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41 Crompton, Samuel
SUBJECT AREA: Textiles[br]b. 3 December 1753 Firwood, near Bolton, Lancashire, Englandd. 26 June 1827 Bolton, Lancashire, England[br]English inventor of the spinning mule.[br]Samuel Crompton was the son of a tenant farmer, George, who became the caretaker of the old house Hall-i-th-Wood, near Bolton, where he died in 1759. As a boy, Samuel helped his widowed mother in various tasks at home, including weaving. He liked music and made his own violin, with which he later was to earn some money to pay for tools for building his spinning mule. He was set to work at spinning and so in 1769 became familiar with the spinning jenny designed by James Hargreaves; he soon noticed the poor quality of the yarn produced and its tendency to break. Crompton became so exasperated with the jenny that in 1772 he decided to improve it. After seven years' work, in 1779 he produced his famous spinning "mule". He built the first one entirely by himself, principally from wood. He adapted rollers similar to those already patented by Arkwright for drawing out the cotton rovings, but it seems that he did not know of Arkwright's invention. The rollers were placed at the back of the mule and paid out the fibres to the spindles, which were mounted on a moving carriage that was drawn away from the rollers as the yarn was paid out. The spindles were rotated to put in twist. At the end of the draw, or shortly before, the rollers were stopped but the spindles continued to rotate. This not only twisted the yarn further, but slightly stretched it and so helped to even out any irregularities; it was this feature that gave the mule yarn extra quality. Then, after the spindles had been turned backwards to unwind the yarn from their tips, they were rotated in the spinning direction again and the yarn was wound on as the carriage was pushed up to the rollers.The mule was a very versatile machine, making it possible to spin almost every type of yarn. In fact, Samuel Crompton was soon producing yarn of a much finer quality than had ever been spun in Bolton, and people attempted to break into Hall-i-th-Wood to see how he produced it. Crompton did not patent his invention, perhaps because it consisted basically of the essential features of the earlier machines of Hargreaves and Arkwright, or perhaps through lack of funds. Under promise of a generous subscription, he disclosed his invention to the spinning industry, but was shabbily treated because most of the promised money was never paid. Crompton's first mule had forty-eight spindles, but it did not long remain in its original form for many people started to make improvements to it. The mule soon became more popular than Arkwright's waterframe because it could spin such fine yarn, which enabled weavers to produce the best muslin cloth, rivalling that woven in India and leading to an enormous expansion in the British cotton-textile industry. Crompton eventually saved enough capital to set up as a manufacturer himself and around 1784 he experimented with an improved carding engine, although he was not successful. In 1800, local manufacturers raised a sum of £500 for him, and eventually in 1812 he received a government grant of £5,000, but this was trifling in relation to the immense financial benefits his invention had conferred on the industry, to say nothing of his expenses. When Crompton was seeking evidence in 1811 to support his claim for financial assistance, he found that there were 4,209,570 mule spindles compared with 155,880 jenny and 310,516 waterframe spindles. He later set up as a bleacher and again as a cotton manufacturer, but only the gift of a small annuity by his friends saved him from dying in total poverty.[br]Further ReadingH.C.Cameron, 1951, Samuel Crompton, Inventor of the Spinning Mule, London (a rather discursive biography).Dobson \& Barlow Ltd, 1927, Samuel Crompton, the Inventor of the Spinning Mule, Bolton.G.J.French, 1859, The Life and Times of Samuel Crompton, Inventor of the Spinning Machine Called the Mule, London.The invention of the mule is fully described in H. Gatling, 1970, The Spinning Mule, Newton Abbot; W.English, 1969, The Textile Industry, London; R.L.Hills, 1970, Power in the Industrial Revolution, Manchester.C.Singer (ed.), 1958, A History of Technology, Vol. IV, Oxford: Clarendon Press (provides a brief account).RLH -
42 Villard de Honnecourt
[br]b. c. 1200 Honnecourt-sur-Escaut, near Cambrai, Franced. mid-13th century (?) France[br]French architect-engineer.[br]Villard was one of the thirteenth-century architect-engineers who were responsible for the design and construction of the great Gothic cathedrals and other churches of the time. Their responsibilities covered all aspects of the work, including (in the spirit of the Roman architect Vitruvius) the invention and construction of mechanical devices. In their time, these men were highly esteemed and richly rewarded, although few of the inscriptions paying tribute to their achievements have survived. Villard stands out among them because a substantial part of his sketchbook has survived, in the form of thirty-three parchment sheets of drawings and notes, now kept in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. Villard's professional career lasted roughly from 1225 to 1250. As a boy, he went to work on the building of the Cistercian monastery at Vaucelles, not far from Honnecourt, and afterwards he was apprenticed to the masons' lodge at Cambrai Cathedral, where he began copying the drawings and layouts on the tracing-house floor. All his drawings are, therefore, of the plans, elevations and sections of cathedrals. These buildings have long since been destroyed, but his drawings, perhaps among his earliest, bear witness to their