensington, he found the facilities for experimental work of exceptional value to him and remained there for some years. In 1897 Duddell produced a galvanometer which was sufficiently responsive to display an alternating-current wave-form. This instrument, with a coil carrying a mirror in the air gap of a powerful electromagnet, had a small periodic time. An oscillating mirror driven by a synchronous motor spread out the deflection on a time-scale. This development became the first commercial oscillograph and brought Duddell into prominence as a first-rate designer of special instruments. The Duddell oscillograph remained in use until after the Second World War, examples being used for recording short-circuit tests on high-power switchgear and other rapidly varying or transient phenomena. His next important work was to collaborate with Professor Marchant at Liverpool University to investigate the characteristics of the electric arc. This led to the suggestion that, coupled to a resonant circuit, the electric arc could form a generator of high-frequency currents. This arrangement was later developed by Poulson for wireless telegraphy. Duddell spent the last years of his life on government research as a member of the Admiralty Board of Inventions and Research and also of the Inventions Board of the Ministry of Munitions.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsCBE 1916. FRS 1907. Royal Society Hughes Medal 1912. President, Institution of Electrical Engineers 1912 and 1913.Bibliography1897, Electrician, 39:636–8 (describes his oscillograph). 5 March 1898, British patent no. 5,449 (the oscillograph).1899, with E.W.Marchant, "Experiments on alternate current arcs by aid of oscillograph", Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers 28: 1–107.Further ReadingV.J.Phillips, 1987, Waveforms, Bristol (a comprehensive account).1945, "50 years of scientific instrument manufacture", Engineering, 159:461.GWBiographical history of technology > Duddell, William du Bois
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