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81 Smeaton, John
SUBJECT AREA: Civil engineering, Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Steam and internal combustion engines[br]b. 8 June 1724 Austhorpe, near Leeds, Yorkshire, Englandd. 28 October 1792 Austhorpe, near Leeds, Yorkshire, England[br]English mechanical and civil engineer.[br]As a boy, Smeaton showed mechanical ability, making for himself a number of tools and models. This practical skill was backed by a sound education, probably at Leeds Grammar School. At the age of 16 he entered his father's office; he seemed set to follow his father's profession in the law. In 1742 he went to London to continue his legal studies, but he preferred instead, with his father's reluctant permission, to set up as a scientific instrument maker and dealer and opened a shop of his own in 1748. About this time he began attending meetings of the Royal Society and presented several papers on instruments and mechanical subjects, being elected a Fellow in 1753. His interests were turning towards engineering but were informed by scientific principles grounded in careful and accurate observation.In 1755 the second Eddystone lighthouse, on a reef some 14 miles (23 km) off the English coast at Plymouth, was destroyed by fire. The President of the Royal Society was consulted as to a suitable engineer to undertake the task of constructing a new one, and he unhesitatingly suggested Smeaton. Work began in 1756 and was completed in three years to produce the first great wave-swept stone lighthouse. It was constructed of Portland stone blocks, shaped and pegged both together and to the base rock, and bonded by hydraulic cement, scientifically developed by Smeaton. It withstood the storms of the English Channel for over a century, but by 1876 erosion of the rock had weakened the structure and a replacement had to be built. The upper portion of Smeaton's lighthouse was re-erected on a suitable base on Plymouth Hoe, leaving the original base portion on the reef as a memorial to the engineer.The Eddystone lighthouse made Smeaton's reputation and from then on he was constantly in demand as a consultant in all kinds of engineering projects. He carried out a number himself, notably the 38 mile (61 km) long Forth and Clyde canal with thirty-nine locks, begun in 1768 but for financial reasons not completed until 1790. In 1774 he took charge of the Ramsgate Harbour works.On the mechanical side, Smeaton undertook a systematic study of water-and windmills, to determine the design and construction to achieve the greatest power output. This work issued forth as the paper "An experimental enquiry concerning the natural powers of water and wind to turn mills" and exerted a considerable influence on mill design during the early part of the Industrial Revolution. Between 1753 and 1790 Smeaton constructed no fewer than forty-four mills.Meanwhile, in 1756 he had returned to Austhorpe, which continued to be his home base for the rest of his life. In 1767, as a result of the disappointing performance of an engine he had been involved with at New River Head, Islington, London, Smeaton began his important study of the steam-engine. Smeaton was the first to apply scientific principles to the steam-engine and achieved the most notable improvements in its efficiency since its invention by Newcomen, until its radical overhaul by James Watt. To compare the performance of engines quantitatively, he introduced the concept of "duty", i.e. the weight of water that could be raised 1 ft (30 cm) while burning one bushel (84 lb or 38 kg) of coal. The first engine to embody his improvements was erected at Long Benton colliery in Northumberland in 1772, with a duty of 9.45 million pounds, compared to the best figure obtained previously of 7.44 million pounds. One source of heat loss he attributed to inaccurate boring of the cylinder, which he was able to improve through his close association with Carron Ironworks near Falkirk, Scotland.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFRS 1753.Bibliography1759, "An experimental enquiry concerning the natural powers of water and wind to turn mills", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.Towards the end of his life, Smeaton intended to write accounts of his many works but only completed A Narrative of the Eddystone Lighthouse, 1791, London.Further ReadingS.Smiles, 1874, Lives of the Engineers: Smeaton and Rennie, London. A.W.Skempton, (ed.), 1981, John Smeaton FRS, London: Thomas Telford. L.T.C.Rolt and J.S.Allen, 1977, The Steam Engine of Thomas Newcomen, 2nd edn, Hartington: Moorland Publishing, esp. pp. 108–18 (gives a good description of his work on the steam-engine).LRD -
82 Walschaert, Egide
