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81 Buçaco, Battle of
(1810)An important battle in what is known as the Peninsular Wars in European history and the Wars of Independence in Portuguese history. In the third invasion by French forces under Emperor Napoleon, Marshal Masséna entered Portugal from Spain in August 1810. The allied forces under the Duke of Wellington were comprised of British and Portuguese troops. Masséna marched from Guarda, and moved to attack across the hills of Buçaco to Coimbra. Wellington's forces blocked the way to Coimbra and Lisbon and held an advantageous position. Against the advice of his council, Masséna decided to take the offensive. The battle of Buçaco commenced in the morning of 27 September 1810, and the French were defeated with considerable losses. The site of the battle in the woods and hills of Buçaco is marked by a commemorative obelisk, not far from the elegant Hotel-Palace of Buçaco, built originally for the last Braganza monarchs. -
82 Freyre, Gilberto
(1900-1987)World famous Brazilian sociologist and scholar whose writings (1933-60) formed the basis for the so-called theory of Luso- Tropicalism. Born in Recife, but receiving his higher degrees in the United States under American scholars, Freyre wrote a pioneering volume on the history of the colonization of Brazil, under the influences of the Portuguese, Amerindians, and black Africans. This first major work on Brazil, with the English title of The Masters and the Slaves, generated controversy over the precise role of Portugal in expansion and colonization in the world. The 1933 book and later writings up to the 1960 commemoration of the 500th anniversary of the death of Prince Henry of Aviz (Prince Henry the Navigator) formed the foundation for certain interpretations that the Estado Novo later used to support its policy of continuing Portuguese colonial rule in Africa and Asia. -
83 The Lusitano
The Portuguese breed of horse known as Lusitano has a history of at least a thousand years. Other noted Portuguese horse breeds are the Garrano and Sorraia, which evolved from ancient Iberian ponies and horses. Some authorities believe that the Lusitano breed evolved from the ancient Sorraia. The breed's name derives from Lusitania, the name the Romans gave to a portion of southwestern Iberia, a section of which became known in later centuries as Portugal. The breed's name also could be related to the name Luso, in ancient mythology a son of Bacchus, the god of wine and merriment. In recent decades, the Lusitano breed has become fashionable again in equestrian circles that participate in international riding competitions, as well as in producing mounts for the Portuguese bullfight. Despite a declining economy, less public interest and higher expenses in the bull- fighting industry, more opposition from animal rights advocates, and the constraints of European Union regulations, the bull-fight has endured as a sport. Breeding such horses has become a growing business not only for competitive riding, especially dressage, and an increasingly popular equestrian tourism, but also for bull-fighting. Lusitano breeding farms are located mainly in two provinces in Ribatejo, part of the Tagus River valley, and in Alentejo. -
84 Maria I, queen
(1734-1816)Daughter of King José I (r. 175077), she married her uncle Pedro III, her father's brother. Upon becoming queen in 1777, with the death of her father, Maria I dismissed the Marquis of Pombal, the king's prime minister. Known in Portuguese history by the nickname of "The Pious," Maria was extremely religious and, during her brief reign, attempted to reverse the dictator Pombal's statist, anticlerical policies, but to little avail. Her life and reign were transformed by family tragedies and by personal reactions to the news of the cataclysmic events in France. Maria's mental weakness was exacerbated progressively by the death of her consort Pedro (1786) and her eldest son João (1788) and gravely affected by news of the French Revolution and its excesses (1789-92). In 1792, she went insane and ceased to reign; her son João took her place and, in 1799, became prince regent. When, in 1807, the royal family fled with a British fleet to Brazil as France occupied Portugal, mad Maria, restrained, it was said, in an iron cage, was taken along. In 1816, while the royal court remained in Brazil, she died in Rio de Janeiro.See also João VI, king -
85 Negreiros, José Sobral de Almada
(1893-1970)Portuguese artist and writer. Born on the island of São Tomé, West Africa, a Portuguese colonial possession until 1975, Almada Ne-greiros began his artistic career as a humorist and cartoonist during the First Republic (1910-26). Linked with other writers, such as the celebrated Fernando Pessoa in the Orpheu review group, he became a leader of the avant garde artists-intellectuals who became cultural rebels through their art (especially painting and sculpture) and their writings. From the beginning, he became a leader in Portugal's modernist and futurist movements, and his sense of Portuguese identity and artistic taste was shaped in part by two important journeys to Madrid and Paris before 1930.Almada Negreiros was a versatile artist who expressed himself through a variety of creative works: drawings and paintings, novels, lectures, and pamphlets. In Portuguese art history, nevertheless, he became immortalized through his paintings of frescos and murals, such as the pictures found in A Brasileira, a legendary cafe in Lisbon's Chiado area; his paintings at the Exposition of the Portuguese World (1940); his murals at maritime stations at Alcântara (Lisbon) and Rocha do Conde De Óbidos, as well as in other public buildings; and a prominent panel in the atrium of the Gulbenkian Foundation headquarters, Lisbon, completed in 1969, the year before his death. In addition to other forms, he experimented with geometric abstractionism.Politically at odds with the Estado Novo toward the end of his life, Almada Negreiros remained ambivalent when his work was showered with official honors.Historical dictionary of Portugal > Negreiros, José Sobral de Almada
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86 Ourique, Battle of
(25 July, 1139)The battle between the forces of the newly proclaimed king of Portugal, Afonso Henriques, "The Founder," and Muslim forces, in which the Christian forces triumphed. The probable site of this battle whose history is clothed in legend is near the present city of Santarém. It is possible that the Muslims near that city then resumed payment of tribute to Afonso Henriques and that the triumph prepared the Portuguese forces for the coming assault on Lisbon, held by the Muslims, which was successful eight years later. Among the legends about the battle of Ourique is one that the Christians won due to the divine intervention of the Lord. Firm historical evidence about this battle, however, remains slight. -
87 PIDE
