Перевод: со всех языков на английский

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extreme+mean

  • 21 llegar

    v.
    1 to arrive (to a place).
    llegar a un hotel/una ciudad to arrive at a hotel/in a city
    llegar a casa to get home
    ¿falta mucho para llegar o para que lleguemos? is there far to go?
    llegaré pronto I'll be there soon
    Ellos llegan tarde They arrive late.
    2 to come (time).
    cuando llegue el momento te enterarás you'll find out when the time comes
    ha llegado el invierno winter has arrived
    La oportunidad llegó The opportunity came.
    3 to be enough.
    4 to receive, to get, to be handed.
    Te llegó un carta You received a letter.
    5 to be the host for.
    Nos llegó mucha gente We were the host for a lot of people.
    6 to come to, to filter through to.
    Nos llegó la noticia The news filtered through to us.
    * * *
    (g changes to gu before e)
    Past Indicative
    llegué, llegaste, llegó, llegamos, llegasteis, llegaron.
    Present Subjunctive
    Imperative
    llega (tú), llegue (él/Vd.), lleguemos (nos.), llegad (vos.), lleguen (ellos/Vds.).
    * * *
    verb
    3) come
    •
    * * *
    Para las expresiones llegar al alma, llegar lejos, llegar a las manos, ver la otra entrada.
    1. VERBO INTRANSITIVO
    1) [movimiento, destino, procedencia] to arrive

    avíseme cuando llegue — tell me when he arrives {o} comes

    el vuelo llegará a las 14:15 — the flight gets in at 14:15

    llegará en tren/autobús — he will come by train/bus

    • llegar [a], cuando llegamos a Bilbao estaba lloviendo — when we got to {o} arrived in Bilbao it was raining

    ¿a qué hora llegaste a casa? — what time did you get home?

    • llegarle [a alguien], ¿te ha llegado ya el paquete? — have you got the parcel yet?

    •[estar] al llegar, Carlos debe de estar al llegar — Carlos should be arriving any minute now

    •[hacer] llegar algo a algn, hacer llegar una carta a algn — to send sb a letter

    ¿le puedes hacer llegar este recado? — could you give her this message?

    ¿le has hecho llegar el dinero? — did you get the money to her?

    santo
    2) (=alcanzar)
    a) [con las manos] to reach

    ¿me puedes quitar la cortina? yo no llego — could you take the curtain down for me? I can't reach

    b) [indicando distancia, nivel]

    esta cuerda no llega — this rope isn't long enough, this rope won't reach

    el tema de la película no me llega — the subject of the film does nothing for me {o} leaves me cold

    • llegar [a] {o} [hasta] — to come up to

    el vestido le llega hasta los pies — the dress comes {o} goes down to her feet

    la cola llegaba hasta la puerta — the queue went {o} reached back as far as the door

    • me llega al [corazón] ver tanto sufrimiento — seeing so much suffering touches me to the heart

    a tanto no llego —

    soy bastante inteligente pero a tanto no llego — I'm reasonably clever, but not enough to do that

    podría dejarle un millón, pero dos no, a tanto no llego — I might let her have a million, but not two, I'm not prepared to go as far as that

    camisa 1), suela 1)
    c) [indicando duración] to last

    el pobrecito no llegará a las Navidades — the poor thing won't make it to {o} last till Christmas

    le falta un año para llegar a la jubilación — he has a year to go till {o} before he retires

    3) llegar a ({+ sustantivo})
    a) (=conseguir) [+ acuerdo, conclusión] to reach, come to

    ¿cómo has conseguido llegar a la fama? — how did you manage to achieve fame {o} become famous?

    le costó pero llegó a arquitecto — it wasn't easy, but he eventually managed to become an architect

    b) [con cantidades] to come to

    los gastos totales llegaron a 1.000 euros — the total expenditure came to 1,000 euros

    la audiencia de este programa ha llegado a cinco millones — (Radio) as many as five million people have listened to this programme; (TV) the viewing figures for this programme have been as high as five million

    4) llegar a ({+ infin})
    a) (=conseguir)

    llegó a conocer a varios directores de cine — she met {o} got to know several film directors

    • si lo llego a [saber] — if I had known

    • llegar a [ser] famoso/el jefe — to become famous/the boss

    • llegar a [ver], no llegó a ver la película terminada — he never saw the film finished

    temí no llegar a ver el año nuevo — I feared I wouldn't live to see the new year, I feared I wouldn't make it to the new year

    b) [como algo extremo]

    llegué a estar tan mal, que casi no podía moverme — I got so bad, I could hardly move

    • puede llegar a [alcanzar] los 300km/h — it can reach speeds of up to 300km/h

    la popularidad que un actor puede llegar a alcanzar a través de la televisión — the popularity an actor can come to attain from being on television

    • ¿llegó a [creer] que sería campeón del mundo? — did you ever believe you'd be world champion?

    yo había llegado a creer que estábamos en el camino de superar ese problema — I had really started to believe that we were on the way to overcoming that problem

    • llegó al [punto] de robarle — he even went so far as to rob her

    5) (=bastar) to be enough

    •[hacer] llegar el sueldo a fin de mes — to make ends meet

    6) [momento, acontecimiento] to come
    2.
    VERBO TRANSITIVO (=acercar) to bring up, bring over
    3.
    See:
    LLEGAR Llegar a A la hora de traducir llegar a al inglés, tenemos que diferenciar entre arrive in y arrive at. ► Empleamos arrive in con países, ciudades, pueblos {etc}: Esperamos llegar a Italia el día 11 de junio We expect to arrive in Italy on 11 June Llegaremos a Córdoba dentro de dos horas We'll be arriving in Cordoba in two hours' time ► En cambio, se traduce por arrive at cuando nos referimos a lugares más pequeños, como aeropuertos, estaciones, {etc}. La expresión llegar a casa es una excepción, ya que se traduce por arrive/ get home, es decir, sin preposición: Llegamos al aeropuerto con cuatro horas de retraso We arrived at the airport four hours late Llegué a casa completamente agotada I arrived home completely exhausted Para otros usos y ejemplos ver la entrada
    * * *
    1.
    verbo intransitivo
    1) persona/tren/carta to arrive

    tienen que estar por or al llegar — they'll be arriving any minute now

    ¿falta mucho para llegar? — is it much further (to go)?

    llegar a — a país/ciudad to arrive in; a edificio to arrive at

    llegar a casa — to arrive o get home

    ¿adónde quieres llegar? — what do you mean?

    2)
    a) camino/ruta ( extenderse)

    llegar hasta — to go all the way to, go as far as

    b) (ir)

    llegar a or hasta: este tren no llega hasta or a Lima this train doesn't go as far as o all the way to Lima; sólo llega al tercer piso — it only goes (up) to the third floor

    3) día/invierno to come, arrive

    ha llegado el momento de... — the time has come to...

    4)
    a) ( alcanzar) to reach

    llegar a algo — a acuerdo to reach something

    llegué a la conclusión de que... — I reached o came to the conclusion that...

    b) (Esp) dinero/materiales ( ser suficiente) to be enough
    c) (alcanzar a medir, costar, etc)

    llegará lejos — she'll go far o a long way

    ¿llegó a saberlo? — did she ever find out?

    5) llegar a + inf

    llegué a pensar que... — I even began to think that...

    las cosas han llegado a tal punto que... — things have reached such a point that...

    si lo llego a saber, no vengo — if I'd known, I wouldn't have come

    si llego a enterarme de algo, te aviso — if I happen to hear anything, I'll let you know

    6) estilo/música (ser entendido, aceptado)
    2.
    llegarse v pron (fam)
    * * *
    = arrive, drop, turn up, come in, come, come to + Posesivo + attention, come with, roll in.
    Ex. The time has arrived when it is more appropriate to ask why cataloguing is still conducted on a manual basis, rather than to seek to justify the use of computers in cataloguing.
    Ex. The search profile will only be modified periodically as the quality of the set of notifications output from the search drops to unacceptable levels.
    Ex. Results showed that many users turn up at the library with only a sketcky idea of what they would like and spend much time browsing.
    Ex. Their duty is to come in before school each morning and check that the book checking system is in order and that the library is tidy and presentable.
    Ex. This article urges children's librarians to attack 'aliteracy' (lack of a desire to read) as well as illiteracy by taking programmes, e.g. story hours, to children who do not come to libraries.
    Ex. Information vital to certain people might not come to their attention if such people must rely only upon regular scanning of large numbers of periodicals.
    Ex. The problem comes with ideographic languages.
    Ex. With the summer rolling in, many of you might be looking for instructions on how to make fresh iced tea.
    ----
    * al llegar = on arrival.
    * cortar llegando al hueso = cut to + the bone.
    * cuando llegue la hora = when the time comes.
    * día + estar por llegar = day + be + yet to come.
    * estar aún por llegar = be yet to come.
    * haber llegado = be upon us.
    * hacer + Nombre + llegar hasta aquí = get + Nombre + this far.
    * hasta donde llegue = to the limits of.
    * llegar a = come to, reach, reach out to, find + Posesivo + way to, get through to, come up to, pull into, strike + a chord with.
    * llegar a acuerdo = make + arrangements.
    * llegar a casa = get + home.
    * llegar a esperar = come to + expect.
    * llegar a final de mes = make + ends meet.
    * llegar a formar parte de = find + Posesivo + way into/onto.
    * llegar a + Infinitivo = come to + Infinitivo.
    * llegar a + Infinitivo + se = come to be + Participio Pasado.
    * llegar a la conclusión = conclude, form + impression.
    * llegar a la conclusión de que = come to + the conclusion that, come up with + the conclusion that, get + the idea that.
    * llegar al corazón de = go to + the heart of.
    * llegar al extremo de = get to + the point of, go to + the extreme of.
    * llegar al extremo de + Infinitivo = go + (as/so) far as + Infinitivo.
    * llegar al final de = come to + the end of, get through.
    * llegar al final de su vida útil = come to + the end of + Posesivo + useful life, reach + the end of + Posesivo + useful life.
    * llegar al fondo de la cuestión = see to the + bottom of things.
    * llegar al fondo de una Cuestión = get to + the bottom of.
    * llegar al fondo de una Cuestión = get to + the root of.
    * llegar al límite = reach + the breaking point.
    * llegar al límite de + Posesivo + capacidad = stretch + Nombre + beyond the breaking point, stretch + Nombre + to breaking point, stretch + Nombre + to the limit.
    * llegar al meollo de la cuestión = arrive at + the heart of the matter.
    * llegar al punto álgido = reach + a head.
    * llegar al punto crítico = come to + a head.
    * llegar al punto de = be at the point of.
    * llegar al punto de + Infinitivo = go + (as/so) far as + Infinitivo.
    * llegar al quid de la cuestión = arrive at + the heart of the matter.
    * llegar a + Lugar = make + it + to + Lugar.
    * llegar andando pausadamente = stroll into + view.
    * llegar a ser = become, develop into.
    * llegar a ser conocido como = become + known as.
    * llegar a su fin = wind down, draw to + a close, draw to + an end.
    * llegar a tiempo = arrive + in time, arrive + on time.
    * llegar a todas partes = reach + far and wide, extend + far and wide, stretch + far and wide.
    * llegar a todos lados = extend + far and wide, reach + far and wide, stretch + far and wide.
    * llegar a una conclusión = draw + conclusion, make + deduction, reach + conclusion, arrive at + conclusion.
    * llegar a un acuerdo = conclude + agreement, reach + agreement, make + an undertaking, make + bargain, come to + consensus, reach + understanding, have + meeting of the minds, reach + consensus, hammer out + agreement, develop + compromise, work out + agreement, strike + deal, conclude + deal.
    * llegar a una decisión = arrive at + decision.
    * llegar a una definición = hammer out + definition.
    * llegar a una etapa = reach + point.
    * llegar a una solución = arrive at + a solution.
    * llegar a una solución intermedia = meet + Nombre + halfway.
    * llegar a un compromiso = reach + agreement, meet + Nombre + halfway.
    * llegar a un consenso = come to + consensus, reach + consensus.
    * llegar a un consenso sobre = get + a consensus on.
    * llegar a un extremo = reach + epic proportions.
    * llegar a un momento importante en su historia = reach + milestone.
    * llegar a un punto crítico = reach + turning point.
    * llegar a un veredicto = reach + verdict.
    * llegar demasiado lejos = go + too far.
    * llegar el momento en el que = reach + the point where.
    * llegar la hora de = time + come.
    * llegar lejos = get + far.
    * llegar más lejos = stretch + further.
    * llegar muy lejos = go + a long way, come + a long way.
    * llegar noticias = come to + Posesivo + notice.
    * llegar poco a poco = dribble in.
    * llegar tarde = arrive + late, run + late.
    * llegar tarde (a) = be late (for).
    * llegar tarde a casa = stay out + late.
    * llegar tarde al trabajo = be late for work.
    * lo mejor está aún por llegar = the best is yet to come.
    * momento + llegar = time + approach.
    * no haber llegado todavía = be yet to come.
    * no llegar a = stop + short of, fall + short of.
    * no llegar a entender = miss + the mark, miss + the point.
    * no llegar a + Infinitivo (con mucho) = fall (far) short of + Gerundio.
    * no llegar a un ideal = fall + short of ideal.
    * por fin llegó la hora (de) = it's about time (that).
    * recesión + llegar = recession + set in.
    * ser un medio para llegar a un fin = be the means to an end.
    * si se llega a un acuerdo = subject to + agreement.
    * un medio para llegar a fin = a means to an end.
    * * *
    1.
    verbo intransitivo
    1) persona/tren/carta to arrive

