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41 Mannesmann, Reinhard
SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy[br]b. 13 May 1856 Remscheid, Bleidinghausen, Germanyd. 22 February 1922 Remscheid, Bleidinghausen, Germany[br]German metallurgical engineer.[br]Reinhard Mannesmann and his four brothers developed the engineering works at Remscheid that had been founded by their father. With his brother Max, Reinhard devised c. 1885 a method of producing seamless tubes by a rolling process. Factories for manufacturing tubes by this process were established at Remscheid, at Bous in the Saar district and at Komotau in Bohemia. Further developments of the process were patented by the brothers in the years following the initial patent of 1885. The British patent rights for the Mannesmann process were purchased by the Landore Siemens Steel Company in 1888, and the Mannesmann Tube Company was established at Landore in South Wales. This company went into liquidation in 1899 after ten years of production and the Tube Works was then purchased by the Mannesmann family, and a new company, the British Mannesmann Tube Company, was formed. Reinhard and Max Mannesmann took up residence near the Landore works and the business prospered so that by 1914 Landore was employing 1,500 men and producing 35,000 tons of tubing each year. The company was taken over during the First World War by the Custodian of Enemy Property, and after the war a new tube works which had been planned in 1914 was built at Newport, Monmouthshire. The Mannesmann family were able to resume control in 1926 for some ten years, but in 1938 the company became part of the Stewarts \& Lloyds organization.[br]Further ReadingG.Evans, 1934, Manufacture of Seamless Tubes Ferrous and Non-Ferrous, London; 1940, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers 143:62–3 (both provide technical details of the Mannesmann process for forming seamless tubes).RTS -
42 Pierce, George Washington
SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology[br]b. 11 January 1872 Austin, Texas, USAd. 25 August 1956 Franklin, New Hampshire, USA[br]American physicist who made various contributions to electronics, particularly crystal oscillators.[br]Pierce entered the University of Texas in 1890, gaining his BSc in physics in 1893 and his MSc in 1894. After teaching and doing various odd jobs, in 1897 he obtained a scholarship to Harvard, obtaining his PhD three years later. Following a period at the University of Leipzig, he returned to the USA in 1903 to join the teaching staff at Harvard, where he soon established new courses and began to gain a reputation as a pioneer in electronics, including the study of crystal rectifiers and publication of a textbook on wireless telegraphy. In 1912, with Kennelly, he conceived the idea of motional impedance. The same year he was made first Director of Harvard's Cruft High- Tension Electrical Laboratory, a post he held until his retirement. In 1917 he was appointed Professor of Physics, and for the remainder of the First World War he was also involved in work on submarine detection at the US Naval Base in New London. In 1921 he was appointed Rumford Professor of Physics and became interested in the work of Walter Cady on crystal-controlled circuits. As a result of this he patented the Pierce crystal oscillator in 1924. Having discovered the magnetostriction property of nickel and nichrome, in 1928 he also invented the magnetostriction oscillator. The mercury-vapour discharge lamp is also said to have been his idea. He became Gordon McKay Professor of Physics and Communications in 1935 and retired from Harvard in 1940, but he remained active for the rest of his life with the study of sound generation by birds and insects.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsPresident, Institute of Radio Engineers 1918–19. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Medal of Honour 1929.Bibliography1910, Principles of Wireless Telegraphy.1914, US patent no. 1,450,749 (a mercury vapour tube control circuit). 1919, Electrical Oscillations and Electric Waves.1922, "The piezo-electric Resonator", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 10:83.Further ReadingF.E.Terman, 1943, Radio Engineers'Handbook, New York: McGraw-Hill (for details of piezo-electric crystal oscillator circuits).KFBiographical history of technology > Pierce, George Washington
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43 Shannon, Claude Elwood
[br]b. 30 April 1916 Gaylord, Michigan, USA[br]American mathematician, creator of information theory.[br]As a child, Shannon tinkered with radio kits and enjoyed solving puzzles, particularly crypto-graphic ones. He graduated from the University of Michigan in 1936 with a Bachelor of Science in mathematics and electrical engineering, and earned his Master's degree from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1937. His thesis on applying Boolean algebra to switching circuits has since been acclaimed as possibly the most significant this century. Shannon earned his PhD in mathematics from MIT in 1940 with a dissertation on the mathematics of genetic transmission.Shannon spent a year at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, then in 1941 joined Bell Telephone Laboratories, where he began studying the relative efficiency of alternative transmission systems. Work on digital encryption systems