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gradually+gave+way+to

  • 21 Psychology

       We come therefore now to that knowledge whereunto the ancient oracle directeth us, which is the knowledge of ourselves; which deserveth the more accurate handling, by how much it toucheth us more nearly. This knowledge, as it is the end and term of natural philosophy in the intention of man, so notwithstanding it is but a portion of natural philosophy in the continent of nature.... [W]e proceed to human philosophy or Humanity, which hath two parts: the one considereth man segregate, or distributively; the other congregate, or in society. So as Human philosophy is either Simple and Particular, or Conjugate and Civil. Humanity Particular consisteth of the same parts whereof man consisteth; that is, of knowledges which respect the Body, and of knowledges that respect the Mind... how the one discloseth the other and how the one worketh upon the other... [:] the one is honored with the inquiry of Aristotle, and the other of Hippocrates. (Bacon, 1878, pp. 236-237)
       The claims of Psychology to rank as a distinct science are... not smaller but greater than those of any other science. If its phenomena are contemplated objectively, merely as nervo-muscular adjustments by which the higher organisms from moment to moment adapt their actions to environing co-existences and sequences, its degree of specialty, even then, entitles it to a separate place. The moment the element of feeling, or consciousness, is used to interpret nervo-muscular adjustments as thus exhibited in the living beings around, objective Psychology acquires an additional, and quite exceptional, distinction. (Spencer, 1896, p. 141)
       Kant once declared that psychology was incapable of ever raising itself to the rank of an exact natural science. The reasons that he gives... have often been repeated in later times. In the first place, Kant says, psychology cannot become an exact science because mathematics is inapplicable to the phenomena of the internal sense; the pure internal perception, in which mental phenomena must be constructed,-time,-has but one dimension. In the second place, however, it cannot even become an experimental science, because in it the manifold of internal observation cannot be arbitrarily varied,-still less, another thinking subject be submitted to one's experiments, comformably to the end in view; moreover, the very fact of observation means alteration of the observed object. (Wundt, 1904, p. 6)
       It is [Gustav] Fechner's service to have found and followed the true way; to have shown us how a "mathematical psychology" may, within certain limits, be realized in practice.... He was the first to show how Herbart's idea of an "exact psychology" might be turned to practical account. (Wundt, 1904, pp. 6-7)
       "Mind," "intellect," "reason," "understanding," etc. are concepts... that existed before the advent of any scientific psychology. The fact that the naive consciousness always and everywhere points to internal experience as a special source of knowledge, may, therefore, be accepted for the moment as sufficient testimony to the rights of psychology as science.... "Mind," will accordingly be the subject, to which we attribute all the separate facts of internal observation as predicates. The subject itself is determined p. 17) wholly and exclusively by its predicates. (Wundt, 1904,
       The study of animal psychology may be approached from two different points of view. We may set out from the notion of a kind of comparative physiology of mind, a universal history of the development of mental life in the organic world. Or we may make human psychology the principal object of investigation. Then, the expressions of mental life in animals will be taken into account only so far as they throw light upon the evolution of consciousness in man.... Human psychology... may confine itself altogether to man, and generally has done so to far too great an extent. There are plenty of psychological text-books from which you would hardly gather that there was any other conscious life than the human. (Wundt, 1907, pp. 340-341)
       The Behaviorist began his own formulation of the problem of psychology by sweeping aside all medieval conceptions. He dropped from his scientific vocabulary all subjective terms such as sensation, perception, image, desire, purpose, and even thinking and emotion as they were subjectively defined. (Watson, 1930, pp. 5-6)