    tienen que estar por or al llegar — they'll be arriving any minute now

    ¿falta mucho para llegar? — is it much further (to go)?

    llegar a — a país/ciudad to arrive in; a edificio to arrive at

    llegar a casa — to arrive o get home

    ¿adónde quieres llegar? — what do you mean?

    2)
    a) camino/ruta ( extenderse)

    llegar hasta — to go all the way to, go as far as

    b) (ir)

    llegar a or hasta: este tren no llega hasta or a Lima this train doesn't go as far as o all the way to Lima; sólo llega al tercer piso — it only goes (up) to the third floor

    3) día/invierno to come, arrive

    ha llegado el momento de... — the time has come to...

    4)
    a) ( alcanzar) to reach

    llegar a algo — a acuerdo to reach something

    llegué a la conclusión de que... — I reached o came to the conclusion that...

    b) (Esp) dinero/materiales ( ser suficiente) to be enough
    c) (alcanzar a medir, costar, etc)

    llegará lejos — she'll go far o a long way

    ¿llegó a saberlo? — did she ever find out?

    5) llegar a + inf

    llegué a pensar que... — I even began to think that...

    las cosas han llegado a tal punto que... — things have reached such a point that...

    si lo llego a saber, no vengo — if I'd known, I wouldn't have come

    si llego a enterarme de algo, te aviso — if I happen to hear anything, I'll let you know

    6) estilo/música (ser entendido, aceptado)
    2.
    llegarse v pron (fam)
    * * *
    = arrive, drop, turn up, come in, come, come to + Posesivo + attention, come with, roll in.

    Ex: The time has arrived when it is more appropriate to ask why cataloguing is still conducted on a manual basis, rather than to seek to justify the use of computers in cataloguing.

    Ex: The search profile will only be modified periodically as the quality of the set of notifications output from the search drops to unacceptable levels.
    Ex: Results showed that many users turn up at the library with only a sketcky idea of what they would like and spend much time browsing.
    Ex: Their duty is to come in before school each morning and check that the book checking system is in order and that the library is tidy and presentable.
    Ex: This article urges children's librarians to attack 'aliteracy' (lack of a desire to read) as well as illiteracy by taking programmes, e.g. story hours, to children who do not come to libraries.
    Ex: Information vital to certain people might not come to their attention if such people must rely only upon regular scanning of large numbers of periodicals.
    Ex: The problem comes with ideographic languages.
    Ex: With the summer rolling in, many of you might be looking for instructions on how to make fresh iced tea.
    * al llegar = on arrival.
    * cortar llegando al hueso = cut to + the bone.
    * cuando llegue la hora = when the time comes.
    * día + estar por llegar = day + be + yet to come.
    * estar aún por llegar = be yet to come.
    * haber llegado = be upon us.
    * hacer + Nombre + llegar hasta aquí = get + Nombre + this far.
    * hasta donde llegue = to the limits of.
    * llegar a = come to, reach, reach out to, find + Posesivo + way to, get through to, come up to, pull into, strike + a chord with.
    * llegar a acuerdo = make + arrangements.
    * llegar a casa = get + home.
    * llegar a esperar = come to + expect.
    * llegar a final de mes = make + ends meet.
    * llegar a formar parte de = find + Posesivo + way into/onto.
    * llegar a + Infinitivo = come to + Infinitivo.
    * llegar a + Infinitivo + se = come to be + Participio Pasado.
    * llegar a la conclusión = conclude, form + impression.
    * llegar a la conclusión de que = come to + the conclusion that, come up with + the conclusion that, get + the idea that.
    * llegar al corazón de = go to + the heart of.
    * llegar al extremo de = get to + the point of, go to + the extreme of.
    * llegar al extremo de + Infinitivo = go + (as/so) far as + Infinitivo.
    * llegar al final de = come to + the end of, get through.
    * llegar al final de su vida útil = come to + the end of + Posesivo + useful life, reach + the end of + Posesivo + useful life.
    * llegar al fondo de la cuestión = see to the + bottom of things.
    * llegar al fondo de una Cuestión = get to + the bottom of.
    * llegar al fondo de una Cuestión = get to + the root of.
    * llegar al límite = reach + the breaking point.
    * llegar al límite de + Posesivo + capacidad = stretch + Nombre + beyond the breaking point, stretch + Nombre + to breaking point, stretch + Nombre + to the limit.
    * llegar al meollo de la cuestión = arrive at + the heart of the matter.
    * llegar al punto álgido = reach + a head.
    * llegar al punto crítico = come to + a head.
    * llegar al punto de = be at the point of.
    * llegar al punto de + Infinitivo = go + (as/so) far as + Infinitivo.
    * llegar al quid de la cuestión = arrive at + the heart of the matter.
    * llegar a + Lugar = make + it + to + Lugar.
    * llegar andando pausadamente = stroll into + view.
    * llegar a ser = become, develop into.
    * llegar a ser conocido como = become + known as.
    * llegar a su fin = wind down, draw to + a close, draw to + an end.
    * llegar a tiempo = arrive + in time, arrive + on time.
    * llegar a todas partes = reach + far and wide, extend + far and wide, stretch + far and wide.
    * llegar a todos lados = extend + far and wide, reach + far and wide, stretch + far and wide.
    * llegar a una conclusión = draw + conclusion, make + deduction, reach + conclusion, arrive at + conclusion.
    * llegar a un acuerdo = conclude + agreement, reach + agreement, make + an undertaking, make + bargain, come to + consensus, reach + understanding, have + meeting of the minds, reach + consensus, hammer out + agreement, develop + compromise, work out + agreement, strike + deal, conclude + deal.
    * llegar a una decisión = arrive at + decision.
    * llegar a una definición = hammer out + definition.
    * llegar a una etapa = reach + point.
    * llegar a una solución = arrive at + a solution.
    * llegar a una solución intermedia = meet + Nombre + halfway.
    * llegar a un compromiso = reach + agreement, meet + Nombre + halfway.
    * llegar a un consenso = come to + consensus, reach + consensus.
    * llegar a un consenso sobre = get + a consensus on.
    * llegar a un extremo = reach + epic proportions.
    * llegar a un momento importante en su historia = reach + milestone.
    * llegar a un punto crítico = reach + turning point.
    * llegar a un veredicto = reach + verdict.
    * llegar demasiado lejos = go + too far.
    * llegar el momento en el que = reach + the point where.
    * llegar la hora de = time + come.
    * llegar lejos = get + far.
    * llegar más lejos = stretch + further.
    * llegar muy lejos = go + a long way, come + a long way.
    * llegar noticias = come to + Posesivo + notice.
    * llegar poco a poco = dribble in.
    * llegar tarde = arrive + late, run + late.
    * llegar tarde (a) = be late (for).
    * llegar tarde a casa = stay out + late.
    * llegar tarde al trabajo = be late for work.
    * lo mejor está aún por llegar = the best is yet to come.
    * momento + llegar = time + approach.
    * no haber llegado todavía = be yet to come.
    * no llegar a = stop + short of, fall + short of.
    * no llegar a entender = miss + the mark, miss + the point.
    * no llegar a + Infinitivo (con mucho) = fall (far) short of + Gerundio.
    * no llegar a un ideal = fall + short of ideal.
    * por fin llegó la hora (de) = it's about time (that).
    * recesión + llegar = recession + set in.
    * ser un medio para llegar a un fin = be the means to an end.
    * si se llega a un acuerdo = subject to + agreement.
    * un medio para llegar a fin = a means to an end.