architecture. He travelled widely in France and recorded features of the great works at Reims, Laon and Chartres. These include the complex system of passageways built into the fabric of a great cathedral; Villard comments that one of their purposes was "to allow circulation in case of fire".Villard was invited to Hungary and reached there c. 1235. He may have been responsible for the edifice dedicated to St Elizabeth of Hungary, canonized in 1235, at Kassa (now Košice, Slovakia). Villard probably returned to France c. 1240, at least before the Tartar invasion of Hungary in 1241.His sketchbook, which dates to c. 1235, stands as a memorial to Villard's skill as a draughtsman, a student of perspective and a mechanical engineer. He took his sketchbook with him on his travels, and used ideas from it in his work abroad. It contains architectural designs, geometrical constructions for use in building, surveying exercises and drawings for various kinds of mechanical devices, for civil or military use. He was transmitting details from the highly developed French Gothic masons to the relatively underdeveloped eastern countries. The notebooks were annotated for the use of pupils and other master masons, and the notes on geometry were obviously intended for pupils. The prize examples are the pages in the book, clearly Villard's own work, related to mechanical devices. Whilst he, like many others of the period and after, played with designs for perpetual-motion machines, he concentrated on useful devices. These included the first Western representation of a perpetualmotion machine, which at least displays a concern to derive a source of energy: this was a water-powered sawmill, with automatic feed of the timber into the mill. This has been described as the first industrial automatic power-machine to involve two motions, for it not only converts the rotary motion of the water-wheel to the reciprocating motion of the saw, but incorporates a means of keeping the log pressed against the saw. His other designs included water-wheels, watermills, the Archimedean screw and other curious devices.[br]BibliographyOf several facsimile reprints with notes there are Album de Villard de Honnecourt, 1858, ed. J.B.Lassus, Paris (repr. 1968, Paris: Laget), and The Sketchbook of Villard de Honnecourt, 1959, ed. T.Bowie, Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Further ReadingJ.Gimpel, 1977, "Villard de Honnecourt: architect and engineer", The Medieval Machine, London: Victor Gollancz, ch. 6, pp. 114–46.——1988, The Medieval Machine, the Industrial Revolution of the Middle Ages, London.R.Pernord, J.Gimpel and R.Delatouche, 1986, Le Moyen age pour quoi fayre, Paris.KM / LRD -
43 Guinand, Pierre Louis
SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics[br]b. 20 April 1748 Brenets, Neuchâtel, Switzerlandd. 13 February 1824 Brenets, Neuchâtel, Switzerland[br]Swiss optical glassmaker.[br]Guinand received little formal education and followed his father's trade of joiner. He specialized in making clock cases, but after learning how to cast metals he took up the more lucrative work of making watch cases. When he was about 20 years old, in a customer's house he caught sight of an English telescope, a rarity in a Swiss mountain village. Intrigued, he obtained permission to examine it. This aroused his interest in optical matters and he began making spectacles and small telescopes.Achromatic lenses were becoming known, their use being to remove the defect of chromatic aberration or coloured optical images, but there remained defects due to imperfections in the glass itself. Stimulated by offers of prizes by scientific bodies, including the Royal Society of London, for removing these defects, Guinand set out to remedy them. He embarked in 1784 on a long and arduous series of experiments, varying the materials and techniques for making glass. The even more lucrative trade of making bells for repeaters provided the funds for a furnace capable of holding 2 cwt (102 kg) of molten glass. By 1798 or so he had succeeded in making discs of homogeneous glass. He impressed the famous Parisian astronomer de Lalande with them and his glass became well enough known for scientists to visit him. In 1805 Fraunhofer persuaded Guinand to join his optical-instrument works at Benediktheurn, in Bavaria, to make lenses. After nine years, Guinand returned to Brenets with a pension, on condition he made no more glass and disclosed no details of his methods. After two years these conditions had become irksome and he relinquished the pension. On 19 February 1823 Guinand described his discoveries in his classic "Memoir on the making of optical glass, more particularly of glass of high refractive index for use in the production of achromatic lenses", presented to the Société de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle de Genève. This gives details of his experiments and investigations and discusses a suitable pot-clay stirrer and stirring mechanism for the molten glass, with temperature control, to overcome optical-glass defects such as bubbles, seeds, cords and colours. Guinand was hailed as the man in Europe who had achieved this and has thus rightly been called the founder of the era of optical glassmaking.[br]Further ReadingThe fullest account in English of Guinand's life and work is 'Some account of the late M. Guinand and of the discovery made by him in the manufacture of flint glass for large telescopes by F.R., extracted from the Bibliothèque Universelle des Sciences, trans.C.F.de B.', Quart.J.Sci.Roy.Instn.Lond. (1825) 19: 244–58.M.von Rohr, 1924, "Pierre Louis Guinand", Zeitschrift für Instr., 46:121, 139, with an English summary in J.Glass. Tech., (1926) 10: abs. 150–1.LRD -
44 Ohain, Hans Joachim Pabst von
SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace[br]b. 14 December 1911 Dessau, Germany[br]German engineer who designed the first jet engine to power an aeroplane successfully.[br]Von Ohain studied engineering at the University of Göttingen, where he carried out research on gas-turbine engines, and centrifugal compressors in particular. In 1935 he patented a design for a jet engine (in Britain, Frank Whittle patented his jet-engine design in 1930). Von Ohain was recruited by the Heinkel company in 1936 to develop an engine for a jet aircraft. Ernst Heinkel was impressed by von Ohain's ideas and gave the project a high priority. The first engine was bench tested in September 1937. A more powerful version was developed and tested in air, suspended beneath a Heinkel dive-bomber, during the spring of 1939. A new airframe was designed to house the revolutionary power plant and designated the Heinkel He 178. A short flight was made on 24 August 1939 and the first recognized flight on 27 August. This important achievement received only a lukewarm response from the German authorities. Von Ohain's turbojet engine had a centrifugal compressor and developed a thrust of 380 kg (837 lb). An improved, more powerful, engine was developed and installed in a new twin-engined fighter design, the He 280. This flew on 2 April 1941 but never progressed beyond the prototype stage. By this time two other German companies, BMW and Junkers, were constructing successful turbojets with axial compressors: luckily for the Allies, Hitler was reluctant to pour his hard-pressed resources into this new breed of jet fighters. After the war, von Ohain emigrated to the United States and worked for the Air Force there.[br]Bibliography1929, "The evolution and future of aeropropulsion system", The Jet Age. 40 Years of Jet Aviation, Washington, DC: National Air \& Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution.Further ReadingVon Ohain's work is described in many books covering the history of aviation, and aero engines in particular, for example: R.Schlaifer and S.D.Heron, 1950, Development of Aircraft Engines and fuels, Boston. G.G.Smith, 1955, Gas Turbines and Jet Propulsion.Grover Heiman, 1963, Jet Pioneers.JDSBiographical history of technology > Ohain, Hans Joachim Pabst von
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45 that
/ðæt/ * tính từ chỉ định, số nhiều those - ấy, đó, kia =that man+ người ấy =in those days+ trong thời kỳ đó =those books are old+ những quyển sách ấy đã cũ * đại từ chỉ định, số nhiều those - người ấy, vật ấy, cái ấy, điều ấy; người đó, vật đó, cái đó, điều đó =what is that?+ cái gì đó? =who is that?+ ai đó? =after that+ sau đó =before that+ trước đó =that is+ nghĩa là, tức là =will you help me? - that I will+ anh có vui lòng giúp tôi không? xin rất sẵn lòng =that's right+ phải đó =that's it+ tốt lắm =what that?+ sao vậy?, sao thế? =and that's that; so that's that+ đấy, chỉ có thế, chỉ thế thôi - cái kia, người kia =to prefer this to that+ thích cái này hơn cái kia - cái, cái mà, cái như thế =a house like that described here+ một cái nhà giống như cái tả ở đây !at that - (xem) at * đại từ quan hệ - người mà, cái mà, mà =he is the very man [that] I want to see+ anh ấy đúng là người mà tôi cần gặp =this is he that brought the news+ đây là người đã mang tin lại =he that sows iniquity shall reap sorrows+ ai gieo gió sẽ gặt bão =the night [that] I went to the theatre+ bữa tối mà tôi đi xem hát * phó từ - như thế, đến thế, thế =I've done only that much+ tôi chỉ làm được đến thế =that far+ xa đến thế - như thế này =the boy is that tall+ đứa bé cao như thế này -(thân mật) đến nỗi =I was that tired I couldn't speak+ tôi mệt đến nỗi không thể nói được * liên từ - rằng, là =there's no doubt that communism will be achieved in the world+ chắc chắn rằng chủ nghĩa cộng sản sẽ được thực hiện trên khắp thế giới - để, để mà =light the lamp that I may read the letter+ thắp đèn lên để tôi có thể đọc bức thư - đến nỗi =the cord was such long that I could not measure it+ sợi dây dài đến nỗi tôi không thể đo được - giá mà =oh, that I knew what was happening!+ ôi! giá mà tôi biết cơ sự như thế này! !in that - bởi vì !it is that - là vì -
46 pursue
•• Pursue 1. to follow in order to overtake or catch. 2. to strive to gain or accomplish. 3. to carry on or engage in. 4. to follow or carry out (The Random House Dictionary).
•• Замечательно многозначное, а скорее – широкое по своему значению слово. Если научиться им хорошо оперировать, то оно выручит вас много раз при переводе с русского на английский и, во всяком случае, сделает вашу английскую речь более идиоматичной. Вот несколько примеров, показывающих широту значения этого слова:
•• 1. Readers were skeptical of the Pentagon’s secret program that relied on psychics to pursue information (Time);
•• 2. He used to be a self-described yuppie, more interested in acquiring houses and cars than in pursuing causes (Time);
•• 3. The two rival groups that are likely to emerge within China’s Communist Party... will both pursue the claim to Taiwan (Economist);
•• 4. Scholarly historians pursue rigorous canons of scientific evidence.
•• От глагола to pursue образовано и существительное pursuit (вспомним знаменитое life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness в американской Декларации независимости).
•• Конечно, у слов pursue, pursuit есть, если можно так выразиться, агрессивное значение, более или менее соответствующее русскому преследовать. Отсюда, например, hot pursuit – погоня по горячим следам. Но чаще в этом значении употребляются глаголы to persecute (подвергать преследованиям) и to prosecute (преследовать в судебном порядке). Например, не менее знаменитое американское Violators will be prosecuted to the full extent of the law. – Нарушители будут строго/без всякого снисхождения преследоваться в судебном порядке.