       According to the medieval classification of the sciences, psychology is merely a chapter of special physics, although the most important chapter; for man is a microcosm; he is the central figure of the universe. (deWulf, 1956, p. 125)
       At the beginning of this century the prevailing thesis in psychology was Associationism.... Behavior proceeded by the stream of associations: each association produced its successors, and acquired new attachments with the sensations arriving from the environment.
       In the first decade of the century a reaction developed to this doctrine through the work of the Wurzburg school. Rejecting the notion of a completely self-determining stream of associations, it introduced the task ( Aufgabe) as a necessary factor in describing the process of thinking. The task gave direction to thought. A noteworthy innovation of the Wurzburg school was the use of systematic introspection to shed light on the thinking process and the contents of consciousness. The result was a blend of mechanics and phenomenalism, which gave rise in turn to two divergent antitheses, Behaviorism and the Gestalt movement. The behavioristic reaction insisted that introspection was a highly unstable, subjective procedure.... Behaviorism reformulated the task of psychology as one of explaining the response of organisms as a function of the stimuli impinging upon them and measuring both objectively. However, Behaviorism accepted, and indeed reinforced, the mechanistic assumption that the connections between stimulus and response were formed and maintained as simple, determinate functions of the environment.
       The Gestalt reaction took an opposite turn. It rejected the mechanistic nature of the associationist doctrine but maintained the value of phenomenal observation. In many ways it continued the Wurzburg school's insistence that thinking was more than association-thinking has direction given to it by the task or by the set of the subject. Gestalt psychology elaborated this doctrine in genuinely new ways in terms of holistic principles of organization.
       Today psychology lives in a state of relatively stable tension between the poles of Behaviorism and Gestalt psychology.... (Newell & Simon, 1963, pp. 279-280)
       As I examine the fate of our oppositions, looking at those already in existence as guide to how they fare and shape the course of science, it seems to me that clarity is never achieved. Matters simply become muddier and muddier as we go down through time. Thus, far from providing the rungs of a ladder by which psychology gradually climbs to clarity, this form of conceptual structure leads rather to an ever increasing pile of issues, which we weary of or become diverted from, but never really settle. (Newell, 1973b, pp. 288-289)
       The subject matter of psychology is as old as reflection. Its broad practical aims are as dated as human societies. Human beings, in any period, have not been indifferent to the validity of their knowledge, unconcerned with the causes of their behavior or that of their prey and predators. Our distant ancestors, no less than we, wrestled with the problems of social organization, child rearing, competition, authority, individual differences, personal safety. Solving these problems required insights-no matter how untutored-into the psychological dimensions of life. Thus, if we are to follow the convention of treating psychology as a young discipline, we must have in mind something other than its subject matter. We must mean that it is young in the sense that physics was young at the time of Archimedes or in the sense that geometry was "founded" by Euclid and "fathered" by Thales. Sailing vessels were launched long before Archimedes discovered the laws of bouyancy [ sic], and pillars of identical circumference were constructed before anyone knew that C IID. We do not consider the ship builders and stone cutters of antiquity physicists and geometers. Nor were the ancient cave dwellers psychologists merely because they rewarded the good conduct of their children. The archives of folk wisdom contain a remarkable collection of achievements, but craft-no matter how perfected-is not science, nor is a litany of successful accidents a discipline. If psychology is young, it is young as a scientific discipline but it is far from clear that psychology has attained this status. (Robinson, 1986, p. 12)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Psychology