    * * *
    llegar [A3 ]
    vi
    A «persona/tren/carta» to arrive
    tienen que estar al llegar they'll be arriving any minute now
    ¿cuándo llegan tus primos? when are your cousins arriving?, when do your cousins arrive?
    ¿falta mucho para llegar? is it much further (to go)?
    ¿a qué hora llega el avión? what time does the plane arrive o get in?
    siempre llega tarde he's always late
    llegó (el) primero/(el) último he was the first/the last to arrive, he arrived first/last
    llegaron cansadísimos they were exhausted when they arrived
    no me llegó el telegrama I didn't get the telegram, the telegram didn't get to me o didn't reach me
    nos llega una noticia de última hora we have a late news item
    me hizo llegar un mensaje he got a message to me
    sus palabras me llegaban con mucho ruido de fondo there was a lot of background noise when I was talking to him
    llegar A (a un país, una ciudad) to arrive in; (a un edificio) to arrive at
    llegó a Bogotá en un vuelo de Avianca he arrived in Bogotá on an Avianca flight
    llegó al aeropuerto a las dos she arrived at o got to the airport at two o'clock
    el primer corredor que llegó a la meta the first runner to cross o reach the finishing line
    llegamos a casa a las dos we got o arrived home at two o'clock
    llegué a su casa de noche I got to o reached his house at night
    la carta nunca llegó a mis manos the letter never reached me
    el rumor llegó a oídos del alcalde the rumor reached the mayor
    ¿adónde quieres llegar con tantas preguntas? what are you getting at o driving at with all these questions?
    llegar DE to arrive from
    acaba de llegar de Hamburgo he's just arrived from o got(ten) ( o flown etc) in from Hamburg
    B
    1 «camino/ruta» (extenderse) llegar HASTA; to go all the way to, go as far as
    ahora la carretera llega hasta San Pedro the road goes all the way to o goes as far as San Pedro now
    2 (ir) llegar A/ HASTA:
    este autobús no llega hasta or a Las Torres this bus doesn't go as far as o all the way to Las Torres
    sólo llega al tercer piso it only goes (up) to the third floor
    C «día/invierno» to come, arrive
    el invierno llegó temprano winter came early
    cuando llegue la estación de las lluvias when the rainy season starts
    ha llegado el momento de tomar una decisión the time has come to make a decision
    pensé que nunca llegaría este momento I thought this moment would never come o arrive
    llegará el día en que se dé cuenta de su error the day will come when he'll realize his mistake
    cuando llegó la noche todavía estaban lejos when night fell o at nightfall they were still a long way away
    D
    1 (alcanzar) to reach
    no llego ni con la escalera I can't even reach with the ladder
    llegar A algo to reach sth
    tiene que subirse a una silla para llegar al estante he has to stand on a chair to reach the shelf
    las cosas han llegado a tal punto, que … things have got to o have reached such a point that …
    los pies no le llegan al suelo her feet don't touch the floor
    esa cuerda no llega al otro lado that rope won't reach to the other side
    la falda le llegaba a los tobillos her skirt came down to o reached her ankles
    su voz llegaba al fondo del teatro her voice carried to the back of the theater
    el agua le llegaba al cuello the water came up to her neck
    por ambos métodos llegamos al mismo resultado both methods lead us to the same result, we arrive at o reach the same result by both methods
    llegué a la conclusión de que me habías mentido I reached o came to the conclusion that you had been lying to me
    no se llegó a ningún acuerdo no agreement was reached
    sé algo de electrónica, pero a tanto no llego I know something about electronics but not that much o but my knowledge doesn't extend that far
    2 «dinero/materiales» (ser suficiente) to be enough
    con un kilo llega para todos a kilo's enough o a kilo will do for all of us
    no me llega el dinero I don't have enough money
    3
    (alcanzar a medir, costar, etc): este trozo de tela no llega a los dos metros this piece of material is less than two meters
    me sorprendería si llegara a tanto I'd be surprised if it came to that much o if it was as much as that
    no llegaban a 500 personas there weren't even 500 people there
    4
    (expresando logro): llegará lejos she'll go far o a long way
    como sigas así no vas a llegar a ningún lado if you carry on like this, you'll never get anywhere
    no creo que llegues a convencerme I don't think you'll manage to convince me
    quiero que llegues a ser alguien I want you to be someone o to make something of yourself
    nunca llegó a (ser) director he never became director, he never made it to director ( colloq)
    5
    (en el tiempo): este gobierno no llegará a las próximas elecciones this government won't survive till the next elections
    como sigas fumando así no llegarás a viejo if you go on smoking like that you won't live to old age
    con los años llegué a conocerlo mejor I got to know him better over the years
    ¿llegaste a verlo? did you manage o did you get to see it?
    ¿llegó a saber quién era su padre? did she ever find out who her father was?
    el invento puede llegar a ser de gran utilidad the invention could prove to be very useful
    E
    1 (como intensificador) llegar A + INF:
    llegó a amenazarme con el despido she even threatened to fire me, she went so far as to threaten to fire me
    llegué a pensar que me engañaba I even began to think he was deceiving me
    no llegó a pegarme, pero … he didn't actually hit me, but …
    llegó a aburrirme con sus constantes quejas I grew tired of o I got bored with his constant complaining
    puede incluso llegar a ganarle he might even beat him
    2
    (en oraciones condicionales): si lo llego a saber, no vengo if I'd known, I wouldn't have come
    si llego a enterarme de algo, te aviso if I happen to hear anything, I'll let you know
    si lo llegas a perder, te mato if you lose it, I'll kill you, if you go and lose it o if you manage to lose it, I'll kill you ( colloq)
    F
    «estilo/música» (ser entendido, aceptado): tiene un estilo que no llega a la gente people can't relate to o understand his style
    emplea un lenguaje que llega a la juventud he uses language that gets through to o means something to young people
    ( fam):
    llégate hasta su casa y dale este paquete run over to her house and give her this parcel ( colloq)
    llégate a la tienda y trae algo de beber run out o over to the store and get something to drink, nip o pop out to the shop and get something to drink ( BrE colloq)
    * * *

     

    llegar ( conjugate llegar) verbo intransitivo
    1 [persona/tren/carta] to arrive;
    tienen que estar por or al llegar they'll be arriving any minute now;

    ¿falta mucho para llegar? is it much further (to go)?;
    siempre llega tarde he's always late;
    no me llegó el telegrama I didn't get the telegram;
    llegar a algo ‹a país/ciudad› to arrive in sth;

    ‹ a edificio› to arrive at sth;
    ◊ llegar a casa to arrive o get home;

    el rumor llegó a oídos del alcalde the rumor reached the mayor
    2 [camino/ruta/tren] (ir) llegar a or hasta to go all the way to, go as far as;

    3 [día/invierno] to come, arrive;
    ◊ ha llegado el momento de … the time has come to …

    4

    llegar a algo ‹a acuerdo/conclusión› to reach sth, come to sth;
    ‹a estante/techo› to reach;
    ◊ llegué a la conclusión de que… I reached o came to the conclusion that …;

    los pies no le llegan al suelo her feet don't touch the floor;
    la falda le llegaba a los tobillos her skirt came down to her ankles;
    el agua le llegaba al cuello the water came up to her neck;
    las cosas llegaron a tal punto que … things reached such a point that …

    ◊ llegará lejos she'll go far o a long way;

    así no vas a llegar a ningún lado you'll never get anywhere like that;
    llegó a (ser) director he became director;
    llegar a viejo to live to old age;
    llegué a conocerlo mejor I got to know him better
    5 llegar a + inf


    no llegó a pegarme he didn't actually hit me

    ◊ si lo llego a saber, no vengo if I'd known, I wouldn't have come;

    si llego a enterarme de algo, te aviso if I happen to hear anything, I'll let you know
    llegar verbo intransitivo
    1 to arrive: llegué la última, I arrived last
    está al llegar, she's about to arrive
    llegar a la ciudad, to arrive at the town
    2 (momento, acontecimiento) llegó la hora de..., the time has come to...
    llegaron las heladas, the frosts came
    3 (alcanzar) to reach: no llego al último estante, I can't reach the top shelf
    (una meta) llegar a la cumbre, he reached the peak
    4 (ser suficiente) to be enough
    5 ( llegar a + infinitivo) to go so far as to: llegué a creerlo, I even believed it
    llegaron a insultarnos, they went so far as to abuse us
    figurado llegar a las manos, to come to blows
    llegar a ser, to become
    ♦ Locuciones: estar al llegar, to be about to arrive
    llegar a buen puerto, to reach a satisfactory conclusion o to arrive safely
    no llegar la sangre al río, to not have serious consequences
    no llegar a la suela del zapato, not to be able to hold a candle to
    ' llegar' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    acabar
    - achantarse
    - alcanzar
    - anticiparse
    - apercibirse
    - atrasarse
    - aviar
    - caer
    - concesión
    - dialogar
    - dirigir
    - excusa
    - lejos
    - moderar
    - odisea
    - oído
    - plantarse
    - puerto
    - retrasar
    - retrasarse
    - sangre
    - santa
    - santo
    - seguir
    - sentir
    - suela
    - última
    - último
    - vadear
    - venir
    - acuerdo
    - ánimo
    - antes
    - aparecer
    - atrasar
    - bueno
    - cuánto
    - cuestión
    - culminar
    - demorar
    - erigir
    - improviso
    - indicación
    - indicar
    - instrucción
    - junto
    - lujo
    - mano
    - mayoría
    - novedad
    English:
    accessible
    - age
    - agree
    - agreement
    - amount to
    - arrive
    - bear
    - bottom
    - call
    - check in
    - close
    - come
    - come in
    - come through
    - come to
    - come up to
    - compromise
    - deal
    - decide
    - decision
    - draw in
    - end
    - fail
    - filter out
    - filter through
    - first
    - fog
    - gallop up
    - get
    - get in
    - get into
    - get up to
    - grip
    - half-way
    - head
    - home
    - hope
    - in
    - just
    - late
    - leak out I
    - make
    - master
    - only
    - place
    - power
    - pull in
    - reach
    - roll in
    - roll up
    * * *
    ♦ vi
    1. [persona, vehículo, medio de transporte] to arrive (de from);
    llegar a un hotel/al aeropuerto to arrive at a hotel/at the airport;
    llegar a una ciudad/a un país to arrive in a city/in a country;
    llegar a casa to get home;
    llegar a la meta to cross the finishing line;
    cuando llegué a esta empresa… when I arrived at o first came to this company…;
    llegaremos a la estación de Caracas a las dos we will be arriving at Caracas station at two o'clock;
    nosotros llegamos primero o [m5] los primeros we arrived first;
    el atleta cubano llegó primero the Cuban athlete came first;
    llegaban muy contentos they were very happy when they arrived, they arrived very happy;
    llegaré pronto I'll be there early;
    este avión llega tarde this plane is late;
    estar al llegar: deben de estar al llegar they must be about to arrive, they're bound to arrive any minute now;
    los Juegos Olímpicos están al llegar the Olympics are coming up soon;
    ¿falta mucho para llegar o [m5] para que lleguemos? is there far to go?;
    así no llegarás a ninguna parte you'll never get anywhere like that;
    Fig
    llegará lejos she'll go far
    2. [carta, recado, mensaje] to arrive;
    llegarle a alguien: no me ha llegado aún el paquete the parcel still hasn't arrived, I still haven't received the parcel;
    ayer me llegó un mensaje suyo por correo electrónico I got o received an e-mail from him yesterday;
    hacer llegar un mensaje o [m5] recado a alguien to pass a message on to sb;
    si llega a oídos de ella… if she gets to hear about this…
    3. [tiempo, noche, momento] to come;
    cuando llegue el momento te enterarás you'll find out when the time comes;
    ha llegado el invierno winter has come o arrived
    4. [alcanzar]
    llegar a to reach;
    no llego al techo I can't reach the ceiling;
    el barro me llegaba a las rodillas the mud came up to my knees, I was up to my knees in mud;
    quiero una chaqueta que me llegue por debajo de la cintura I want a jacket that comes down to below my waist;
    llegar a un acuerdo to come to o reach an agreement;
    llegamos a la conclusión de que era inútil seguir we came to o reached the conclusion that it wasn't worth continuing;
    llegar hasta to reach up to;
    esta carretera sólo llega hasta Veracruz this road only goes as far as Veracruz;
    el ascensor no llega a o [m5] hasta la última planta the Br lift o US elevator doesn't go up to the top floor
    5. [ascender]
    el importe total de la reparación no llega a 5.000 pesos the total cost of the repairs is less than o below 5,000 pesos;
    los espectadores no llegaban ni siquiera a mil there weren't even as many as a thousand spectators there
    6. [ser suficiente] to be enough ( para for);
    el dinero no me llega para comprarme una casa the money isn't enough for me to buy a house
    7. [lograr]
    llegar a (ser) algo to get to be sth, to become sth;
    llegó a ser campeón de Europa he became European champion;
    llegar a hacer algo to manage to do sth;
    pesaba mucho, pero al final llegué a levantarlo it was very heavy, but I managed to lift it up in the end;
    nunca llegó a (entrar en) las listas de éxitos she never made it into the charts;
    nunca llegué a conocerlo I never actually met him;
    si llego a saberlo… [en el futuro] if I happen to find out…;
    [en el pasado] if I had known…
    8. [al extremo de]
    llegó a decirme… he went as far as to say to me…;
    hemos llegado a pagar 4.000 euros at times we've had to pay as much as 4,000 euros;
    cuesta llegar a creerlo it's very hard to believe it;
    ¡hasta aquí o [m5] ahí podíamos llegar! this is beyond a joke o absolutely outrageous!
    9. [causar impresión, interesar]
    tiene una imagen que no llega al electorado she fails to project a strong image to the electorate;
    son canciones sencillas que llegan a la gente they are simple songs that mean something to people;
    lo que dijo me llegó al alma her words really struck home
    10. [durar]
    llegar a o [m5] hasta to last until;
    este año las rebajas llegarán hasta bien entrado febrero the sales this year will last until well into February;
    está muy enferma, no creo que llegue a las Navidades she's very ill, I doubt whether she'll make it to Christmas
    11. Méx Fam
    voy a llegarle [ya me voy] I'm off home;
    ¡llégale! [no hay problema] no problem!, don't worry!
    12. Méx Fam
    llegarle a alguien [pedirle salir] to ask sb out
    * * *
    v/i
    1 arrive;
    ha llegado la primavera spring is here, spring has arrived;
    está al llegar he’ll arrive momentarily, he’s about to arrive
    2 ( alcanzar) reach;
    me llega hasta las rodillas it comes down to my knees;
    el agua me llegaba a la cintura the water came up to my waist;
    no llego a comprender por qué … I don’t understand why …;
    la comida no llegó para todos there wasn’t enough food for everyone;
    ¡hasta ahí podíamos llegar! fam that’s going too far!, that’s a bit much! fam ;
    llegar a saber find out;
    llegar a ser get to be;
    llegar a viejo live to a ripe old age;
    llegar a presidente get to be president, become president
    * * *
    llegar {52} vi
    1) : to arrive, to come
    2)
    llegar a : to arrive at, to reach, to amount to
    3)
    llegar a : to manage to
    llegó a terminar la novela: she managed to finish the novel
    4)
    llegar a ser : to become
    llegó a ser un miembro permanente: he became a permanent member
    * * *
    llegar vb
    1. (en general) to arrive / to get
    acabo de llegar I've just arrived / I've just got here
    ¿a qué hora llegaréis a Londres? what time will you arrive in London?
    cuando lleguemos a Tudela, cenaremos we'll have dinner when we get to Tudela
    2. (alcanzar) to reach
    ¿llegas? can you reach?
    3. (tiempo) to come [pt. came; pp. come]
    ¡ha llegado la primavera! spring is here!
    4. (altura) to come
    6. (ser suficiente) to be enough
    llegar a ser to become [pt. became; pp. become]