•• Наиболее актуальное значение слова pursue в современном английском языке, как мне кажется, «неагрессивное» и очень широкое, при этом русских соответствий может быть множество – стремиться, добиваться, заниматься, намереваться, проявлять интерес. Интересны некоторые синонимы, которые можно найти в словаре The Synonym Finder by J.I. Rodale: attend; aspire to; be intent on; contend for; aim for; have in mind; address; proceed; practice; engage in; undertake. Как видим, здесь масса возможностей для подбора идиоматичного, «звучащего» перевода для таких часто встречающихся в русской официальной речи и довольно тяжеловесных слов и словосочетаний, как предпринимать, добиваться, направленный на..., уделять внимание, ставить задачи и даже сакраментальное решать вопросы. И все это вполне соответствует широкому значению этого слова по Хорнби: to go on with, work at; have an aim or purpose или по Oxford American Dictionary: to engage in; to strive for. Широкое значение to engage in, под которое можно подвести буквально все что угодно, хорошо просматривается в таком примере из Time:...a policy that would guarantee indigenous peoples the right to pursue their traditional lifestyles.
•• А теперь вернемся к примерам, помещенным в начале словарной статьи. В первом из них говорится о секретной программе Пентагона, направленной на получение информации при помощи экстрасенсов. Во втором – о человеке, которого больше интересовало приобретение домов и машин, чем любое проявление общественной активности. В третьем примере утверждается, что китайское руководство будет добиваться удовлетворения своих претензий на Тайвань. Наконец, четвертый пример: Серьезные историки придерживаются самых строгих научных критериев доказательности (проверки достоверности фактов).
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47 can
I.1 ( expressing possibility) we can rent a house nous pouvons louer une maison ; anyone can enrol n'importe qui peut s'inscrire ; they can't ou cannot afford to fly ils ne peuvent pas se permettre de prendre l'avion ; it can also be used to dry clothes on peut aussi s'en servir pour faire sécher le linge ; how can one know in advance? comment peut-on savoir à l'avance? ; we are confident that the job can be completed in time nous sommes convaincus que le travail peut être fini à temps ; you can't have forgotten! tu ne peux pas avoir oublié! ; it can be described as on peut le décrire comme étant ; it cannot be explained logically ça n'a pas d'explication logique ; it could be that… il se peut que… (+ subj) ; could be ○ peut-être ; they could be dead ils sont peut-être morts ; it could be a trap c'est peut-être un piège, ça pourrait être un piège ; I could be wrong je me trompe peut-être, il se peut que j'aie tort ; this could be our most important match c'est peut-être or ça pourrait être le match le plus important pour nous ; the engine could explode le moteur pourrait exploser ; it could be seen as an insult ça pourrait être considéré comme une insulte ; it could be argued that on pourrait dire que ; could it have something to do with the delay? est-ce que ça pourrait avoir un rapport avec le retard? ; you could have been electrocuted! tu aurais pu t'électrocuter! ; ‘did she know?’-‘no, how could she?’ ‘est-ce qu'elle était au courant?’-‘non, comment est-ce qu'elle aurait pu l'être?’ ; the computer couldn't ou can't have made an error l'ordinateur n'a pas pu faire d'erreur, il est impossible que l'ordinateur ait fait une erreur ; they couldn't ou can't have found out so soon ils ne peuvent pas avoir compris si vite, il est impossible qu'ils aient compris si vite ; nothing could be simpler il n'y a rien de plus simple ;2 ( expressing permission) you can turn right here vous pouvez tourner à droite ici ; I can't leave yet je ne peux pas partir pour le moment ; we cannot allow dogs in the café nous ne pouvons pas autoriser les chiens dans le café ; can we park here? est-ce que nous pouvons nous garer ici? ; people could travel without a passport on pouvait voyager sans passeport ; we could only go out at weekends nous ne pouvions sortir ou nous n'avions le droit de sortir que le week-end ; could I interrupt? puis-je vous interrompre? ;3 ( when making requests) can you leave us a message? est-ce que tu peux nous laisser un message? ; can you do me a favour? est-ce que tu peux me rendre un service? ; can I ask you a question? puis-je poser une question? ; can't you get home earlier? est-ce que tu ne peux pas rentrer plus tôt? ; could I speak to Annie? est-ce que je pourrais parler à Annie?, puis-je parler à Annie? ; could she spend the night with you? est-ce qu'elle pourrait dormir chez toi? ; you couldn't come earlier, could you? est-ce que tu pourrais venir un peu plus tôt? ; couldn't you give us another chance? est-ce que vous ne pourriez pas nous donner une autre chance? ;4 ( when making an offer) can I give you a hand? est-ce que je peux te donner un coup de main? ; what can I do for you? qu'est-ce que je peux faire pour vous aider? ; you can borrow it if you like tu peux l'emprunter si tu veux ;5 ( when making suggestions) you can always exchange it tu peux toujours l'échanger ; I can call round later if you prefer je peux passer plus tard si ça t'arrange ; we could try and phone him nous pourrions essayer de lui téléphoner ; couldn't they go camping instead? est-ce qu'ils ne pourraient pas faire du camping à la place? ;6 (have skill, knowledge to) she can't drive yet elle ne sait pas encore conduire ; can he type? est-ce qu'il sait taper à la machine? ; few people could read or write peu de gens savaient lire ou écrire ; she never told us she could speak Chinese elle ne nous a jamais dit qu'elle savait parler chinois ;7 (have ability, power to) computers can