  • 22 ease

    i:z
    1. noun
    1) (freedom from pain or from worry or hard work: a lifetime of ease.) alivio, bienestar
    2) (freedom from difficulty: He passed his exam with ease.) facilidad
    3) (naturalness: ease of manner.) soltura

    2. verb
    1) (to free from pain, trouble or anxiety: A hot bath eased his tired limbs.) aliviar
    2) ((often with off) to make or become less strong, less severe, less fast etc: The pain has eased (off); The driver eased off as he approached the town.) aflojar
    3) (to move (something heavy or awkward) gently or gradually in or out of position: They eased the wardrobe carefully up the narrow staircase.) mover con cuidado
    •
    - easiness
    - easy
    3. interjection
    (a command to go or act gently: Easy! You'll fall if you run too fast.) ¡despacio!
    - easy-going
    - at ease
    - easier said than done
    - go easy on
    - stand at ease
    - take it easy
    - take one's ease
    ease1 n facilidad
    at ease relajado / tranquilo
    ease2 vb aliviar / calmar
    tr[iːz]
    2 (natural manner) soltura, naturalidad nombre femenino, desenvoltura
    4 (leisure, affluence) comodidad nombre femenino, desahogo
    ■ a life of ease una vida cómoda, una vida desahogada
    1 (relieve, alleviate) aliviar (of, de), calmar
    2 (improve) mejorar, facilitar; (make easier) facilitar
    3 (move gently) mover con cuidado
    4 (loosen) aflojar
    1 (pain) aliviarse, calmarse, disminuir; (tension etc) disminuir
    2 (become easier) mejorar
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    at ease! SMALLMILITARY/SMALL ¡descansen!
    to stand at ease SMALLMILITARY/SMALL quedarse en posición de descanso
    to be ill at ease sentirse incómodo,-a, sentirse molesto,-a
    to be at (one's) ease / feel at (one's) ease estar cómodo,-a, sentirse a gusto, sentirse a sus anchas
    to ease somebody's mind tranquilizar a alguien
    to put somebody at their ease lograr que alguien se sienta cómodo,-a
    to put/set somebody's mind at ease tranquilizar a alguien
    to take one's ease formal use tomarse un respiro
    ease ['i:z] v, eased ; easing vt
    1) alleviate: aliviar, calmar, hacer disminuir
    2) loosen, relax: aflojar (una cuerda), relajar (restricciones), descargar (tensiones)
    3) facilitate: facilitar
    ease vi
    : calmarse, relajarse
    ease n
    1) calm, relief: tranquilidad f, comodidad f, desahogo m
    2) facility: facilidad f
    3)
    at ease : relajado, cómodo
    to put someone at ease: tranquilizar a alguien
    n.
    • alivio s.m.
    • comodidad s.f.
    • desahogo s.m.
    • descanso s.m.
    • desempacho s.m.
    • desenfado s.m.
    • desenvoltura s.f.
    • despejo s.m.
    • facilidad s.f.
    • gentileza s.f.
    • holganza s.f.
    • holgura s.f.
    • limpieza s.f.
    • naturalidad s.f.
    • soltura s.f.
    v.
    • aligerar v.
    • aliviar v.
    • desahogar v.
    • desembarazar v.
    • disminuir v.
    • largar v.
    • laxar v.
    • suavizar v.
    • templar v.
    • tranquilizar v.
    iːz, iːz
    I
    mass noun
    1) ( facility) facilidad f

    ease of operation/reference — facilidad de manejo/consulta

    with ease — fácilmente, con facilidad

    2)

    to put somebody at his/her ease — hacer* que alguien se sienta a gusto or se relaje

    to put/set somebody's mind at ease — tranquilizar* a alguien

    b) ( Mil)
    3) ( leisure)

    II
    1.
    1)
    a) ( relieve) \<\<pain\>\> calmar, aliviar; \<\<tension\>\> hacer* disminuir, aliviar; \<\<burden\>\> aligerar

    to ease somebody's mind — tranquilizar* a alguien

    b) ( make easier) \<\<situation\>\> paliar, mejorar; \<\<transition\>\> facilitar

    to ease the way for something — preparar el terreno para algo

    2)
    a) \<\<rules/restrictions\>\> relajar
    b) \<\<belt/rope\>\> aflojar
    3) ( move with care) (+ adv compl)

    2.
    vi \<\<pain\>\> aliviarse, calmarse; \<\<tension\>\> disminuir*, decrecer*
    Phrasal Verbs:
    [iːz]
    1. N
    1) (=effortlessness) facilidad f
    2) (=relaxed state)

    his ease with money — su soltura or ligereza con el dinero

    • people immediately feel at ease with her — la gente inmediatamente se siente a gusto or cómoda con ella

    to put sb at his/her ease — hacer que algn se relaje, tranquilizar a algn

    to put or set sb's mind at ease — tranquilizar a algn

    • his ease of manner — su naturalidad

    • to take one's ease — descansar

    ill 1., 2)
    3) (=comfort) comodidad f

    • a life of ease — una vida cómoda or desahogada

    4) (Mil)

    stand at ease!, stand easy! — (Mil) ¡descansen!

    at ease, Sergeant — descanse, Sargento

    2. VT
    1) (=relieve, lessen) [+ pain, suffering] aliviar; [+ pressure, tension] aliviar, relajar; [+ burden] aligerar; [+ impact, effect] mitigar, paliar; [+ sanctions, restrictions] relajar