    Spanish-English dictionary > llegar

  • 22 длина

    length, run, stretch
    * * *
    длина́ ж.
    length
    в длину́ — endways, endwise, lengthwise
    во всю длину́ — the full length
    на едини́цу длины́ — per unit (of) length
    нареза́ть [отреза́ть] что-л. по длине́ — cut smth. to the length of …
    по всей длине́ — along [through] the full length (e. g., of the building)
    длина́ анкеро́вки — anchorage length
    длина́ анте́нны, действи́тельная — effective [radiation] length of an aerial
    длина́ ба́зиса — base length
    длина́ ба́зы
    1. геод. base length
    длина́ ве́ктора — modulus [absolute value] of a vector
    длина́ взаимоде́йствия ( частиц) — interaction length
    длина́ взлё́тно-поса́дочной полосы́, исхо́дная — selected basic length of a runway
    длина́ витка́, сре́дняя (в обмо́тках) — length of an average [mean] turn of a coil, average [mean] length of a coil turn
    длина́ волны́ — wave-length
    длина́ волны́, грани́чная — cut-off [critical] wave-length
    длина́ волны́ де Бро́йля — de Broglie wave-length
    длина́ волны́, компто́новская — Compton wave-length
    длина́ волны́, крити́ческая — cut-off [critical] wave length
    длина́ волны́, основна́я — fundamental wave-length
    длина́ волны́, поро́говая — threshold wave-length
    длина́ волны́, преоблада́ющая — dominant wave-length
    длина́ волны́, со́бственная — natural wave-length
    длина́ вы́бега — coasting distance
    длина́ вы́лета (напр. струи воды) — range
    габари́тная длина́ — overall length
    длина́ геодези́ческой ли́нии — geodetic distance
    деба́евская длина́ — Debye length
    длина́ деба́евского экрани́рования — Debye shielding length
    диффузио́нная длина́ — diffusion length
    длина́ дуги́ геод. — arc distance
    едини́чная длина́ — unit length
    длина́ забо́рной ча́сти ( метчика) — chamfer length
    длина́ заде́лки армату́ры — length of an embedment
    длина́ заклё́пки, защемлё́нная — grip of a rivet
    длина́ зацепле́ния ( шестерён) — gear contact [engagement] length, length of action
    длина́ зо́нда — spacing of the sonde
    длина́ ка́меры горн. — depth of a room
    длина́ ка́меры сгора́ния ракет. — combustion-chamber length
    длина́ ка́меры сгора́ния, характеристи́ческая ракет. — characteristic combustion-chamber length
    длина́ когере́нтности — coherent wave [interrupted wave-train] length
    длина́ ко́довой комбина́ции вчт. — word length
    компари́рованная длина́ геод. — standard length
    длина́ консо́ли стр. — length of overhang, unsupported length
    кра́тная длина́ — multiple length
    длина́ кривоши́па — throw of a crank
    длина́ лё́тного по́ля — field length
    длина́ ма́зера, рабо́чая — active length of a maser
    длина́ математи́ческого ма́ятника — length of a simple pendulum, length of a pendulum
    длина́ ма́ятника, приведё́нная — the equivalent length of a pendulum
    длина́ нахлё́стки — lap of a splice
    несу́щая длина́ — bearing length
    длина́ о́бласти генера́ции — lasing length
    длина́ образу́ющей ко́нуса — slant height of a cone
    длина́ образца́ до испыта́ния — original length of a specimen
    длина́ образца́, расчё́тная ( для испытания материалов) — gauge length of a specimen
    обра́тная длина́ — reciprocal [inverse] length
    длина́ обто́чки — turning [machining] length
    опо́рная длина́ — bearing length
    длина́ опти́ческой волны́ — optical wave-length
    длина́ орби́ты — orbit circumference
    длина́ перено́са физ. — transport mean free path, transport length
    длина́ плато́ — plateau length
    длина́ плеча́ — reach of an arm
    длина́ поглоще́ния — absorption length, absorption path; опт. absorption thickness
    длина́ полосы́ набо́ра полигр. — depth of a page
    приведё́нная длина́ (напр. вала) — reduced length
    приведё́нная длина́ ма́ятника — length of an equivalent simple pendulum
    длина́ при продо́льном изги́бе, расчё́тная — effective length
    длина́ пробе́га
    1. ( частиц) range, track (path) length, path length
    2. ( самолета) landing run
    длина́ пробе́га до захва́та ( о частицах) — capture length
    длина́ пробе́га, по́лная ( о частицах) — maximum range, integral track [path] length
    длина́ прока́тки — mill length
    длина́ пролё́та стр. — span length
    длина́ прохо́дки горн. — amount of advance
    длина́ пути́ (напр. распространения волн, частиц) — path length
    длина́ пути́ луча́ — beam path length
    длина́ пути́, опти́ческая — optical length, optical path
    длина́ пути́, фа́зовая — phase-path length
    длина́ рабо́чей ча́сти шкалы́ — effective scale length
    длина́ разбе́га ( самолета) — take-off run
    длина́ разго́на волны́ (расстояние, пройденное ветром) — the fetch (the distance over which the fetch has been blowing)
    разрывна́я длина́ (напр. волокна) — breaking length
    длина́ распростране́ния — propagation distance
    длина́ рассе́яния — scattering length, scattering mean free path
    длина́ ре́зания — cutting length
    длина́ ре́зки прока́та, кра́тная — multiple length
    длина́ ре́зки прока́та, ме́рная — cut length
    длина́ ре́зки прока́та, неме́рная — random length
    длина́ руло́на прок. — coil length
    длина́ свобо́дного пробе́га ( частиц) — (mean) free path
    длина́ свобо́дного пробе́га для рассе́яния, столкнове́ния и т. п. ( о частицах) — scattering, collision, etc. (mean) free path
    длина́ свобо́дного пробе́га, сре́дняя ( о частицах) — mean free path length
    длина́ свя́зи хим. — bond length
    длина́ сло́ва вчт. — word length, (word) format
    со́бственная длина́ — proper length
    длина́ сообще́ния — message length
    длина́ спа́йки текст. — length of overlapping
    длина́ сте́ржня заклё́пки — grip length of a rivet
    длина́ сте́ржня, приведё́нная — unsupported length of a column
    длина́ сте́ржня, свобо́дная — unsupported length of a column
    длина́ стороны́ — lateral length
    длина́ строга́ния — planing length
    строи́тельная длина́ — face-to-face length
    длина́ строки́ телегр. — length of a scanning line
    длина́ строки́, поле́зная телегр. — available line
    длина́ су́дна ме́жду перпендикуля́рами — (ship's) length between perpendiculars
    длина́ су́дна, наибо́льшая — (ship's) length overall
    длина́ су́дна по ватерли́нии — (ship's) length on the water-line
    длина́ су́дна по конструкти́вной ватерли́нии — (ship's) length on the designed water-line
    длина́ су́дна, по́лная — (ship's) extreme length, (ship's) length overall
    длина́ торго́вого прока́та, норма́льная — commercial stock length
    длина́ траекто́рии ( частиц) — path length
    длина́ уча́стка разго́на ав. — (gross) distance to accelerate
    длина́ хо́да по́ршня — stroke
    электри́ческая длина́ ( линии передачи) — phase(-path) [electric] length
    этало́нная длина́ — standard length

    Русско-английский политехнический словарь > длина

  • 23 предельный

    1. extreme
    2. overall

    общий спрос; предельный спрос — overall demand

    3. supreme
    4. to the limit

    предельный срок службы; ресурс — age limit

    предельный вираж — power limited 360° turn

    5. maximum

    максимальная ошибка; предельная ошибка — maximum error

    6. maximumlly
    7. mostly
    8. marginal
    9. utmost
    10. go-no-go
    11. limiting
    12. saturated
    13. terminal
    14. tolerance
    15. ultimate
    16. limit; maximum; utmost; extreme

    лимитная цена; предельная цена — price limit

    17. uttermost
    Синонимический ряд:
    наибольший (прил.) максимальный; наибольший; самый большой

    Русско-английский большой базовый словарь > предельный

  • 24 значение

    1) implication

    2) importance
    3) <math.> magnitude
    4) meaning
    5) <naut.> sense
    6) significance
    7) signification
    8) valuation
    9) value
    – абсолютное значение
    – возвращаемое значение
    – доставлять значение
    – значение граничное
    – значение истинности
    – значение по умолчанию
    – значение разрядное
    – значение собственное
    – значение тока
    – иметь значение
    – истинное значение
    – краевое значение
    – мгновенное значение
    – наибольшее значение
    – наименьшее значение
    – номинальное значение
    – определенное значение
    – опускаемое значение
    – основное значение
    – приписывать значение
    – собственное значение
    – среднее значение
    – уточненное значение
    – частное значение

    абсолютное среднее значение — average absolute value


    арифмитическое значение корня — principal root


    выборочное среднее значение — sample mean, sampling mean


    значение навигационной координаты частное — <naut.> element of a fix


    значение отклонения полной шкалы — full-scale deflection


    крайнее наблюденное значение — extreme observation


    произвольное среднее значение — arbitrary mean


    резко выделяющееся значение — outlier


    среднее значение квадрата — mean-square value


    условное среднее значение — conditional mean value

    Русско-английский технический словарь > значение

  • 25 деление в крайнем и среднем отношении

    1) Mathematics: golden section

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > деление в крайнем и среднем отношении

  • 26 золотое отношение

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > золотое отношение

  • 27 diferencia

    f.
    1 difference.
    el problema de esa pareja es la diferencia de edad that couple's problem is the difference in their ages
    establecer o hacer una diferencia entre to make a distinction between
    el mejor/peor con diferencia by far the best/worst
    2 difference (desacuerdo).
    tuvieron sus diferencias they had their differences
    limar diferencias to settle one's differences
    3 difference.
    tendremos que pagar la diferencia we'll have to pay the difference
    diferencia horaria time difference
    diferencia salarial wage differential
    4 differendum, difference, dispute.
    pres.indicat.
    3rd person singular (él/ella/ello) present indicative of spanish verb: diferenciar.
    * * *
    1 difference
    2 (de opinión) difference, disagreement
    \
    hacer diferencia entre to make a distinction between
    * * *
    noun f.
    * * *
    SF
    1) (=distinción) difference