process data rapidly les ordinateurs peuvent traiter rapidement les données ; to do all one can faire tout ce qu'on peut or tout son possible ; he couldn't sleep for weeks il n'a pas pu dormir pendant des semaines ; if only we could stay si seulement nous pouvions rester ; I wish I could have been there j'aurais aimé (pouvoir) être là ; I wish I could go to Japan j'aimerais (pouvoir) visiter le Japon ; I can't ou cannot understand why je ne comprends pas pourquoi, je n'arrive pas à comprendre pourquoi ;8 (have ability, using senses, to) can you see it? est-ce que tu le vois? ; I can't hear anything je n'entends rien ; we could hear them laughing on les entendait rire ; I could feel my heart beating je sentais mon cœur battre ;9 (indicating capability, tendency) she could be quite abrupt elle pouvait être assez brusque ; it can make life difficult ça peut rendre la vie difficile ; Italy can be very warm at that time of year il peut faire très chaud en Italie à cette période de l'année ;10 (expressing likelihood, assumption) the cease-fire can't last le cessez-le-feu ne peut pas durer ; it can't be as bad as that! ça ne peut pas être aussi terrible que ça! ; it can't have been easy for her ça n'a pas dû être facile pour elle ; he couldn't be more than 10 years old il ne peut pas avoir plus de 10 ans ;11 ( expressing willingness to act) I cannot give up work je ne peux pas laisser tomber le travail ; we can take you home nous pouvons te déposer chez toi ; I couldn't leave the children ( didn't want to) je ne pouvais pas laisser les enfants ; ( wouldn't want to) je ne pourrais pas laisser les enfants ;12 ( be in a position to) one can hardly blame her on peut difficilement le lui reprocher ; they can hardly refuse to listen ils peuvent difficilement refuser d'écouter ; I can't say I agree je ne peux pas dire que je suis d'accord ; I couldn't possibly accept the money je ne peux vraiment pas accepter cet argent ;13 ( expressing a reproach) they could have warned us ils auraient pu nous prévenir ; you could at least say sorry! tu pourrais au moins t'excuser! ; how could you! comment as-tu pu faire une chose pareille! ;14 ( expressing surprise) what can she possibly want from me? qu'est-ce qu'elle peut bien me vouloir? ; who could it be? qui est-ce que ça peut bien être? ; where could they have hidden it? où est-ce qu'ils ont bien pu le cacher? ; you can't ou cannot be serious! tu veux rire ○ ! ; can you believe it! tu te rends compte? ;15 ( for emphasis) I couldn't agree more! je suis entièrement d'accord! ; they couldn't have been nicer ils ont été extrêmement gentils ; you couldn't be more mistaken tu te trompes complètement ;16 ( expressing exasperation) I was so mad I could have screamed! j'aurais crié tellement j'étais en colère! ; I could murder him ○ ! je le tuerais ○ ! ;17 ( expressing obligation) if she wants it she can ask me herself si elle le veut elle peut venir me le demander elle-même ; you can get lost ○ ! tu peux toujours courir ○ ! ; if you want to chat, you can leave si vous voulez bavarder allez faire ça dehors ; if he doesn't like it he can lump it ○ même si ça ne lui plaît pas il va falloir qu'il fasse avec ○ ;18 ( avoiding repetition of verb) ‘can we borrow it?’-‘you can’ ‘est-ce que nous pouvons l'emprunter?’-‘bien sûr’ ; leave as soon as you can partez dès que vous pourrez ; ‘can anyone give me a lift home?’-‘we can’ ‘est-ce que quelqu'un peut me déposer chez moi?’-‘oui, nous’.as happy/excited as can ou could be très heureux/excité ; no can do ○ non, je ne peux pas.II.A n3 ○ ( prison) taule ○ f ;5 ○ US Naut destroyer m.1 Culin mettre [qch] en conserve [fruit, vegetables] ;2 ○ can it! I'm trying to sleep ferme-la ○, j'essaie de dormir! ;3 ○ US ( dismiss) virer ○.1 [food] en boîte ;2 ○ [music, laughter, applause] enregistré ;3 ○ ( drunk) bourré ○.a can of worms une affaire dans laquelle il vaut mieux ne pas trop fouiller ; in the can ○ Cin ( of film) dans la boîte ; ( of negotiations) dans la poche ; to carry the can for sb ○ porter le chapeau à la place de qn ○. -
48 Franklin, Benjamin
[br]b. 17 January 1706 Boston, Massachusetts, USAd. 17 April 1790 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA[br]American diplomat, statesman, scientist and inventor of bifocal spectacle lenses.[br]Described as a versatile genius, although less fairly also as an amateur dabbler, Franklin was of immediate English ancestry from Northamptonshire. During a long and prolific life, his innovations included the Franklin stove, arrangements for house ventilation and aeronautical and electrical experimentation. He was awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society in 1753 for his discoveries in relation to lighting conductors.His principal contribution to medicine was the invention of bifocal lenses constructed by the cementing of glass wafers to existing spectacle lenses. The date of this invention is uncertain, but was probably c.1774. A letter he wrote to a friend in 1775 refers to Peter Dollond, of the London optical firm, who has sometimes been thought to have contemporaneously developed some form of bifocal lens. Franklin's invention of the lens was prompted by his own visual difficulties.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsRoyal Medical Society of Paris 1777. Medical Society of London 1787. Royal Society Copley Medal 1753.Bibliography1888, The Life of Benjamin Franklin, Written by Himself, Philadelphia.Further ReadingC.van Dorek, 1938, Benjamin Franklin.H.Barty-King, 1986, Eyes Right, London.MG -
49 people
[piːpl]n1) люди, население, жители- average peopleThe middle class sprang into full being as a link between the nobility and the common people. — Средний класс занял прочное место как мост между аристократией и чернью.