    • these measures will ease the burden on small businesses — estas medidas aligerarán la carga de las pequeñas empresas

    • it will ease her mind to know the baby's all right — le tranquilizará saber que el bebé está bien

    • aid to help ease the plight of refugees — ayuda para paliar la difícil situación de los refugiados

    2) (=facilitate) [+ transition, task] facilitar
    3) (=loosen) aflojar
    4) (=move carefully)
    3. VI
    1) (=diminish) [pain] ceder, disminuir; [tension] disminuir; [wind, rain] amainar; [interest rates] bajar
    2) (=improve) [situation] calmarse
    * * *
    [iːz, iːz]
    I
    mass noun
    1) ( facility) facilidad f

    ease of operation/reference — facilidad de manejo/consulta

    with ease — fácilmente, con facilidad

    2)

    to put somebody at his/her ease — hacer* que alguien se sienta a gusto or se relaje

    to put/set somebody's mind at ease — tranquilizar* a alguien

    b) ( Mil)
    3) ( leisure)

    II
    1.
    1)
    a) ( relieve) \<\<pain\>\> calmar, aliviar; \<\<tension\>\> hacer* disminuir, aliviar; \<\<burden\>\> aligerar

    to ease somebody's mind — tranquilizar* a alguien

    b) ( make easier) \<\<situation\>\> paliar, mejorar; \<\<transition\>\> facilitar

    to ease the way for something — preparar el terreno para algo

    2)
    a) \<\<rules/restrictions\>\> relajar
    b) \<\<belt/rope\>\> aflojar
    3) ( move with care) (+ adv compl)

    2.
    vi \<\<pain\>\> aliviarse, calmarse; \<\<tension\>\> disminuir*, decrecer*
    Phrasal Verbs:

    English-spanish dictionary > ease

  • 23 schritt

    Imperf. schreiten
    * * *
    der Schritt
    footstep; footfall; gait; step; pace; stride
    * * *
    Schrịtt [ʃrɪt]
    m -(e)s, -e
    1) (lit, fig) step (zu towards); (weit ausholend) stride; (hörbar) footstep

    mit schnellen/langsamen Schritten — quickly/slowly, with quick/slow steps

    mit schleppenden Schritten — dragging one's feet, with dragging feet

    kleine or kurze/große or lange Schritte machen — to take small steps/long strides

    ich habe seit Wochen keinen/kaum einen Schritt aus dem Haus getan — I haven't/have hardly set foot outside the house for weeks

    die ersten Schritte machen or tun — to take one's first steps; (fig) to take the first step

    Schritte gegen jdn/etw unternehmen — to take steps against sb/sth

    ein großer Schritt sein hin zu... (fig) — to be a huge step towards...

    ich würde sogar noch einen Schritt weiter gehen und behaupten... — I would go even further and maintain...

    Schritt für or um Schritt — step by step; (fig auch) little by little, gradually

    2) (= Gang) walk, gait; (= Tempo) pace

    Schritt halten (lit, fig) — to keep pace, to keep up

    haben — to walk quickly/incredibly quickly

    gemessenen/leichten/langsamen Schrittes (geh) — with measured/light/slow step(s) or tread

    seinen Schritt or seine Schritte beschleunigen/verlangsamen (geh) —

    3) (= Schrittgeschwindigkeit) walking pace

    (im) Schritt fahren — to go at a crawl, to drive at walking speed

    "Schritt fahren" — "dead slow" (Brit), "slow"