SUBJECT AREA: Steam and internal combustion engines[br]b. 20 January 1820 Mechlin, Belgiumd. 18 February 1901 Saint-Lilies, Brussels, Belgium[br]Belgian inventor of Walschaerrt valve gear for steam engines.[br]Walschaert was appointed Foreman of the Brussels Midi workshops of the Belgian State Railways in 1844, when they were opened, and remained in this position until 1885. He invented his valve gear the year he took up his appointment and was allowed to fit it to a 2–2–2 locomotive in 1848, the results being excellent. It was soon adopted in Belgium and to a lesser extent in France, but although it offered accessibility, light weight and mechanical efficiency, railways elsewhere were remarkably slow to take it up. It was first used in the British Isles in 1878, on a 0–4–4 tank locomotive built to the patent of Robert Fairlie, but was not used again there until 1890. By contrast, Fairlie had already used Walchaert's valve gear in 1873, on locomotives for New Zealand, and when New Zealand Railways started to build their own locomotives in 1889 they perpetuated it. The valve gear was only introduced to the USA following a visit by an executive of the Baldwin Locomotive Works to New Zealand ten years later. Subsequently it came to be used almost everywhere there were steam locomotives. Walschaert himself invented other improvements for steam engines, but none with lasting effect.[br]Further ReadingP.Ransome-Wallis (ed.), 1959, The Concise Encyclopaedia, of World Railway Locomotives, London: Hutchinson (includes both a brief biography of Walschaert (p.502) and a technical description of his valve gear (p. 298)).E.L.Ahrons, 1927, The British Steam Railway Locomotive 1825–1925, London: The Locomotive Publishing Co., pp. 224 and 289 (describes the introduction of the valve gear to Britain).J.B.Snell, 1964, Early Railways, London: Weidenfeld \& Nicolson, 103.PJGR -
83 variance
[ˈvɛərɪəns]accidental variance случайная дисперсия asymptotic variance асимптотическое значение дисперсии asymptotical variance асимптотическое значение дисперсии at variance with в противоречии с average variance средняя дисперсия to be at variance быть в ссоре; to set at variance вызывать конфликт, приводить к столкновению; ссорить to be at variance расходиться во мнениях; находиться в противоречии bounded variance ограниченная дисперсия conditional variance условная дисперсия cost variance отклонения от нормативных затрат cost-centre variance отклонение от нормативных затрат empiric variance эмпирическая дисперсия empirical variance эмпирическая дисперсия error variance дисперсия ошибки estimated variance оценка дисперсии generalized variance обобщенная дисперсия internal variance внутренняя дисперсия labour efficiency variance колебание производительности труда limiting variance предельная дисперсия material price variance разность цен на материалы minimum variance наименьшая дисперсия negative volume variance уменьшение объема overhead variance отклонение накладных расходов от норматива posteriori variance апостериорная дисперсия quantity variance дисперсия количества relative variance относительная дисперсия residual variance остаточная дисперсия sample variance выборочная дисперсия total variance полная дисперсия true variance истинная дисперсия unbounded variance неограниченная дисперсия unfavourable volume variance снижение объема производства unit variance единичная дисперсия universe variance дисперсия генеральной совокупности variance стат. дисперсия variance дисперсия variance изменение variance изменчивость variance несоответствие variance отклонение variance биол. отклонение от вида, типа variance противоречие в показаниях variance разница variance разногласие; размолвка variance разногласие variance рассеяние variance расхождение, несоответствие variance расхождение variance среднее отклонение variance ссора variance about a mean дисперсия относительно средней variance about regression дисперсия относительно регрессии variance about the mean дисперсия относительно средней variance of event times дисперсия времени наступления события zero variance нулевая дисперсия -
84 heat of combustion
The English-Russian dictionary general scientific > heat of combustion
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85 partial combustion
The English-Russian dictionary general scientific > partial combustion
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86 perfect combustion
The English-Russian dictionary general scientific > perfect combustion
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87 poor combustion
The English-Russian dictionary general scientific > poor combustion
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88 products of combustion
The English-Russian dictionary general scientific > products of combustion
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89 factor
factor 1. фактор, причина, движущая сила процесса; 2. коэффициент; показатель; 3. ген, фактор; 4. гормон; 5. витаминfactor фактор; генfactor of adhesion коэффициент сцепленияabiotic factor абиотический факторabsorption factor коэффициент абсорбцииabsorption factor коэффициент поглощенияaccessory factor дополнительный фактор, вспомогательный факторadditive factor аддитивный факторage factor возрастной факторanthropogenic factor антропогенный факторantitermination factor белковый фактор антитерминации транскрипцииarresting factor задерживающий факторBehrens factors биом. факторы Беренсаbiodegradability factor способность к биологическому разложениюbiotic factor биотический факторblood-coagulation factors факторы свёртывания кровиbranching factor разветвляющийся факторC-factor К-фактор (фактор, подавляющий кроссинговер или снижающий его частоту)camp factor фактор лизиса эритроцитов, обработанных стафилококковым бета-токсиномcausative factor причинный факторchemotactic factor фактор хемотаксисаcitrovorum factor цитроворму-факторclimatic