during the Second World War led him to think that just as ciphers hide information from the enemy, "encoding" information could also protect it from noise. About 1948, he decided that the amount of information was best expressed quantitatively in a two-value number system, using only the digits 0 and 1. John Tukey, a Princeton colleague, named these units "binary digits" (or, for short, "bits"). Almost all digital computers and communications systems use such on-off, or two-state logic as their basis of operation.Also in the 1940s, building on the work of H. Nyquist and R.V.L. Hartley, Shannon proved that there was an upper limit to the amount of information that could be transmitted through a communications channel in a unit of time, which could be approached but never reached because real transmissions are subject to interference (noise). This was the beginning of information theory, which has been used by others in attempts to quantify many sciences and technologies, as well as subjects in the humanities, but with mixed results. Before 1970, when integrated circuits were developed, Shannon's theory was not the preferred circuit-and-transmission design tool it has since become.Shannon was also a pioneer in the field of artificial intelligence, claiming that computing machines could be used to manipulate symbols as well as do calculations. His 1953 paper on computers and automata proposed that digital computers were capable of tasks then thought exclusively the province of living organisms. In 1956 he left Bell Laboratories to join the MIT faculty as Professor of Communications Science.On the lighter side, Shannon has built many devices that play games, and in particular has made a scientific study of juggling.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsNational Medal of Science. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Medal of Honor, Kyoto Prize.BibliographyHis seminal paper (on what has subsequently become known as information theory) was entitled "The mathematical theory of communications", first published in Bell System Technical Journal in 1948; it is also available in a monograph (written with Warren Weaver) published by the University of Illinois Press in 1949, and in Key Papers in the Development of Information Theory, ed. David Slepian, IEEE Press, 1974, 1988. For readers who want all of Shannon's works, see N.J.A.Sloane and A.D.Wyner, 1992, TheCollected Papers of Claude E.Shannon.HO -
44 Talbot, Benjamin
SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy[br]b. 19 September 1864 Wellington, Shropshire, Englandd. 16 December 1947 Solberge Hall, Northallerton, Yorkshire, England[br]Talbot, William Henry Fox English steelmaker and businessman who introduced a technique for producing steel "continuously" in large tilting basic-lined open-hearth furnaces.[br]After spending some years at his father's Castle Ironworks and at Ebbw Vale Works, Talbot travelled to the USA in 1890 to become Superintendent of the Southern Iron and Steel Company of Chattanooga, Tennessee, where he initiated basic open-hearth steelmaking and a preliminary slag washing to remove silicon. In 1893 he moved to Pennsylvania as Steel Superintendent at the Pencoyd works; there, six years later, he began his "continuous" steelmaking process. Returning to Britain in 1900, Talbot marketed the technique: after ten years it was in successful use in Britain, continental Europe and the USA; it promoted the growth of steel production.Meanwhile its originator had joined the Cargo Fleet Iron Company Limited on Teesside, where he was made Managing Director in 1907. Twelve years later he assumed, in addition, the same position in the allied South Durham Steel and Iron Company Limited. While remaining Managing Director, he was appointed Deputy Chairman of both companies in 1925, and Chairman in 1940. The companies he controlled survived the depressed 1920s and 1930s and were significant contributors to British steel output, with a capacity of more than half a million tonnes per year.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsPresident, Iron and Steel Institute 1928, and (British) National Federation of Iron and Steel Manufacturers. Iron and Steel Institute (London) Bessemer Gold Medal 1908. Franklin Institute (Philadelphia), Elliott Cresson Gold Medal, and John Scott Medal 1908.Bibliography1900, "The open-hearth continuous steel process", Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute 57 (1):33–61.1903, "The development of the continuous open-hearth process", Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute 63(1):57–73.1905, "Segregation in steel ingots", Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute 68(2):204–23. 1913, "The production of sound steel by lateral compression of the ingot whilst its centre is liquid", Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute 87(1):30–55.Further ReadingG.Boyce, 1986, entry in Dictionary of Business Biography, Vol. V, ed. J.Jeremy, Butterworth.W.G.Willis, 1969, South Durham Steel and Iron Co. Ltd, South Durham Steel and Iron Company Ltd (includes a few pages specifically on Talbot, and a portrait photo). J.C.Carr and W.Taplin, 1962, History of the British Steel Industry, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press (mentions Talbot's business attitudes).JKA -
45 Thomas, Sidney Gilchrist
SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy[br]b. 16 April 1850 London, Englandd. 1 February 1885 Paris, France[br]English inventor of basic steelmaking.[br]Thomas was educated at Dulwich College and from the age of 17, for the next twelve years, he made his living as a police-court clerk, although he studied chemistry in his spare time as an evening student at Birkbeck College, London. While there, he heard of the difficulties encountered by the Bessemer steelmaking process, which at that time was limited to using phosphorus-free iron. Any of this element present in the iron was oxidized to phosphoric acid, which would not react with the acidic lining in the converter, with the result that it would remain in the iron and render it too brittle to use. Unfortunately, phosphoric iron ores are more common than those free of this harmful element. Thomas was attracted by the view that a fortune awaited anyone who could solve this problem, and was not discouraged by the failure of several august figures in the industry, including Siemens and Lowthian Bell.Thomas's knowledge of chemistry taught him that whereas an acidic lining allowed the phosphorus to remain in the iron, a basic lining would react with it to form part of the slag, which could then be tapped off. His experiments to find a suitable material were conducted in difficult conditions, in his spare time with meagre apparatus. Finally he found that a converter lined with dolomite, a form of limestone, would succeed, and he appealed to his cousin Percy Carlyle Gilchrist, Chemist at the Blaenavon Ironworks in Monmouthshire, for help in carrying out pilot-scale trials. In 1879 he gave up his police-court job to devote himself to the work, and in the same year they patented the Thomas- Gilchrist process. The first licence to use it was granted to Bolckow, Vaughan \& Co. of Middlesborough, and there the first steel was made in a basic Bessemer converter on 4 April 1879. The process was rapidly taken up and spread widely in Europe and beyond and was applied to other furnaces. Thomas made a fortune, but his health did not long allow him to enjoy it, for he died at the early age of 34.[br]BibliographyL.G.Thompson, 1940, Sidney Gilchrist Thomas, an Invention and Its Consequences, London: Faber.T.G.Davies, 1978, Blaenavon and Sidney Gilchrist Thomas, Sheffield: Historical Metallurgy Society.LRDBiographical history of technology > Thomas, Sidney Gilchrist
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46 a long way off
1) далеко (отсюда или оттуда); см. тж. a little wayThey beat and ill-use me, Dick; and I am going to seek my fortune, some long way off. (Ch. Dickens, ‘Oliver Twist’, ch. VII) — Меня бьют и обижают, Дик, и я решил искать счастья где-нибудь подальше отсюда.
There were many things I knew I should attend to personally, but somehow, everything seemed a long way off and very unimportant. (H. Robbins, ‘The Carpetbaggers’, ‘Jonas-1940’) — Я знал, было много дел, которыми мне самому надо было заняться, но все казалось мне таким далеким и несущественным.
‘How are you?’ ‘Not so good,’ replied Luke from a long way off. (C. P. Snow, ‘The New Men’, ch. 22) — - Как вы себя чувствуете? - Не очень хорошо, - ответил Лук. Его голос доносился как бы издалека.
2) ещё не скоро, много времени пройдёт‘I know a place of the Riviera where we could live a whole year on less that two thousand dollars.’ ‘That's still a long way off,’ he said. (H. Robbins, ‘The Carpetbaggers’, ‘Rina Marlowe’) — - Я знаю место на Ривьере, где можно прожить год и потратить меньше двух тысяч долларов. - Но мы не скоро можем позволить это себе, - ответил отец.
3) далеко не, совсем неYour work is still a long way off perfection. (ALD) — Ваша работа далека от совершенства.
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47 phony war
"странная война" (период затишья во Второй мировой войне с сентября 1939 г. по май 1940 г. на Западном фронте) [этим. фр. une drôle de guerre. Из речи Э. Даладье в палате депутатов 22 декабря 1939 г.]She had joined him the first year of the phony war and now she couldn't get away... (Gr. Greene, ‘The Heart of the Matter’, part I, ch. I) — Жена приехала к Скоби в первый год "странной войны" и уже не смогла уехать...
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48 IGN
iʒeɛn abr nmInstitut géographique national French national geographical institute* * *IGN nm (abbr = Institut géographique national) organization responsible for producing maps of France; une carte de l'IGN ≈ an OS map.Created in 1940, this state agency is responsible for the official map of France. It keeps a geographical database and publishes large scale maps. It is organized into regional offices and sponsors a school which trains 200 students a year. -
49 crew-cut
Очень короткая мужская стрижка, введённая в моду гребцами Гарвардского и Йельского университетов. В 1940-е — 50-е гг. эта стрижка стала символом американского молодого человека. Более ранний термин crew-cropped не прижился в языке.I cannot understand my son. A year ago he looked like a hippy — long hair, sandals, stained jeans. Now he looks like the star of an American football team — crew-cut, fresh face, a picture of rude health. — Я не могу понять моего сына. Год назад он выглядел как хиппи — длинные волосы, сандалии, грязные джинсы. Сейчас у него внешность звезды американского футбола — короткая стрижка, свежее лицо — образец здорового человека.
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