    • a diferencia de — unlike

    a diferencia de sus hermanas, ella es bajita — unlike her sisters, she's quite short

    • con diferencia — by far

    Rosa es, con diferencia, la más guapa — Rosa is by far the prettiest, Rosa is the prettiest by a long way

    diferencia salarial — (Com) wage differential, pay differential

    2) (=intervalo) difference, gap

    hay una diferencia de edad de diez años entre ellos — there's an age difference o age gap of ten years between them, there's ten years' difference in age between them

    3) (=desacuerdo)

    existen diferencias en el partido con respecto al aborto — there are differences of opinion within the party on the issue of abortion

    partir la diferencia — frm to split the difference

    4) (=resto) difference
    * * *
    1) ( disparidad) difference

    a diferencia del marido, ella es encantadora — unlike her husband, she's really charming

    con diferencia: es, con diferencia, la mejor — she's easily o by far the best

    2) ( desacuerdo) difference
    3) ( resto) difference
    * * *
    = difference, discrepancy, distinction, distinguishability, mismatch, gap, dissimilarity, point of difference, differential, fault line, disconnect, diff.
    Ex. Some concepts are described differently in different versions of one language.
    Ex. Reshelving by users could explain the discrepancy.
    Ex. Variations in the extent of the description between a set of entries account to a large extent for the distinction between main, added and unit entries.
    Ex. In this article, the notion of distinguishability is used to measure the degree to which two values of an attribute are dissimilar.
    Ex. The electron microscope is a clear case of extreme mismatch between the number of citations received and the impact of the instrument in a wide area of science.
    Ex. The gap between what private and public institutions charge means that private schools are at a big disadvantage in recruiting students.
    Ex. No significant study has investigated similarities and dissimilarities betwee these two types of reviewing journal.
    Ex. Some points of difference with Canadian practices, especially as regards staffing, are noted.
    Ex. The gap between people who have the resources to access digital information and those who do not have these resources, the so-called 'digital divide', includes a differential in information literacy skills = La diferencia entre la gente que dispone de los recursos para acceder a la información digital y los que no, denominada "brecha digital", supone también una diferencia en las destrezas relacionadas con la alfabetización informacional.
    Ex. These views underlie the fault line that divides British politics today.
    Ex. The disconnect is about how the two groups view each other.
    Ex. There are some diffs between the free version and the full version.
    ----
    * acortar las diferencias = close + the gap.
    * a diferencia de = apart from, as opposed to, in contradistinction to, as contrasted with, in contrast (to/with), quite apart from, in sharp contrast (with).
    * a diferencia de + Nombre = unlike + Nombre.
    * aumentar las diferencias entre... y = widen + the gap between... and.
    * aumento de las diferencias entre... y = widening gap between... and, widening of the gap beween.... and.
    * con diferencia = by far.
    * confundir las diferencias entre = blur + the boundaries between.
    * con mucha diferencia = by far.
    * contrato basado en las diferencias de género = gender contract.
    * con una gran diferencia = by a huge margin.
    * desaparecer las diferencias = blur + distinctions, blur + the lines between, blur + the boundaries between.
    * desaparición de las diferencias = blurring of differences, blurring of roles, blurring of boundaries.
    * desaparición de las diferencias entre = blurring of distinctions between.
    * desdibujar las diferencias = blur + distinctions, blur + the boundaries between.
    * detectar una diferencia = detect + difference.
    * diferencia cada vez mayor entre... y = widening of the gap beween.... and, widening gap between... and.
    * diferencia cada vez menor entre... y = narrowing gap between... and, narrowing of the gap between... and, narrowing of the gap between... and.
    * diferencia cultural = cultural difference.
    * diferencia debida al género = gender gap.
    * diferencia debida al sexo = gender gap.
    * diferencia de género = gender difference.
    * diferencia de horario = time differences.
    * diferencia de opinión (sobre) = difference of opinion (on).
    * diferencia de precio = price differential.
    * diferencia de precios = price differentiation.
    * diferencia de retribución entre mujeres y hombres = gender pay gap.
    * diferencia de sexo = gender difference.
    * diferencia entre... y... es mínima = line between... and... is thin.
    * diferencia generacional = generation gap.
    * diferencia horaria = time differences.
    * diferencia lingüística = language difference.
    * diferencia lógica = logical difference.
    * diferencia salarial = pay inequality.
    * diferencias de opinión = shades of opinion.
    * diferencias de precio = differential pricing.
    * diferencias de sexo = gender.
    * diferencia significativa = significant difference.
    * diferencias insalvables = irreconcilable differences.
    * diferencia social = social gap.
    * eliminar diferencias = flatten out + differences.
    * eliminar las diferencias = iron out + differences.
    * establecer una diferencia = draw + demarcation.
    * existir mucha diferencia entre... y... = be a far cry from... to....
    * haber muchísima diferencia = be in a different league.
    * hacer frente a las diferencias = face + differences.
    * indicar diferencias = point out + differences, note + difference, point to + differences.
    * insensible a las diferencias de género = gender blind.
    * limar las diferencias = iron out + differences, flatten out + differences.
    * marcar la diferencia = make + the difference, make + a difference, spell + the difference.
    * mostrar las diferencias = turn up + differences.
    * muy a diferencia de = in marked contrast to/with.
    * nadie notaría la diferencia = no one would be the wiser.
    * Número + años de diferencia = Número + year gap.
    * paliar las diferencias = bridge + the gap, bridge + the gulf.
    * que diferencia entre mayúscula y minúscula = case-sensitive.
    * rectificar la diferencia = redress + imbalance, redress + the balance.
    * reducción de las diferencias entre... y = narrowing gap between... and, narrowing of the gap between... and.
    * reducir las diferencias = bridge + the gap, bridge + the divide, bridge + the chasm, bridge + the gulf, close + the gap.
    * reducir las diferencias entre... y = narrow + the gap between... and.
    * representar la diferencia entre... y = represent + the difference between... and.
    * resolver las diferencias = iron out + differences, resolve + Posesivo + differences, settling of differences, flatten out + differences, flush out + differences, settle + Posesivo + differences.
    * resolver una diferencia = negotiate + difference.
    * respetar una diferencia = observe + difference.
    * respeto a la diferencia = respect to differences.
    * sacar a relucir diferencias = turn up + differences.
    * saldar las diferencias = iron out + differences.
    * señalar diferencias = point out + differences, note + difference, point to + differences.
    * significar la diferencia entre... y = mean + the difference between... and.
    * sin diferencias = undifferentiated.
    * sin que se note la diferencia = seamlessly.
    * suponer la diferencia entre el éxito o el fracaso = make or break.
    * suponer una diferencia sobre = move + one away from.
    * tener sus diferencias = have + their differences.
    * * *
    1) ( disparidad) difference

    a diferencia del marido, ella es encantadora — unlike her husband, she's really charming

    con diferencia: es, con diferencia, la mejor — she's easily o by far the best

    2) ( desacuerdo) difference
    3) ( resto) difference
    * * *
    = difference, discrepancy, distinction, distinguishability, mismatch, gap, dissimilarity, point of difference, differential, fault line, disconnect, diff.

    Ex: Some concepts are described differently in different versions of one language.

    Ex: Reshelving by users could explain the discrepancy.
    Ex: Variations in the extent of the description between a set of entries account to a large extent for the distinction between main, added and unit entries.
    Ex: In this article, the notion of distinguishability is used to measure the degree to which two values of an attribute are dissimilar.
    Ex: The electron microscope is a clear case of extreme mismatch between the number of citations received and the impact of the instrument in a wide area of science.
    Ex: The gap between what private and public institutions charge means that private schools are at a big disadvantage in recruiting students.
    Ex: No significant study has investigated similarities and dissimilarities betwee these two types of reviewing journal.
    Ex: Some points of difference with Canadian practices, especially as regards staffing, are noted.
    Ex: The gap between people who have the resources to access digital information and those who do not have these resources, the so-called 'digital divide', includes a differential in information literacy skills = La diferencia entre la gente que dispone de los recursos para acceder a la información digital y los que no, denominada "brecha digital", supone también una diferencia en las destrezas relacionadas con la alfabetización informacional.
    Ex: These views underlie the fault line that divides British politics today.
    Ex: The disconnect is about how the two groups view each other.
    Ex: There are some diffs between the free version and the full version.
    * acortar las diferencias = close + the gap.
    * a diferencia de = apart from, as opposed to, in contradistinction to, as contrasted with, in contrast (to/with), quite apart from, in sharp contrast (with).
    * a diferencia de + Nombre = unlike + Nombre.
    * aumentar las diferencias entre... y = widen + the gap between... and.
    * aumento de las diferencias entre... y = widening gap between... and, widening of the gap beween.... and.
    * con diferencia = by far.
    * confundir las diferencias entre = blur + the boundaries between.
    * con mucha diferencia = by far.
    * contrato basado en las diferencias de género = gender contract.
    * con una gran diferencia = by a huge margin.
    * desaparecer las diferencias = blur + distinctions, blur + the lines between, blur + the boundaries between.
    * desaparición de las diferencias = blurring of differences, blurring of roles, blurring of boundaries.
    * desaparición de las diferencias entre = blurring of distinctions between.
    * desdibujar las diferencias = blur + distinctions, blur + the boundaries between.
    * detectar una diferencia = detect + difference.
    * diferencia cada vez mayor entre... y = widening of the gap beween.... and, widening gap between... and.
    * diferencia cada vez menor entre... y = narrowing gap between... and, narrowing of the gap between... and, narrowing of the gap between... and.
    * diferencia cultural = cultural difference.
    * diferencia debida al género = gender gap.
    * diferencia debida al sexo = gender gap.
    * diferencia de género = gender difference.
    * diferencia de horario = time differences.
    * diferencia de opinión (sobre) = difference of opinion (on).
    * diferencia de precio = price differential.
    * diferencia de precios = price differentiation.
    * diferencia de retribución entre mujeres y hombres = gender pay gap.
    * diferencia de sexo = gender difference.
    * diferencia entre... y... es mínima = line between... and... is thin.
    * diferencia generacional = generation gap.
    * diferencia horaria = time differences.
    * diferencia lingüística = language difference.
    * diferencia lógica = logical difference.
    * diferencia salarial = pay inequality.
    * diferencias de opinión = shades of opinion.
    * diferencias de precio = differential pricing.
    * diferencias de sexo = gender.
    * diferencia significativa = significant difference.
    * diferencias insalvables = irreconcilable differences.
    * diferencia social = social gap.
    * eliminar diferencias = flatten out + differences.
    * eliminar las diferencias = iron out + differences.
    * establecer una diferencia = draw + demarcation.
    * existir mucha diferencia entre... y... = be a far cry from... to....
    * haber muchísima diferencia = be in a different league.
    * hacer frente a las diferencias = face + differences.
    * indicar diferencias = point out + differences, note + difference, point to + differences.
    * insensible a las diferencias de género = gender blind.
    * limar las diferencias = iron out + differences, flatten out + differences.
    * marcar la diferencia = make + the difference, make + a difference, spell + the difference.
    * mostrar las diferencias = turn up + differences.
    * muy a diferencia de = in marked contrast to/with.
    * nadie notaría la diferencia = no one would be the wiser.
    * Número + años de diferencia = Número + year gap.
    * paliar las diferencias = bridge + the gap, bridge + the gulf.
    * que diferencia entre mayúscula y minúscula = case-sensitive.
    * rectificar la diferencia = redress + imbalance, redress + the balance.
    * reducción de las diferencias entre... y = narrowing gap between... and, narrowing of the gap between... and.
    * reducir las diferencias = bridge + the gap, bridge + the divide, bridge + the chasm, bridge + the gulf, close + the gap.
    * reducir las diferencias entre... y = narrow + the gap between... and.
    * representar la diferencia entre... y = represent + the difference between... and.
    * resolver las diferencias = iron out + differences, resolve + Posesivo + differences, settling of differences, flatten out + differences, flush out + differences, settle + Posesivo + differences.
    * resolver una diferencia = negotiate + difference.
    * respetar una diferencia = observe + difference.
    * respeto a la diferencia = respect to differences.
    * sacar a relucir diferencias = turn up + differences.
    * saldar las diferencias = iron out + differences.
    * señalar diferencias = point out + differences, note + difference, point to + differences.
    * significar la diferencia entre... y = mean + the difference between... and.
    * sin diferencias = undifferentiated.
    * sin que se note la diferencia = seamlessly.
    * suponer la diferencia entre el éxito o el fracaso = make or break.
    * suponer una diferencia sobre = move + one away from.
    * tener sus diferencias = have + their differences.