factor климатический факторclotting factor коагулирующий факторclumping factor фактор слипанияcoagulation factor коагулирующий факторcol factor колициногенный факторcolicin factor колициногенный факторcolicinogenic factor колициногенный факторcomplementary factor комплементарный факторcondition factor коэффициент упитанностиconditioning factor обусловливающий факторcontrol factor регулирующий факторcorrection factor поправочный коэффициентcoupling factor фактор сопряженияcryptic growth factor коэффициент криптического ростаcumulative factor кумулятивный факторdecontamination factor коэффициент очисткиdensity-dependent factor фактор, зависимый от плотности (популяции)density-independent factor фактор, независимый от плотности (популяции)determinal factor определяющий факторdiluting factor фактор ослабления, ген-ослабитель (ген-модификатор, ослабляющий действие главных генов)disease-producing factor возбудитель болезниdisturbing factor повреждающий факторdrug resistance factor фактор лекарственной устойчивостиecological factor экологический факторedaphic factor эдафический фактор, почвенный факторefficiency factor фактор эффективностиelongation factor фактор элонгацииenvironmental factor фактор внешней средыextension factor фактор усиления, ген-усилитель (ген-модификатор, усиливающий действие или экспрессивность другого гена)external factor наружный фактор, внешний факторF-prime six factor F-прим половой фактор (F-фактор, включивший фрагмент бактериальной хромосомы)F-sex factor F-половой факторfeeback factor коэффициент обратной связиfood factor пищевой фактор; кормовой факторform factor (бот) видовое числоformaldehyde activating factor формальдегидактивирующий факторformative factor формообразующий факторfractionation factor коэффициент разделенияgametic factor гаметический факторgeneral factor фактор, общий для всех переменныхgenetic factor генетический факторgeodynamic factor геодинамический факторglucose tolerance factor фактор толерантности к глюкозеgrowth factor фактор роста, ростовой факторgrowth-promoting factor стимулятор ростаheat stable factor белковый термостабильный факторheat-stable factor термостабильный факторhereditary factor наследственный фактор, генhormonal factor гормональный факторhost factor клеточный факторhost factor хозяйский факторhydric factor фактор влажностиinactivating factor инактивирующий факторinhibitive factor тормозящий факторinitiation factor белковый фактор инициацииinternal factor внутренний факторintrinsic factor внутренний факторkey factor ключевой факторlethal factor летальный фактор, летальный ген, летальlight factor световой коэффициентlimiting factor ограничивающий фактор, лимитирующий факторlinked factors сцепленные геныloss factor коэффициент потерьmajor factor ведущий факторmaster factor определяющий факторmaturation factor фактор созреванияMendelian factor менделевский факторminor factor второстепенный факторmotivational factor мотивационный факторMSH-release inhibitinh factor фактор (гипоталамуса), угнетающий высвобождение меланоцитостимулирующего гормонаmultiple factors множественные факторыmultiplication factor коэффициент размноженияnitrogen factor азотный коэффициентnonreactive factor нереактивный фактор (независимый от плотности в динамике популяций)orographic factor орографический фактор, фактор рельефаoverriding factor не принимаемый во внимание факторP factor витамин PP, никотиновая кислотаparatypic factor паратипический факторphysiographic factor физико-географический факторplasma factor плазматический факторposterior pituitary antidiuretic factor антидиуретический фактор задней доли гипофизаposterior pituitary oxytocic factor фактор задней доли гипофиза, окситоцинposterior pituitary vasopressor factor вазопрессорный фактор задней доли гипофизаpredominant factor преобладающий факторprimary factor главный фактор; первичный факторquality factor показатель качестваR-factor фактор передачи устойчивости, R-факторrecessime factor рецессивный генrelaxing factor расслабляющий факторresistance transfer factor фактор передачи устойчивости, R-факторRh factor, rhasus factor резус-факторribonucleic acid formation factor CAP РНК-фактор образования CAPribonucleic acid formation factor psi РНК-фактор образования psiribonucleic acid formation factor rho РНК-фактор образования rhoribonucleic acid formation factor sigma РНК-фактор образования sigmaselective factor фактор отбораself-transmissible factor самопередающийся генетический факторseparation factor коэффициент разделенияsex factor половой факторsex-influenced factor ген, доминантность которого обусловлена полом особиsoil factor эдафический фактор, почвенный факторspecific factor специфически действующий факторspecific lethal factor специфический летальный факторspreading factor фактор распространенияsusceptibility factor фактор чувствительностиtermination factor фактор терминацииthermal factor термический фактор, фактор теплаtime factor фактор времениtopographic factor орографический фактор, фактор рельефаtransforming factor трансформирующий факторTSH-releasing factor фактор (гипоталамуса), высвобождающий тиреотропинuse factor коэффициент использованияvital factor жизненный факторwater factor фактор влажностиEnglish-Russian dictionary of biology and biotechnology > factor
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