    im Schritt reiten/gehen — to go at a walk

    4) (Maßangabe) ≈ yard
    5) (= Hosenschritt) crotch; (= Schrittweite) crotch measurement
    * * *
    der
    1) (the sound of a foot: She heard his footsteps on the stairs.) footstep
    2) (a step: He took a pace forward.) pace
    3) (one movement of the foot in walking, running, dancing etc: He took a step forward; walking with hurried steps.) step
    4) (the distance covered by this: He moved a step or two nearer; The restaurant is only a step (= a short distance) away.) step
    5) (the sound made by someone walking etc: I heard (foot) steps.) step
    6) (a particular movement with the feet, eg in dancing: The dance has some complicated steps.) step
    7) (a stage in progress, development etc: Mankind made a big step forward with the invention of the wheel; His present job is a step up from his previous one.) step
    8) (an action or move (towards accomplishing an aim etc): That would be a foolish/sensible step to take; I shall take steps to prevent this happening again.) step
    9) (a long step: He walked with long strides.) stride
    10) (a way of walking or putting one's feet: I heard his heavy tread.) tread
    * * *
    <-[e]s, -e>
    [ʃrɪt]
    m
    1. (Tritt) step; (weit ausholend) stride; (hörbar) footstep
    er machte einen \Schritt zur Tür he took a step towards the door
    ich gehe nur ein paar \Schritte spazieren I'm only going for a short walk
    sie hat seit Wochen kaum einen \Schritt aus dem Haus getan she has hardly set foot outside the house for weeks
    mit zwei \Schritten durchquerte er das Zimmer he crossed the room in two strides
    sie kam mit trippelnden \Schritten auf mich zu she tripped towards me
    der Schnee knirschte unter seinen \Schritten the snow crunched under his footsteps
    jds \Schritte beflügeln to hasten sb's step
    die Freude beflügelte meine \Schritte joy gave me wings
    seine \Schritte beschleunigen/verlangsamen to quicken one's pace [or walk faster]/to slow one's pace [or stride]
    die ersten \Schritte machen [o tun] to take one's first steps
    mit großen/kleinen \Schritten in big strides/small steps
    lange [o große] \Schritte machen to take long [or big] strides
    langsame/schnelle \Schritte machen to walk slowly/quickly
    mit langsamen/schnellen \Schritten slowly/quickly
    mit schleppenden \Schritten dragging one's feet
    einen \Schritt zur Seite gehen/zurücktreten to step aside/back
    er trat einen \Schritt von der Bahnsteigkante zurück he took a step back from the edge of the platform; s.a. Politik
    2. kein pl (Gangart) walk, gait
    seinen \Schritt beschleunigen/verlangsamen to quicken one's pace [or walk faster]/to slow one's pace [or stride]
    eines beschwingten \Schrittes (geh) with a spring [or bounce] in one's step
    jdn am \Schritt erkennen to recognize sb by his/her walk [or gait]
    einen flotten [o ziemlichen] \Schritt am Leibe haben to be walking quickly [or at a fair pace]
    der hat aber auch einen \Schritt am Leibe! he seems to be in a bit of a hurry!
    gemessenen/langsamen/leichten \Schrittes with measured/slow/light steps
    eines würdevollen \Schrittes with dignity in one's step
    nur ein paar \Schritte entfernt only a few yards away from us
    in etwa 50 \Schritt[en] Entfernung at a distance of about 50 paces
    mit 5 \Schritt[en] Abstand at a distance of five paces; (fig)
    sie ist der Konkurrenz immer ein paar \Schritte voraus she is always a few steps ahead of the competition
    sich dat jdn drei \Schritt[e] vom Leib halten (fig) to keep sb at arm's length
    jdn einen großen [o guten] \Schritt voranbringen (fig) to take sb a lot further
    einen \Schritt weiter gehen (fig) to go a step further
    einen \Schritt zu weit gehen (fig) to go too far, to overstep the mark
    4. kein pl (Gleichschritt)
    im \Schritt gehen to walk in step
    aus dem \Schritt kommen to get out of step
    5. kein pl (beim Pferd) walk
    sie ritt im \Schritt auf ihn zu she walked her horse towards him
    im Schritt \Schritt to walk
    7. kein pl (fam: Schritttempo) walking pace
    „\Schritt fahren“ “dead slow”
    8. (Maßnahme) measure, step
    den ersten \Schritt [zu etw dat] tun to take the first step [in sth]; (mit etw beginnen) to take the first step; (als Erster handeln) to make the first move
    gerichtliche \Schritte einleiten to initiate judicial proceedings
    \Schritte [gegen jdn/etw] unternehmen to take steps [against sb/sth]
    \Schritte in die Wege leiten to arrange for steps [or measures] to be taken
    9.
    ▶ \Schritt für \Schritt step by step, little by little
    ▶ [mit jdm/etw] \Schritt halten to keep up [with sb/sth]
    mit der Zeit \Schritt halten to keep abreast of the times
    ▶ auf \Schritt und Tritt everywhere one goes, every move one makes
    sie folgte ihm auf \Schritt und Tritt she followed him wherever she went
    sie wurde auf \Schritt und Tritt von ihm beobachtet he watched her every move
    ▶ den zweiten \Schritt vor dem ersten tun to run before one can walk, to put the cart before the horse
    * * *
    der; Schritt[e]s, Schritte
    1) step