(Political Police)Commonly known as the PIDE, the Estado Novo's political police was established in 1932. The acronym of PIDE stood for Polícia Internacional e de Defesa do Estado or International and State Defense State Police, the name it was known by from 1945 to 1969. From 1932 to 1945, it was known by a different acronym: PVDE or Polícia da Vigilância e de Defesa do Estado. After Prime Minister António de Oliveira Salazar was replaced in office by Marcello Caetano, the political police was renamed DGS, Direcção-Geral da Seguridade or Directorate General of Security.This force was the most infamous means of repression and a major source of fear among the opposition during the long history of the Estado Novo. While it was described as "secret police," nearly everyone knew of its existence, although its methods — in theory—were "secret." The PVDE/PIDE/DGS had functions much broader than purely the repression of any opposition to the regime. It combined the roles of a border police, customs inspectorate, immigration force, political police, and a regime vetting administration of credentials for government or even private sector jobs. Furthermore, this police had powers of arrest, pursued nonpolitical criminals, and administered its own prison system. From the 1950s on, the PIDE extended its operations to the empire and began to directly suppress oppositionists in various colonies in Africa and Asia.While this police became more notorious and known to the public after 1958-61, before that new outburst of antiregime activity, it was perhaps more effective in neutralizing or destroying oppositionist groups. It was especially effective in damaging the Communist Party of Portugal (PCP) in the 1930s and early 1940s. Yet, beginning with the unprecedented strikes and political activities of 194345, the real heyday had passed. During World War II, its top echelons were in the pay of both the Allies and Axis powers, although in later propaganda from the left, the PIDE's pro-Axis reputation was carefully groomed into a myth.As for its actual strength and resources, it seems clear that it employed several thousand officers and also had thousands of informants in the general population. Under new laws of 1945, this police force received the further power to institute 90-day detention without charge or trial and such a detention could easily be renewed. A who's-who of the political opposition emerges from those who spent years in PIDE prisons or were frequently arrested without charge. The PIDE remained numerous and well-funded into 1974, when the Revolution of 25 April 1974 overthrew the regime and abolished it. A major question remains: If this police knew much about the Armed Forces Movement coup conspiracy, why was it so ineffective in arresting known leaders and squashing the plot? -
88 Hunter, John
SUBJECT AREA: Medical technology[br]b. 14 (registered 13) February 1728 East Kilbride, Lanarkshire, Scotlandd. 16 October 1793 London, England[br]Scottish surgeon and anatomist, pioneer of experimental methods in medicine and surgery.[br]The younger brother of William Hunter (1718–83), who was of great distinction but perhaps of slightly less achievement in similar fields, he owed much of his early experience to his brother; William, after a period at Glasgow University, moved to St George's Hospital, London. In his later teens, John assisted a brother-in-law with cabinet-making. This appears to have contributed to the lifelong mechanical skill which he displayed as a dissector and surgeon. This skill was particularly obvious when, after following William to London in 1748, he held post at a number of London teaching hospitals before moving to St George's in 1756. A short sojourn at Oxford in 1755 appears to have been unfruitful.Despite his deepening involvement in the study of comparative anatomy, facilitated by the purchase of animals from the Tower menagerie and travelling show people, he accepted an appointment as a staff surgeon in the Army in 1760, participating in the expedition to Belle Isle and also serving in Portugal. He returned home with over 300 specimens in 1763 and, until his appointment as Surgeon to St George's in 1768, was heavily involved in the examination of this and other material, as well as in studies of foetal testicular descent, placental circulation, the nature of pus and lymphatic circulation. In 1772 he commenced lecturing on the theory and practice of surgery, and in 1776 he was appointed Surgeon-Extraordinary to George III.He is rightly regarded as the founder of scientific surgery, but his knowledge was derived almost entirely from his own experiments and observations. His contemporaries did not always accept or understand the concepts which led to such aphorisms as, "to perform an operation is to mutilate a patient we cannot cure", and his written comment to his pupil Jenner: "Why think. Why not trie the experiment". His desire to establish the aetiology of gonorrhoea led to him infecting himself, as a result of which he also contracted syphilis. His ensuing account of the characteristics of the disease remains a classic of medicine, although it is likely that the sequelae of the condition brought about his death at a relatively early age. From 1773 he suffered recurrent anginal attacks of such a character that his life "was in the hands of any rascal who chose to annoy and tease him". Indeed, it was following a contradiction at a board meeting at St George's that he died.By 1788, with the death of Percival Pott, he had become unquestionably the leading surgeon in Britain, if not Europe. Elected to the Royal Society in 1767, the extraordinary variety of his collections, investigations and publications, as well as works such as the "Treatise on the natural history of the human teeth" (1771–8), gives testimony to his original approach involving the fundamental and inescapable relation of structure and function in both normal and disease states. The massive growth of his collections led to his acquiring two houses in Golden Square to contain them. It was his desire that after his death his collection be purchased and preserved for the nation. It contained 13,600 specimens and had cost him £70,000. After considerable delay, Par-liament voted inadequate sums for this purpose and the collection was entrusted to the recently rechartered Royal College of Surgeons of England, in whose premises this remarkable monument to the omnivorous and eclectic activities of this outstanding figure in the evolution of medicine and surgery may still be seen. Sadly, some of the collection was lost to bombing during the Second World War. His surviving papers were also extensive, but it is probable that many were destroyed in the early nineteenth century.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFRS 1767. Copley Medal 1787.Bibliography1835–7, Works, ed. J.F.Palmer, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London.MG
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