- working people - chosen people
- city people
- country people
- common people
- working people
- people of the town2) народ, нация3) семья, родные, родственники- my wife's people4) эквивалент безличному you, на русский язык не переводится- people often think...
- never mind what people say•ASSOCIATIONS AND IMAGERY:Людей, особенно когда они ведут себя недостойно, часто сравнивают с животными: The soldiers were all drunk, and they behaved like animals. Пьяные солдаты вели себя по-скотски. You greedy pig! Ты жадная свинья! That little rat has been spying on us. Этот крысеныш шпионил за нами все это время. It's time to take action against these sharks who prey on the poor. Пора принять меры по отношению к этим акулам, которые живут за счет бедняков. The press were gathering outside her house like vultures. Журналисты, подобно коршунам, чующим поживу, кружат вокруг ее дома. You dirty dog! Ты грязный пес! His wife was a mousy little woman. Его жена была маленькой серой мышкой. You little monkey, have you been playing with my stuff again? Послушай, проказник/мартышка, ты опять трогал мои вещи? You silly goose. Ты глупая трусливая гусыня. /Ты трус и глупец. She is a very original writer, and has never been one to follow the herd. Она весьма оригинальный автор, из тех, кто никогда не идет на поводу у толпы. Most people are like sheep - they just do what everyone else does. Люди подобны баранам, они всегда следуют за толпой. /Люди как овцы - ими руководит стадное чувство. He described his opponents as dinosaurs, out of touch with present day reality. Он отзывался о своих оппонентах как о динозаврах/мастодонтах, живущих в прошлом (отставшим от жизни). He seems tough, but he's a pussycat when you get to know him. Он только кажется неприступным, но если с ним познакомиться поближе, то он окажется совсем ручным (мягким как котёнок).USAGE:(1.) People 1. - собирательное существительное, имеющее только форму единственного числа и обозначающее множество - люди, население, народ; оно согласуется с глаголом во множественном числе: people are having a difficult time now in some countries в некоторых странах люди сейчас переживают трудные времена. (2.) People 2. - народ, нация имеет форму и единственного, и множественного числа: peoples - народы, нации, народности. (3.) People 3. - семья, родные употребляется с притяжательным местоимением или существительным в притяжательном падеже: my wife's people родственники моей жены. (4.) People 4. соответствует русскому безличному говорят, думают: people often say that часто говорят, что … (5.) For people 1.; See man, n; USAGE (1.). (6.) For people 1.; See person, n (7.) For people 1.; See cattle, n (8.) For people 4.; See one, prn; USAGE (1.). -
50 come to hand
(come to (smb.'s) hand(s))1) прийти, быть полученным (особ. о письме)Meanwhile as José, whose arm was pierced by a broken bamboo, insists upon returning, I send this letter back in his charge, and only hope that it may eventually come to hand. (A. C. Doyle, ‘The Lost World’, ch. VIII) — Пока же я отправляю это письмо с Хосе, который поранил себе руку в бамбуковых зарослях и требует, чтобы его отпустили. Надеюсь, что письмо все-таки придет по назначению.
It was not often that a letter demanding decision... came to her hands past the kind and just censorship of Horace Pendyce. (J. Galsworthy, ‘The Country House’, part I, ch. VII) — В ее руки не так часто попадали письма, миновавшие любезную и справедливую цензуру Хораса Пендиса, а тем более такие, которые требовали принятия решения...
She has been reading aimlessly anything that came to her hand... (Th. Dreiser, ‘The Financier’, ch. XLVIII) — Она читала без разбора все, что попадало ей под руку...
...men described and named new birds, when such came to hand. (E. Seton-Thompson, ‘Lobo: the King of Currumpaw and Other Stories’, ‘The Voice in the Tamaracks’) —...когда неизвестная доселе птица попадала к ним в руки, они описывали ее и давали ей название.
-
51 duct
- труба
- проходить по каналу или трубе
- канал (в электропроводке)
- кабельный короб
- кабельный канал
- кабелепровод
- газоход
кабелепровод
Любой канал, обеспечивающий прокладку кабелей, в том числе, металлические и пластмассовые трубопроводы, рукава, каналы в полах, сотовые фальшполы, сетчатые лотки, желоба и кабель каналы (ISO/IEC 11801).
[ http://www.iks-media.ru/glossary/index.html?glossid=2400324]
кабелепровод
трасса
кабельный канал
Трасса или структура, предназначенная или используемая для прокладки и монтажа телекоммуникационных кабелей.
[ http://www.lanmaster.ru/SKS/DOKUMENT/568b.htm]Тематики
- СКС (структурированные кабельные системы)
- электропроводка, электромонтаж
EN
кабельный канал
Кабельным каналом называется закрытое и заглубленное (частично или полностью) в грунт, пол, перекрытие и т. п. непроходное сооружение, предназначенное для размещения в нем кабелей, укладку, осмотр и ремонт которых возможно производить лишь при снятом перекрытии.