    einen Schritt zur Seite machen od. tun — take a step sideways

    Schritt für Schritt — (auch fig.) step by step

    den ersten Schritt machen od. tun — (fig.) (den Anfang machen) take the first step; (als erster handeln) make the first move

    auf Schritt und Tritt — wherever one goes; at every step

    2) Plural (Geräusch) footsteps
    3) (Entfernung) pace

    aus dem Schritt kommen od. geraten — get out of step

    5) o. Pl. (des Pferdes) walk
    6) o. Pl. (Gangart) walk

    seinen Schritt verlangsamen/beschleunigen — slow/quicken one's pace

    [mit jemandem/etwas] Schritt halten — (auch fig.) keep up or keep pace [with somebody/something]

    7) (Schrittgeschwindigkeit) walking pace

    [im] Schritt fahren — go at walking pace or a crawl

    ‘Schritt fahren’ — ‘dead slow’

    8) (fig.): (Maßnahme) step; measure
    9) (Teil der Hose, Genitalbereich) crotch
    * * *
    schritt imperf → schreiten
    * * *
    der; Schritt[e]s, Schritte
    1) step

    einen Schritt zur Seite machen od. tun — take a step sideways

    Schritt für Schritt — (auch fig.) step by step

    den ersten Schritt machen od. tun — (fig.) (den Anfang machen) take the first step; (als erster handeln) make the first move

    auf Schritt und Tritt — wherever one goes; at every step

    2) Plural (Geräusch) footsteps
    3) (Entfernung) pace

    aus dem Schritt kommen od. geraten — get out of step

    5) o. Pl. (des Pferdes) walk
    6) o. Pl. (Gangart) walk

    seinen Schritt verlangsamen/beschleunigen — slow/quicken one's pace

    [mit jemandem/etwas] Schritt halten — (auch fig.) keep up or keep pace [with somebody/something]

    7) (Schrittgeschwindigkeit) walking pace

    [im] Schritt fahren — go at walking pace or a crawl

    ‘Schritt fahren’ — ‘dead slow’

    8) (fig.): (Maßnahme) step; measure
    9) (Teil der Hose, Genitalbereich) crotch
    * * *
    -e m.
    footfall n.
    footstep n.
    pace n.
    pas n.
    step n.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > schritt

  • 24 away

    [ə'wei]
    1) (to or at a distance from the person speaking or the person or thing spoken about: He lives three miles away (from the town); Go away!; Take it away!) longe
    2) (in the opposite direction: She turned away so that he would not see her tears.) de costas
    3) ((gradually) into nothing: The noise died away.) completamente
    4) (continuously: They worked away until dark.) sem parar
    5) ((of a football match etc) not on the home ground: The team is playing away this weekend; ( also adjective) an away match.) fora
    * * *
    a.way
    [əw'ei] adj 1 ausente, fora. 2 distante, longe, remoto. he is away from home / ele está longe de seu lar. • adv 1 para longe, à distância, fora, embora. 2 longe de. I was three hours away from home / eu estava a três horas de casa. 3 em direção oposta, contrariamente. 4 para a posse de outrem, fora, embora. she gave her fortune away / ela jogou fora sua fortuna. 5 até o fim, até a morte, completamente. 6 para diante, continuadamente, constantemente, sempre. he is working away / ele está trabalhando continuadamente. 7 coll logo, sem demora, imediatamente. 8 com elipse do verbo, imperativamente: vá embora! an away match partida em campo adversário. away back Amer coll afastadamente, remotamente. away down longínquo. away with you! fora!, vai-te embora! far and away, out and away inteiramente, absolutamente, de longe. he is far and away the best man of the team / ele é absolutamente (de longe) o melhor homem da equipe. fire away coll conte já, deixe ouvir sua história. I cannot away with him não posso suportá-lo. laugh away! ria à vontade! right away! a) pronto!, imediatamente! b) rail toque!, siga! to do away anular, abolir. to make away with a thing subtrair, furtar alguma coisa. you won’t get away with it com isto você vai enganar-se.