    * * *
    A (disparidad) difference
    la diferencia de edad entre ellos the age difference o age gap between them
    salieron con una diferencia de pocos minutos they left a few minutes apart
    a diferencia del marido, ella es encantadora unlike her husband, she's really charming
    es un hombre alegre, a diferencia de su antecesor que … he is a cheerful man, in contrast to o unlike his predecessor who …
    cagarse or sentarse en la diferencia ( vulg CS): ¿$20 en vez de $19,99? ¡me cago en la diferencia! ( vulg); $20 instead of $19.99? big difference! o big deal! o that's a hell of a difference! ( iro)
    antes me importaba mucho pero ahora me siento en la diferencia it used to bother me a lot, but now I couldn't give a damn o I couldn't care less ( colloq)
    con diferencia: es, con diferencia, la más inteligente de las dos hermanas she's easily o far and away o by far the more intelligent of the two sisters, she's the more intelligent of the two sisters by a long way o by far
    este restaurante es mucho mejor, y con diferencia this restaurant's better by far o by a long way
    Compuesto:
    time difference
    B (desacuerdo) difference
    se reunieron para tratar de resolver or saldar sus diferencias they met to try to resolve their differences
    C (resto) difference
    dame el dinero que tienes y yo pagaré la diferencia give me the money you have and I'll pay the difference o the remainder o the rest
    * * *

     

    Del verbo diferenciar: ( conjugate diferenciar)

    diferencia es:

    3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) presente indicativo

    2ª persona singular (tú) imperativo

    Multiple Entries:
    diferencia    
    diferenciar
    diferencia sustantivo femenino


    a diferencia del marido, ella es encantadora unlike her husband, she's really charming



    resolver sus (or mis etc) diferencias to resolve one's differences


    diferenciar ( conjugate diferenciar) verbo transitivo ‹colores/sonidos› to tell the difference between, differentiate between
    diferenciarse verbo pronominal:
    ◊ ¿en qué se diferencia esta especie? what makes this species different?;

    no se diferencian en nada there's no difference between them;
    diferenciase de algo/algn to differ from sth/sb;
    solo se diferencia del otro en or por el precio the only difference between this one and the other one is the price
    diferencia sustantivo femenino difference
    ♦ Locuciones: a diferencia de, unlike
    con diferencia, by far: su hermana es la más simpática con diferencia, his sister is the nicer (de dos) o nicest (de más de dos) by far
    diferenciar verbo transitivo
    1 (saber discernir) to distinguish, tell the difference: no diferencia la seda del algodón, she can't tell the difference between silk and cotton
    2 (hacer distinto) to differentiate: eso es lo que nos diferencia, that's what makes us different

    ' diferencia' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    abismal
    - cada
    - caja
    - cerrarse
    - diferenciar
    - discrepancia
    - distinguir
    - economía
    - error
    - fundamental
    - ganarse
    - haber
    - hablarse
    - llevar
    - llevarse
    - notable
    - piso
    - poder
    - política
    - resaltar
    - salario
    - salto
    - sensible
    - sutil
    - tarde
    - variante
    - acentuado
    - cambio
    - desigualdad
    - desnivel
    - distinción
    - mínimo
    - pequeño
    - tremendo
    English:
    appreciable
    - art
    - by
    - change
    - difference
    - discrepancy
    - distinction
    - gap
    - hate
    - insignificant
    - material
    - misunderstanding
    - now
    - opposed
    - out
    - settle
    - sharp
    - study
    - tell
    - unlike
    - up
    - within
    - world
    - yawning
    - compare
    - quite
    * * *
    1. [disimilitud] difference (con/entre from/between);
    el problema de esa pareja es la diferencia de edad that couple's problem is the difference in their ages;
    la diferencia está en que tú eres hombre the difference is that you're a man;
    establecer o [m5] hacer una diferencia entre to make a distinction between
    2. [desacuerdo] difference;
    tuvieron sus diferencias they had their differences;
    limar diferencias to settle one's differences
    3. [en suma, resta] difference ( entre between);
    tendremos que pagar la diferencia we'll have to pay the difference
    diferencia horaria time difference; Elec diferencia de potencial potential difference;
    diferencia salarial wage o pay differential
    * * *
    f
    1 difference;
    hay una diferencia como del día a la noche it’s like the difference between night and day;
    con diferencia fig by a long way
    2
    :
    diferencias pl ( desacuerdo) differences
    * * *
    1) : difference
    2)
    a diferencia de : unlike, in contrast to
    * * *
    diferencia n difference
    ¿qué diferencia hay entre los dos coches? what's the difference between the two cars?

    Spanish-English dictionary > diferencia

  • 28 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 29 золотое сечение

    1) General subject: golden ratio
    3) Religion: golden section (In painting and architecture, a formula meant to provide the aesthetically most satisfying proportions for a picture or a feature of a building)
    5) Computer graphics: divine proportion (The Golden Section, or the Divine Proportion is a visual representation of a number called Phi (pronouned fi).)

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > золотое сечение

  • 30 осадка

    draft мор., immersion, jumping, ( грунта в основании сооружения) outflanking, ( грунта) set, setting сил., ( фундамента) settlement, settling, sinking, (горной породы, грунта, конуса бетонной смеси) slump, ( основания сооружения) subsidence, ( при стыковой сварке) upset, yield, yielding
    * * *
    оса́дка ж.
    1. ( грунта) settlement, settling
    оса́дка коло́ши метал. — charge slip
    оса́дка поро́ды — rock sagging
    оса́дка рессо́ры — spring camber
    оса́дка су́дна — draught
    оса́дка су́дна характеризу́ет глубину́, необходи́мую для того́, что́бы су́дно бы́ло на плаву́ — draught is the depth required to float a vessel
    оса́дка су́дна характеризу́ет погруже́ние су́дна ни́же у́ровня воды́ — draught is the depth that a vessel sinks when afloat
    оса́дка су́дна, балла́стная — ballast draught
    оса́дка су́дна, грузова́я — load draught
    оса́дка су́дна, конструкти́вная — design draught
    оса́дка су́дна кормо́й — after draught
    оса́дка су́дна, максима́льная — extreme [keel] draught
    оса́дка су́дна, наибо́льшая — extreme [keel] draught
    оса́дка су́дна на плаву́ — floating [hullborne] draught
    оса́дка су́дна на подво́дных кры́льях — foilborne draught
    оса́дка су́дна но́сом — forward draught
    оса́дка су́дна порожнё́м — light draught
    оса́дка су́дна, расчё́тная — design draught
    оса́дка су́дна, сре́дняя — mean draught
    оса́дка су́дна, эксплуатацио́нная — operating [service] draught
    оса́дка ши́хты ( в доменной печи) — burden slip
    * * *

    Русско-английский политехнический словарь > осадка

  • 31 Ende

    n; -s, -n
    1. räumlich: end; am Ende des Zuges einsteigen get in at the back of the train; das vordere / hintere Ende the front (end) ( oder forward end) / the back, the rear (end); das obere / untere Ende the top (end) / bottom (end); das ( letzte) Ende der Wurst the last bit ( oder tail-end umg.) of the sausage; etw. am falschen oder verkehrten Ende anpacken fig. tackle s.th. the wrong way (a)round, put the cart before the horse; am Ende der Welt wohnen umg. live at the back of beyond ( oder way out in the sticks)
    2. nur Sg.; eines Zeitraums: end, close; Ende Januar at the end of January; am oder zu / gegen Ende des Monats at / toward(s) the end of the month; noch vor Ende dieser Woche by the end of this week, before the week is out geh.; bis ans Ende aller Tage oder Zeiten until the end of time; Ende der Dreißigerjahre oder dreißiger Jahre in the late thirties, at the end of the thirties; sie ist Ende zwanzig she’s in her late twenties
    3. (Schluss) end, close; eines Films etc.: ending; Auslaufen eines Vertrags: expiry; einer Frist: end, expiry; (Ergebnis) result, outcome; Ende! FUNK. over!; ohne Ende endless, unending; und damit Ende! and that’s that! ( oder it!); er findet kein Ende he can’t stop, he doesn’t know where ( oder when) to stop; bis zum bitteren Ende to the bitter end; letzten Endes after all, ultimately, in the end, at the end of the day, when all is said and done; die Arbeit geht ihrem Ende entgegen is nearing completion; ohne dass ein Ende abzusehen wäre oder ... und kein Ende in Sicht with no end in sight; das bedeutet das Ende von that’s ( oder that means, that spells) the end of; einer Sache ein Ende machen oder bereiten put a stop ( oder an end) to s.th.; seinem Leben ein Ende machen oder setzen die by one’s own hand geh., end it all umg.; alles hat einmal ein Ende all (good) things come to an end; das muss ein Ende haben oder nehmen it’s got to stop; es nimmt kein Ende it just goes on and on; ein schlimmes oder böses Ende nehmen come to a bad end; mit dir wird es noch ein schlimmes Ende nehmen you’ll come to a bad end; das dicke Ende kommt nach oder noch umg. the worst is yet to come, there’s worse to come, it gets worse; das Ende vom Lied war fig. the end of the story was, what happened in the end was, the upshot of it (all) was umg.; Ende gut, alles gut Sprichw. all’s well that ends well; lieber ein Ende mit Schrecken als ein Schrecken ohne Ende Sprichw. etwa better bite the bullet ( oder face the music), don’t prolong the agony
    4. am Ende (schließlich) in the end, eventually; (auf die Dauer) in the long run, eventually; am Ende mussten wir hinlaufen we ended ( oder wound umg.) up having to walk (there)
    5. am Ende (fertig, erledigt, kaputt) finished, done, on one’s last legs; ich bin am Ende (kann nicht mehr) I’m finished, I’ve had it umg., Brit. auch I’m all in umg.; der Wagen ist ( ziemlich) am Ende umg. the car’s (just about) had it, the car’s on its last legs; ich bin mit meiner Geduld / meinen Nerven am Ende I’ve been patient (for) long enough / I can’t stand the strain any longer; ich bin mit meinem Latein oder meiner Weisheit am Ende I’ve run out of ideas ( oder suggestions etc.); stärker: I’m at my wits’ end
    6. am Ende (vielleicht, womöglich, etwa) maybe, could be, perhaps; am Ende stimmt das sogar! it could even be true!; meinst du das am Ende ernst? are you actually serious about this?, I’m beginning to think you mean it
    7. zu Ende bringen oder führen finish, complete, see s.th. through; zu Ende gehen (enden) (come to an) end, finish; allmählich: draw to a close; (knapp werden) run short ( oder low); etw. zu Ende denken think s.th. out fully, think s.th. through; zu Ende lesen / schreiben etc. finish (reading / writing etc.); zu Ende sein Schule, Krieg, Wartezeit etc.: be over; Film, Spiel etc.: have finished; Geduld, Vorräte: be at an end, be exhausted, have run out; Vorräte: auch be finished
    8. nur Sg.; lit. (Zweck) end, purpose; zu welchem Ende? to what end?
    9. nur Sg.; lit. euph. (Tod) end; sein Ende nahen fühlen sense that one’s end is near ( oder that one has not long to live); es geht zu Ende mit ihm he’s going ( oder slipping) fast, it won’t be long now
    10. umg. (kleines Stück) bit, piece, scrap; sie hatte ein Ende Schnur in der Tasche she had a ( oder an odd) piece of string in her pocket
    11. nur Sg.; umg.: es ist noch ein ganzes oder ziemliches Ende it’s a long way (off) yet, there’s quite a distance still
    12. Jägerspr., des Geweihs: point
    13. NAUT. line, rope
    * * *
    das Ende
    (Ablauf) expiration;
    (Abschluss) termination; close; windup; ending; finish; end;
    (Ergebnis) result; conclusion; outcome;
    (Tod) quietus
    * * *
    Ẹn|de ['ɛndə]
    nt -s, -n
    end; (eines Jahrhunderts etc auch) close; (= Ausgang, Ergebnis) outcome, result; (= Ausgang eines Films, Romans etc) ending; (HUNT = Geweihende) point; (inf = Stückchen) (small) piece; (inf = Strecke) way, stretch; (NAUT = Tau) (rope's) end