[ПУЭ. Раздел 2]
кабельный канал
Элемент системы электропроводки, расположенный над землей или полом или в земле или в полу, открытый, вентилируемый или замкнутый, размеры которого не позволяют вход людей, но обеспечивают доступ к трубам и (или) кабелям по всей длине в процессе монтажа и после него.
Примечание - Кабельный канал может составлять или не составлять часть конструкции здания
[ ГОСТ Р МЭК 60050-826-2009]
канал кабельный
Подземный непроходной канал, предназначенный для размещения электрических кабелей
[Терминологический словарь по строительству на 12 языках (ВНИИИС Госстроя СССР)]EN
cable channel
element of a wiring system above or in the ground or floor, open, ventilated or closed, and having dimensions which do not permit the entry of persons but allow access to the conduits and/or cables throughout their length during and after installation
NOTE – A cable channel may or may not form part of the building construction.
[IEV number 826-15-06]FR
caniveau, m
élément de canalisation situé au-dessus ou dans le sol ou le plancher, ouvert, ventilé ou fermé, ayant des dimensions ne permettant pas aux personnes d'y circuler, mais dans lequel les conduits ou câbles sont accessibles sur toute leur longueur, pendant et après installation
NOTE – Un caniveau peut ou non faire partie de la construction du bâtiment.
[IEV number 826-15-06]
Кабельные каналы:
а — лотковый типа ЛК; б — из сборных плит типа СК:1 — лоток; 2 — плита перекрытия; 3 — подготовка; 4 — плита стеновая; 5 — основание
Высота кабельных каналов в свету не ограничивается, но бывает не более 1200 мм. Ширина каналов определяется в зависимости от размеров применяемых кабельных конструкций из условия сохранения прохода не менее 300 мм при глубине канала до 600 мм, 450 мм — от более 600 до 900 мм, 600 мм при более 900 мм.
Полы в каналах выполняют с уклоном не менее 0,5% в сторону водосборников или ливневой канализации.
Для крепления кабельных конструкций в стенах каналов через каждые 0,8—1 м (по длине) устанавливают закладные детали. При заводском изготовлении стеновых панелей детали устанавливают на предприятии-изготовителе. Закладные детали в каналах глубиной до 600 мм располагают в один ряд, при большей глубине каналов — в два ряда.
В местах поворота и разветвления трассы устраивают уширительные камеры, размеры которых выбирают с учетом допускаемого радиуса изгиба прокладываемого кабеля.
[ http://forca.ru/knigi/oborudovanie/priemka-zdaniy-i-sooruzheniy-pod-montazh-elektrooborudovaniya-11.html]Недопустимые, нерекомендуемые
Примечание(1)- Мнение автора карточкиТематики
- кабели, провода...
- электропроводка, электромонтаж
- электроустановки
Обобщающие термины
EN
- cable channel
- cable duct
- cable trench
- cabling
- conduit
- duct
- electric raceway
- raceway
- trench for cabling
DE
FR
- caniveau du câble
- caniveau, m
- conduite du câble
короб
Коробом называется закрытая полая конструкция прямоугольного или другого сечения, предназначенная для прокладки в ней проводов и кабелей.
Короб должен служить защитой от механических повреждений проложенных в нем проводов и кабелей.
Короба могут быть глухими или с открываемыми крышками, со сплошными или перфорированными стенками и крышками. Глухие короба должны иметь только сплошные стенки со всех сторон и не иметь крышек.
Короба могут применяться в помещениях и наружных установках
[ПУЭ. Раздел 2]
короб электрический
Подвесной или пристраиваемый короб для прокладки в нём электрических проводов и кабелей
[Терминологический словарь по строительству на 12 языках (ВНИИИС Госстроя СССР)]EN
wireway
A trough which is lined with sheet metal and has hinged covers, designed to house electrical conductors or cables.
[ http://www.answers.com/topic/wireway]См. также:
система кабельных коробов
система специальных кабельных коробов
система кабельных коробов для монтажа на стенах и потолках
1 - Подвесной кабельный короб
[ http://www.tesli.com/file/image/news/0711/obo-ld-1.jpg]
Рис. WIREMOLD
Кабельный короб
[ http://docs.hp.com/en/A3725-96021/ch02s05.html]
Тематики
- изделие электромонтажное
- электропроводка, электромонтаж
EN
- cable duct (hanging or attached)
- cable trough
- duct
- raceway base & cover
- raceway base and cover
- wireway
- wiring channel
- wiring duct
DE
FR
канал
Закрытый желоб, предназначенный специально для размещения и защиты электрических проводов, кабелей и электрических шин.
Трубопроводы, кабельнесущие системы и короба под полом являются модификациями каналов.
[ ГОСТ Р МЭК 60204-1-2007]
канал
канал для электропроводки
Обобщающий термин для обозначния закрытых полых конструкций, предназначенных для прокладки в них и для механической защиты кабелей и проводов.
Примечание
К каналам для прокладки кабелей и проводов относятся: трубы для электропроводки, системы кабельных коробов, в том числе и размещаемые в полу
Примечание автора карточки
Шинопроводы (busbars), указанные в IEC 60204-1-2006, не относятся к констукциям для прокладки в них кабелей и проводов.