    English-Portuguese dictionary > away

  • 25 Carroll, Thomas

    [br]
    b. 1888 Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
    d. 22 February 1968 Australia
    [br]
    Australian engineer responsible for many innovations in combine-harvester design, and in particular associated with the Massey Harris No. 20 used in the "Harvest Brigade" during the Second World War.
    [br]
    Carroll worked first with the Buckeye Harvester Co., then with J.J.Mitchell \& Co. In 1911 he was hired by the Argentinian distributor for Massey Harris to help in the introduction of their new horse-drawn reaper-thresher. Carroll recommended modifications to suit Argentinian conditions, and these resulted in the production of a new model. In 1917 he joined the Toronto staff of Massey Harris as a product design leader, the No. 5 reaper-thresher being the first designed under him. Many significant new developments can be attributed to Carroll: welded sections, roller chains, oil-bath gears, antifriction ball bearings and the detachable cutting table allowing easy transfer of combines between fields were all innovations of which he was the source.
    In the 1930s he became Chief Engineer with responsibility for the design of a self-propelled harvester. The 20 SP was tested in Argentina only eight months after design work had begun, and it was to this machine that the name "combine harvester" was applied for the first time. Improvements to this original design produced a lighter 12 ft (3.65 m) cut machine which came off the production line in 1941. Three years later 500 of these machines were transported to the southern United States, and then gradually harvested their way northwards as the corn ripened. It has been estimated that the famous "Harvest Brigade" harvested over 1 million acres, putting 25 million bushels into store, with a saving in excess of 300,000 labour hours and half a million gallons of fuel.
    Carroll retired from Massey Ferguson in 1961.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    American Society of Agricultural Engineers C.H. McCormick Gold Medal 1958.
    Bibliography
    1948, "Basic requirements in the design and development of the self propelled combine"
    Agricultural Engineer. 29(3), 101–5.
    Further Reading
    G.Quick and W.Buchele, 1978, The Grain Harvesters, American Society of Agricultural Engineers (provides a detailed account of the development of the combine harvester).
    K.M.Coppick, 1972, gave an account of the wartime effort, which he mistakenly called "Massey Ferguson Harvest Brigade", presented to the Canadian Society for
    Agricultural Engineers, Paper 72–313.
    AP