    Ende Mai/der Woche — at the end of May/the week

    er ist Ende vierzig — he is in his late forties

    er wohnt am Ende der Welt (inf) — he lives at the back of beyond, he lives in the middle of nowhere

    bis ans Ende der Welt — to the ends of the earth

    lieber ein Ende mit Schrecken als ein Schrecken ohne Ende (Prov) — it's best to get unpleasant things over and done with

    letzten Endes — when all is said and done, after all

    ein Ende machen — to put an end to sth

    (bei or mit etw) kein Ende finden (inf) — to be unable to stop (sth or telling/doing etc sth)

    damit muss es jetzt ein Ende haben — there has to be an end to this now, this must stop now

    das nimmt or findet gar kein Ende (inf) — there's no sign of it stopping, there's no end to it

    ... und kein Ende —... with no end in sight,... without end

    es war des Staunens/Jubels etc kein Ende (old, liter) — there was no end to the surprise/celebrations etc

    es ist noch ein gutes or ganzes Ende (inf) — there's still quite a way to go (yet)

    (am) Ende des Monats — at the end of the month

    mit etw am Ende sein — to be at the end of sth, to have reached the end of sth; (Vorrat) to have run out of sth

    ein Problem am richtigen/falschen or verkehrten Ende anfassen — to tackle a problem from the right/wrong end

    Leiden ohne Ende — endless suffering, suffering without end

    zu Ende — finished, over, at an end

    ein Buch/einen Brief zu Ende lesen/schreiben — to finish (reading/writing) a book/letter

    zu Ende gehen — to come to an end; (Vorräte) to run out

    zu dem Ende, dass... (obs) — to the end that... (form)

    zu diesem Ende (obs) — to this end (form)

    Ende gut, alles gut (Prov) — all's well that ends well (Prov)

    alles hat einmal ein Ende (Prov) — everything must come to an end some time; (angenehme Dinge) all good things must come to an end (Prov)

    See:
    → dick
    * * *
    das
    1) (a stop, end or finish: the close of day; towards the close of the nineteenth century.) close
    2) (the last or farthest part of the length of something: the house at the end of the road; both ends of the room; Put the tables end to end (= with the end of one touching the end of another); ( also adjective) We live in the end house.) end
    3) (the finish or conclusion: the end of the week; The talks have come to an end; The affair is at an end; He is at the end of his strength; They fought bravely to the end; If she wins the prize we'll never hear the end of it (= she will often talk about it).) end
    4) (the end, especially of a story, poem etc: Fairy stories have happy endings.) ending
    * * *
    En·de
    <-s, -n>
    [ˈɛndə]
    nt
    1. (räumlich) end
    er setzte sich ganz ans \Ende des Tisches he sat down at the far end of the table
    das äußerste \Ende the extreme end
    von allen \Enden from all parts
    am \Ende at the end
    sie wohnt ganz am \Ende der Straße she lives at the far end of the road
    sie ging am \Ende der Prozession she walked at the tail of the procession
    das Telefon befindet sich am \Ende des Zuges the telephone is at the end [or rear] of the train
    das obere/untere \Ende der Treppe the head/foot end of the stairs
    am unteren/oberen \Ende des Tisches at the far end/the head of the table
    am \Ende der Seite at the foot [or the bottom] of the page
    etw zu \Ende lesen/schreiben to finish reading/writing sth
    das spitze \Ende eines Bleistifts the tip of a pencil
    2. kein pl (Zeitpunkt) end no pl
    \Ende August/des Monats/2004 [at] the end of August/the month/2004
    sie kommt gegen \Ende August she's coming towards the end of August
    das \Ende des Jahrhunderts the end [or close] of the century
    sie ist \Ende 1948 geboren she was born at the end of 1948
    bis ans \Ende aller Tage [o Zeiten] until the end of time
    \Ende zwanzig [o 20] sein to be in one's late twenties [or 20s]
    am \Ende der zwanziger [o 20er] Jahre in the late twenties [or 20s
    3. kein pl (Schluss, Abschluss) end no pl
    „\Ende der Durchsage“ “end of the message”
    es ist kein \Ende abzusehen there is no end in sight
    damit muss es jetzt ein \Ende haben this must stop now
    \Ende des Zitats end of the quotation
    am \Ende (fam) finally, at [or in] the end
    bis zum bitteren \Ende to the bitter end
    ein böses [o kein gutes] [o ein unrühmliches] \Ende nehmen to come to a bad end
    bei [o mit] etw dat kein \Ende finden (fam) to not stop doing sth
    einer S. dat ein \Ende machen [o bereiten] to put an end to sth
    das \Ende nahen fühlen to feel the end approaching
    ein \Ende nehmen (fam) to come to an end
    das nimmt gar kein \Ende there's no end to it
    ohne \Ende without end, endless
    Fehler ohne \Ende any number of mistakes
    Qualen ohne \Ende suffering without end, endless suffering
    sich akk ohne \Ende freuen to be terribly pleased, to be delighted
    das \Ende eines Projekts the conclusion of a project
    etw zu \Ende bringen [o führen] to complete sth
    dem \Ende zu gehen to draw to a close
    etw geht zu \Ende sth is nearly finished
    alles geht mal zu [o hat mal ein] \Ende nothing lasts forever, all things must come to an end; (Angenehmes) all good things must come to an end [some time]
    etw zu einem guten \Ende bringen [o führen] to complete sth successfully
    etw zu \Ende lesen to finish reading sth
    zu \Ende sein to finish, to end; (vorbei sein) to be over
    wo ist die Straße zu \Ende? where does the road end?
    der Film ist bald zu \Ende the film finishes soon
    unser Urlaub ist leider zu \Ende unfortunately, our holiday is over [or is finished]
    wann ist die Schule/das Spiel zu \Ende? when is school/the game over?, when does school/the game finish?
    das Spiel ist bald zu \Ende the game will end soon
    die Stunde ist in 10 Minuten zu \Ende the lesson will end [or finish] in ten minutes
    meine Geduld ist zu \Ende my patience has run out
    4. FILM, LIT (Ausgang) ending
    die Geschichte hat ein gutes \Ende the story has a happy ending
    5. kein pl JUR termination no pl; (Ablauf) expiry no pl
    bei \Ende des Vertrags [up]on termination of the contract
    6. kein pl (geh: Tod) end no pl
    er fand ein tragisches \Ende he met a tragic end form
    sie fühlte ihr \Ende nahen she felt that her end was near
    es geht mit ihr zu \Ende she is nearing her end form
    seinem Leben ein \Ende setzen to put an end to one's life form, to commit suicide
    ein \Ende Brot a crust of bread
    8. kein pl (fam: Strecke) way no pl
    von hier bis zum See ist es ein ganzes \Ende it's quite a way from here to the lake
    wir haben noch ein schönes \Ende Weges vor uns we have a considerable way [or fam a pretty long way] to go yet
    9. JAGD (Geweihende) point, tine spec
    das Geweih dieses Hirsches hat zwölf \Enden this stag's antlers have twelve points
    10.
    ▶ am \Ende [seiner Kräfte] sein (fam) to be at the end of one's tether fam
    ▶ mit etw dat am \Ende sein to run out of sth
    er war bei dieser Frage mit seinem Wissen am \Ende this question baffled him
    ich bin mit meiner Geduld/Weisheit am \Ende I've run out of patience/ideas
    ▶ das dicke \Ende (fam) the worst
    ▶ das \Ende der Fahnenstange (fam) as far as one can go, the limit
    \Ende der Fahnenstange! that's the limit!
    ▶ etw akk am falschen \Ende anfassen to begin at the wrong end, to go about sth the wrong way
    ▶ \Ende gut, alles gut (prov) all's well that ends well prov
    ▶ letzten \Endes (zuletzt) in the end; (immerhin) after all, at the end of the day fig fam
    ▶ das \Ende vom Lied (fam) the upshot
    ▶ lieber ein \Ende mit Schrecken als ein Schrecken ohne \Ende (prov) it's better to end with a short, sharp shock than to prolong the agony
    ▶ am \Ende der Welt (fam) at the back of beyond fam, in the middle of nowhere fam
    sie wohnt am \Ende der Welt she lives at the back of beyond fam
    ▶ das \Ende der Welt ist nahe! the end of the world is nigh! poet
    ▶ jdm bis ans \Ende der Welt folgen to follow sb to the ends of the earth
    * * *
    das; Endes, Enden
    1) end

    am Ende — at the end; (schließlich) in the end

    am Ende der Welt — (scherzh.) at the back of beyond

    am/bis/gegen Ende des Monats/der Woche — at/by/towards the end of the month/week

    zu Ende sein — <patience, hostility, war> be at an end

    die Schule/das Kino/das Spiel ist zu Ende — school is over/the film/game has finished

    zu Ende gehen — < period of time> come to an end; <supplies, savings> run out; < contract> expire

    etwas zu Ende führen od. bringen — finish something

    Ende gut, alles gut — all's well that ends well (prov.)