[Интент]EN
duct
enclosed channel designed expressly for holding and protecting electrical conductors, cables, and busbars
NOTE
Conduits (see 3.7), cable trunking systems (see 3.5) and underfloor channels are types of duct.
[IEC 60204-1, ed. 5.0 (2005-10)]
[IEC 60204-1-2006]FR
canalisation
canal fermé destiné expressément au support et à la protection de conducteurs, de câbles et de barres électriques
NOTE Les conduits (voir 3.7), les systèmes de goulottes (voir 3.5) et les canaux enterrés sont des types de canalisations.
[IEC 60204-1, ed. 5.0 (2005-10)]Термин "канал" применяют также при описании сооружений местных линейных телефонных сетей, см:
- канал трубопровода кабельной канализации;
- трубный канал
2.1.4..... При скрытой электропроводке применяются следующие способы прокладки проводов и кабелей: в трубах, гибких металлических рукавах, коробах, замкнутых каналах и пустотах строительных конструкций, в заштукатуриваемых бороздах, под штукатуркой, а также замоноличиванием в строительные конструкции при их изготовлении.
2.1.15. В стальных и других механических прочных трубах, рукавах, коробах, лотках и замкнутых каналах строительных конструкций зданий допускается совместная прокладка проводов и кабелей (за исключением взаиморезервируемых).
2.1.19. При прокладке проводов и кабелей в трубах, глухих коробах, гибких металлических рукавах и замкнутых каналах должна быть обеспечена возможность замены проводов и кабелей.
2.1.20. Конструктивные элементы зданий и сооружений, замкнутые каналы и пустоты которых используются для прокладки проводов и кабелей, должны быть несгораемыми.
[ПУЭ]
Параллельные тексты EN-RU
External ducts
Conductors and their connections external to the electrical equipment enclosure(s) shall be enclosed in suitable ducts (i.e. conduit or cable trunking systems) as described in 13.5 except for suitably protected cables that may be installed without ducts and with or without the use of open cable trays or cable support means.
[IEC 60204-1-2006]Каналы для электропроводок, прокладываемые вне оболочек
Проводники вне оболочек электротехнических устройств, должны прокладываться, а их соединения должны выполняться в соответствующих каналах для электропроводок (т. е. в трубах или в системах кабельных коробов) в соответствии с п. 13.5 за исключением надлежащим образом защищенных кабелей, которые можно прокладывать вне каналов с или без использования открытых (т. е. без крышек) кабельных лотков или опорных кабельных конструкций.
[Перевод Интент]
Тематики
- изделие электромонтажное
- электропроводка, электромонтаж
Синонимы
EN
FR
проходить по каналу или трубе
течь по каналу или трубе
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]Тематики
Синонимы
EN
3.24 газоход (duct): Трубопровод для воздушного потока или потока дымовых газов.
Источник: ГОСТ Р 53682-2009: Установки нагревательные для нефтеперерабатывающих заводов. Общие технические требования оригинал документа
3.9 труба (duct): Газоход или конечный выход газохода стационарного (технологического) процесса, используемая(ый)для рассеивания отходящих газов.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 12039-2011: Выбросы стационарных источников. Определение содержания монооксида углерода, диоксида углерода и кислорода. Характеристики и калибровка автоматических измерительных систем в условиях применения оригинал документа
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > duct
-
52 fly off at a tangent
неожиданно отклоняться от темы разговора [выражение fly off at a tangent создано Т. Смоллеттом; см. цитату]About twelve years ago, he began a giro or circuit, which he thus performed... After having twelve times described this circle, he lately flew off at a tangent to visit some trees at his country-house in England, which he had planted above twenty years ago. (T. Smollett, ‘The Expedition of Humphrey Clinker’, ‘To Dr. Lewis, Scarborough, July 4’) — Двенадцать лет назад Х. отправился путешествовать по "кольцу", или "кругу"... Описав этот круг двенадцать раз, он в конце концов отклонился от своего маршрута и поехал в Англию полюбоваться на деревья, которые посадил лет двадцать назад возле своего загородного дома.
His thoughts went off at a tangent to a certain issue troubling his legal conscience. (J. Galsworthy, ‘Caravan’, ‘The First and The Last’) — Мысли его вдруг перескочили на одно дело, которое мучило его профессиональную совесть юриста.
I... asked you how the children were but we got off on a tangent. (J. O'Hara, ‘A Rage to Live’, book I, ch. III) — Я: ". спросил вас, как чувствуют себя дети, но мы отклонились от этой темы."
-
53 comfortable
1 [room, house, chair, bed, shoes, clothes, journey] confortable ; [temperature] agréable ;2 ( relaxed) [person] à l'aise ; to make oneself comfortable ( in chair) s'installer confortablement ; ( at ease) se mettre à son aise ; are you comfortable in that chair? est-ce que vous êtes bien dans cette chaise? ; she made everybody feel comfortable elle mettait tout le monde à l'aise ; the patient's condition is described as comfortable l'état du malade est jugé satisfaisant ; the patient had a comfortable night le malade a passé une bonne nuit ;4 ( reassuring) [idea, thought, belief] sécurisant ; [victory, majority, lead] confortable ; to live at a comfortable distance from ( far enough) habiter à bonne distance or assez loin de ;5 ( happy) I don't feel comfortable doing ça m'embête ○ de faire ; I would feel more comfortable about leaving if… je partirais plus volontiers si…
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