    Biographical history of technology > Carroll, Thomas

  • 26 Leonardo da Vinci

    [br]
    b. 15 April 1452 Vinci, near Florence, Italy,
    d. 2 May 1519 St Cloux, near Amboise, France.
    [br]
    Italian scientist, engineer, inventor and artist.
    [br]
    Leonardo was the illegitimate son of a Florentine lawyer. His first sixteen years were spent with the lawyer's family in the rural surroundings of Vinci, which aroused in him a lifelong love of nature and an insatiable curiosity in it. He received little formal education but extended his knowledge through private reading. That gave him only a smattering of Latin, a deficiency that was to be a hindrance throughout his active life. At sixteen he was apprenticed in the studio of Andrea del Verrochio in Florence, where he received a training not only in art but in a wide variety of crafts and technical arts.
    In 1482 Leonardo went to Milan, where he sought and obtained employment with Ludovico Sforza, later Duke of Milan, partly to sculpt a massive equestrian statue of Ludovico but the work never progressed beyond the full-scale model stage. He did, however, complete the painting which became known as the Virgin of the Rocks and in 1497 his greatest artistic achievement, The Last Supper, commissioned jointly by Ludovico and the friars of Santa Maria della Grazie and painted on the wall of the monastery's refectory. Leonardo was responsible for the court pageants and also devised a system of irrigation to supply water to the plains of Lombardy. In 1499 the French army entered Milan and deposed Leonardo's employer. Leonardo departed and, after a brief visit to Mantua, returned to Florence, where for a time he was employed as architect and engineer to Cesare Borgia, Duke of Romagna. Around 1504 he completed another celebrated work, the Mona Lisa.
    In 1506 Leonardo began his second sojourn in Milan, this time in the service of King Louis XII of France, who appointed him "painter and engineer". In 1513 Leonardo left for Rome in the company of his pupil Francesco Melzi, but his time there was unproductive and he found himself out of touch with the younger artists active there, Michelangelo above all. In 1516 he accepted with relief an invitation from King François I of France to reside at the small château of St Cloux in the royal domain of Amboise. With the pension granted by François, Leonardo lived out his remaining years in tranquility at St Cloux.
    Leonardo's career can hardly be regarded as a success or worthy of such a towering genius. For centuries he was known only for the handful of artistic works that he managed to complete and have survived more or less intact. His main activity remained hidden until the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, during which the contents of his notebooks were gradually revealed. It became evident that Leonardo was one of the greatest scientific investigators and inventors in the history of civilization. Throughout his working life he extended a searching curiosity over an extraordinarily wide range of subjects. The notes show careful investigation of questions of mechanical and civil engineering, such as power transmission by means of pulleys and also a form of chain belting. The notebooks record many devices, such as machines for grinding and polishing lenses, a lathe operated by treadle-crank, a rolling mill with conical rollers and a spinning machine with pinion and yard divider. Leonardo made an exhaustive study of the flight of birds, with a view to designing a flying machine, which obsessed him for many years.
    Leonardo recorded his observations and conclusions, together with many ingenious inventions, on thousands of pages of manuscript notes, sketches and drawings. There are occasional indications that he had in mind the publication of portions of the notes in a coherent form, but he never diverted his energy into putting them in order; instead, he went on making notes. As a result, Leonardo's impact on the development of science and technology was virtually nil. Even if his notebooks had been copied and circulated, there were daunting impediments to their understanding. Leonardo was left-handed and wrote in mirror-writing: that is, in reverse from right to left. He also used his own abbreviations and no punctuation.
    At his death Leonardo bequeathed his entire output of notes to his friend and companion Francesco Melzi, who kept them safe until his own death in 1570. Melzi left the collection in turn to his son Orazio, whose lack of interest in the arts and sciences resulted in a sad period of dispersal which endangered their survival, but in 1636 the bulk of them, in thirteen volumes, were assembled and donated to the Ambrosian Library in Milan. These include a large volume of notes and drawings compiled from the various portions of the notebooks and is now known as the Codex Atlanticus. There they stayed, forgotten and ignored, until 1796, when Napoleon's marauding army overran Italy and art and literary works, including the thirteen volumes of Leonardo's notebooks, were pillaged and taken to Paris. After the war in 1815, the French government agreed to return them but only the Codex Atlanticus found its way back to Milan; the rest remained in Paris. The appendix to one notebook, dealing with the flight of birds, was later regarded as of sufficient importance to stand on its own. Four small collections reached Britain at various times during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; of these, the volume in the Royal Collection at Windsor Castle is notable for its magnificent series of anatomical drawings. Other collections include the Codex Leicester and Codex Arundel in the British Museum in London, and the Madrid Codices in Spain.
    Towards the end of the nineteenth century, Leonardo's true stature as scientist, engineer and inventor began to emerge, particularly with the publication of transcriptions and translations of his notebooks. The volumes in Paris appeared in 1881–97 and the Codex Atlanticus was published in Milan between 1894 and 1904.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    "Premier peintre, architecte et mécanicien du Roi" to King François I of France, 1516.
    Further Reading
    E.MacCurdy, 1939, The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci, 2 vols, London; 2nd edn, 1956, London (the most extensive selection of the notes, with an English translation).
    G.Vasari (trans. G.Bull), 1965, Lives of the Artists, London: Penguin, pp. 255–271.
    C.Gibbs-Smith, 1978, The Inventions of Leonardo da Vinci, Oxford: Phaidon. L.H.Heydenreich, Dibner and L. Reti, 1981, Leonardo the Inventor, London: Hutchinson.
    I.B.Hart, 1961, The World of Leonardo da Vinci, London: Macdonald.
    LRD / IMcN

    Biographical history of technology > Leonardo da Vinci

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