    ein/kein Ende nehmen — come to an end/never come to an end

    einer Sache/seinem Leben ein Ende machen od. setzen — (geh.) put an end to something/take one's life

    am Ende sein — (ugs.) be at the end of one's tether

    2) (ugs.): (kleines Stück) bit; piece
    3) (ugs.): (Strecke)
    4) (Jägerspr.) point
    * * *
    Ende n; -s, -n
    1. räumlich: end;
    am Ende des Zuges einsteigen get in at the back of the train;
    das vordere/hintere Ende the front (end) ( oder forward end)/the back, the rear (end);
    das obere/untere Ende the top (end)/bottom (end);
    das (letzte) Ende der Wurst the last bit ( oder tail-end umg) of the sausage;
    verkehrten Ende anpacken fig tackle sth the wrong way (a)round, put the cart before the horse;
    am Ende der Welt wohnen umg live at the back of beyond ( oder way out in the sticks)
    2. nur sg; eines Zeitraums: end, close;
    Ende Januar at the end of January;
    am oder
    zu/gegen Ende des Monats at/toward(s) the end of the month;
    noch vor Ende dieser Woche by the end of this week, before the week is out geh;
    Zeiten until the end of time;
    dreißiger Jahre in the late thirties, at the end of the thirties;
    sie ist Ende zwanzig she’s in her late twenties
    3. (Schluss) end, close; eines Films etc: ending; Auslaufen eines Vertrags: expiry; einer Frist: end, expiry; (Ergebnis) result, outcome;
    Ende! RADIO over!;
    ohne Ende endless, unending;
    und damit Ende! and that’s that! ( oder it!);
    er findet kein Ende he can’t stop, he doesn’t know where ( oder when) to stop;
    bis zum bitteren Ende to the bitter end;
    letzten Endes after all, ultimately, in the end, at the end of the day, when all is said and done;
    geht ihrem Ende entgegen is nearing completion;
    … und kein Ende in Sicht with no end in sight;
    das bedeutet das Ende von that’s ( oder that means, that spells) the end of;
    bereiten put a stop ( oder an end) to sth;
    setzen die by one’s own hand geh, end it all umg;
    alles hat einmal ein Ende all (good) things come to an end;
    nehmen it’s got to stop;
    es nimmt kein Ende it just goes on and on;
    böses Ende nehmen come to a bad end;
    noch umg the worst is yet to come, there’s worse to come, it gets worse;
    das Ende vom Lied war fig the end of the story was, what happened in the end was, the upshot of it (all) was umg;
    Ende gut, alles gut sprichw all’s well that ends well;
    lieber ein Ende mit Schrecken als ein Schrecken ohne Ende sprichw etwa better bite the bullet ( oder face the music), don’t prolong the agony
    4.
    am Ende (schließlich) in the end, eventually; (auf die Dauer) in the long run, eventually;
    am Ende mussten wir hinlaufen we ended ( oder wound umg) up having to walk (there)
    5.
    am Ende (fertig, erledigt, kaputt) finished, done, on one’s last legs;
    ich bin am Ende (kann nicht mehr) I’m finished, I’ve had it umg, Br auch I’m all in umg;
    der Wagen ist (ziemlich) am Ende umg the car’s (just about) had it, the car’s on its last legs;
    ich bin mit meiner Geduld/meinen Nerven am Ende I’ve been patient( for) long enough/I can’t stand the strain any longer;
    meiner Weisheit am Ende I’ve run out of ideas ( oder suggestions etc); stärker: I’m at my wits’ end
    6.
    am Ende (vielleicht, womöglich, etwa) maybe, could be, perhaps;
    am Ende stimmt das sogar! it could even be true!;
    meinst du das am Ende ernst? are you actually serious about this?, I’m beginning to think you mean it
    7.
    führen finish, complete, see sth through;
    zu Ende gehen (enden) (come to an) end, finish; allmählich: draw to a close; (knapp werden) run short ( oder low);
    etwas zu Ende denken think sth out fully, think sth through;
    zu Ende lesen/schreiben etc finish (reading/writing etc);
    zu Ende sein Schule, Krieg, Wartezeit etc: be over; Film, Spiel etc: have finished; Geduld, Vorräte: be at an end, be exhausted, have run out; Vorräte: auch be finished
    8. nur sg; liter (Zweck) end, purpose;
    zu welchem Ende? to what end?
    9. nur sg; liter euph (Tod) end;
    sein Ende nahen fühlen sense that one’s end is near ( oder that one has not long to live);
    es geht zu Ende mit ihm he’s going ( oder slipping) fast, it won’t be long now
    10. umg (kleines Stück) bit, piece, scrap;
    sie hatte ein Ende Schnur in der Tasche she had a ( oder an odd) piece of string in her pocket
    11. nur sg; umg:
    ziemliches Ende it’s a long way (off) yet, there’s quite a distance still
    12. JAGD, des Geweihs: point
    13. SCHIFF line, rope
    * * *
    das; Endes, Enden
    1) end

    am Ende — at the end; (schließlich) in the end

    am Ende der Welt — (scherzh.) at the back of beyond

    am/bis/gegen Ende des Monats/der Woche — at/by/towards the end of the month/week

    zu Ende sein — <patience, hostility, war> be at an end

    die Schule/das Kino/das Spiel ist zu Ende — school is over/the film/game has finished

    zu Ende gehen — < period of time> come to an end; <supplies, savings> run out; < contract> expire

    etwas zu Ende führen od. bringen — finish something

    Ende gut, alles gut — all's well that ends well (prov.)

    ein/kein Ende nehmen — come to an end/never come to an end

    einer Sache/seinem Leben ein Ende machen od. setzen — (geh.) put an end to something/take one's life

    am Ende sein — (ugs.) be at the end of one's tether

    2) (ugs.): (kleines Stück) bit; piece
    3) (ugs.): (Strecke)
    4) (Jägerspr.) point
    * * *
    -n n.
    end n.
    ending n.
    expiration n.
    finish n.
    outcome n.
    quietus n.
    result n.
    tail n.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > Ende

  • 32 niederträchtig

    Adj. (boshaft) malicious, spiteful; (verwerflich) vile, low; Motiv: base; das war aber niederträchtig! what a spiteful thing to do
    * * *
    rascally; mean; low; perfidious; infamous; base; scurvy; shabby; caddish
    * * *
    nie|der|träch|tig ['niːdɐtrɛçtɪç]
    1. adj
    despicable, vile; (= rachsüchtig) malicious, spiteful
    2. adv
    despicably; verleumden maliciously

    jdn níéderträchtig verraten — to maliciously betray sb

    * * *
    2) (wicked or worthless: base desires.) base
    3) (bad; mean: What rotten luck!; It was a rotten thing to do.) rotten
    * * *
    nie·der·träch·tig
    I. adj (pej)
    1. (Übel wollend) contemptible
    eine \niederträchtige Person a contemptible [or despicable] [or vile] person
    eine \niederträchtige Einstellung/Lüge a despicable attitude/lie
    2. (fam: stark) Kälte extreme; Schmerz a. excruciating
    II. adv dreadfully
    \niederträchtig weh tun to hurt like hell
    * * *
    1.
    Adjektiv malicious < person, slander, lie, etc.>; (verachtenswert) vile, despicable < person>; base, vile <misrepresentation, slander, lie>
    2.
    adverbial <betray, lie, treat> in a vile or despicable way; < smile> maliciously
    * * *
    niederträchtig adj (boshaft) malicious, spiteful; (verwerflich) vile, low; Motiv: base;
    das war aber niederträchtig! what a spiteful thing to do
    * * *
    1.
    Adjektiv malicious <person, slander, lie, etc.>; (verachtenswert) vile, despicable < person>; base, vile <misrepresentation, slander, lie>
    2.
    adverbial <betray, lie, treat> in a vile or despicable way; < smile> maliciously

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > niederträchtig

  • 33 denotar

    v.
    1 to indicate, to show.
    2 to denote, to mean, to suppose, to imply.
    Esto significa traición This means treachery.
    3 to indicate to.
    * * *
    1 to denote, indicate, show
    * * *
    VT
    1) (=significar) (tb Ling) to denote
    2) (=indicar) to indicate, show
    * * *
    verbo transitivo
    a) (frml) (demostrar, indicar) to show, denote (frml)
    b) (Ling) to denote
    * * *
    = denote, betoken.
    Ex. The notation is primarily letters, but also uses numbers to denote concepts in the auxiliary schedules.
    Ex. The faintly irritating moralising tone of this book betokens a real human interest, which must be recovered if there is to be a dialogue of real content.
    * * *
    verbo transitivo
    a) (frml) (demostrar, indicar) to show, denote (frml)
    b) (Ling) to denote
    * * *
    = denote, betoken.

    Ex: The notation is primarily letters, but also uses numbers to denote concepts in the auxiliary schedules.

    Ex: The faintly irritating moralising tone of this book betokens a real human interest, which must be recovered if there is to be a dialogue of real content.

    * * *
    denotar [A1 ]
    vt
    1 ( frml) (demostrar, indicar) to show, denote ( frml)
    los resultados denotan un cambio en la opinión pública the results point to o denote o indicate o show a change in public opinion
    las arrugas de su cara denotaban una vida llena de sufrimientos the lines on her face told of a life of suffering
    sus modales denotan una esmerada educación her manners are the sign of o reveal an impeccable upbringing
    2 ( Ling) to denote
    * * *

    denotar ( conjugate denotar) verbo transitivo
    a) (frml) (demostrar, indicar) to show, denote (frml);


    b) (Ling) to denote

    denotar verbo transitivo
    1 to indicate: la expresión de su cara denota cansancio, you can see he's tired from the look on his face
    2 Ling to denote, mean
    ' denotar' also found in these entries:
    English:
    denote
    * * *
    1. [indicar] to indicate, to show;
    su sudor denotaba nerviosismo his sweating indicated his extreme nervousness
    2. Ling to denote
    * * *
    v/t indicate, denote
    * * *
    : to denote, to show

    Spanish-English dictionary > denotar

  • 34 ἔσχατος

    ἔσχᾰτος, η, ον, also ος, ον Arat.625 (prob. fr. ἐκ, ἐξ, perh. eĝhz κατος (cf. ἐχθός)
    A like ἔγ-κατα):
    I of Space, as always in Hom., farthest, uttermost, extreme, θάλαμος ἔ. the hindmost chamber, Od.21.9 ;

    ἔσχατοι ἄλλων

     at the end of the lines,

    Il.10.434

    , cf.8.225 ; ἔσχατοι ἀνδρῶν, of the Aethiopians, Od.1.23 ;

    οἰκέομεν..ἔσχατοι 6.205

     ;

    ἐσχάτη τῶν οἰκεομένων ἡ Ἰνδική Hdt.3.106

    , cf. Th.2.96, etc.;

    τὸ ἔ. τῆς ἀγορᾶς X.HG3.3.5

     ;

    ὑπ'..ἐσχάτην στήλην S.El. 720

     ; τάξις ἐ. the farthest part of the army, Id.Aj.4 : pl.,

    ἔσχατα γαίης Hes.Th. 731

     ;

    τὰ ἔ. τῶν στρατοπέδων Th.4.96

     ;

    ἐπ' ἔσχατα χθονός S.Fr. 956

     ;

    αἱ ἐπ' ἔσχατα τοῦ ἄστεως οἰκίαι Th.8.95

     ; ἐξ ἐσχάτων ἐς ἔσχατα ἀπικέσθαι from end to end, Hdt.7.100, cf. X.Vect.1.6 ;

    παρ' ἔσχατα λίμνης Pl.Phd. 113b

    , cf. Th.3.106:—in various senses, uppermost,

    ἐ. πυρά S.El. 900

     ; lowest, deepest,

    ἀΐδας Theoc.16.52

     ;

    ἅλς AP13.27

     (Phal.) ; innermost,

    σάρκες S.Tr. 1053

     ; last, hindmost,

    ἤλαυνε δ' ἔ. Id.El. 734

     ; ἐπ' ἐσχάτῳ at the close of a document, PTeb.68.54 (ii B.C.), etc.
    2 of Degree, uttermost, highest,

    τὸ ἔ. κορυφοῦται βασιλεῦσι Pi.O.1.113

     ;

    ἀνορέαι ἔ. Id.I.4(3).11

     ;

    σοφία Lib.Or.59.88

     ; of misfortunes, sufferings, etc., utmost, last, worst, πόνος, ἀδικία, κίνδυνοι, Pl.Phdr. 247b, R. 361a, Grg. 511d ;

    ὀδύναι αἱ ἔ. Id.Prt. 354b

     ; δῆμος ἔ. extreme democracy, Arist.Pol. 1296a2.
    b Subst., τὸ ἔ., τὰ ἔ., the utmost,

    ἐς τὸ ἔ. κακοῦ ἀπιγμένοι Hdt.8.52

     ;

    τετρῦσθαι ἐς τὸ ἔ. κακοῦ Id.1.22

     ; without Art.,

    ἐπ' ἔσχατα βαίνεις S. OC 217

     (lyr.) ;

    προβᾶσ' ἐπ' ἔσχατον θράσους Id.Ant. 853

     (lyr.) ;

    ἐπ' ἔ. ἐλθεῖν ἀηδίας Pl.Phdr. 240d

    , cf. R. 361d, etc.;

    ὃ πάντων κακῶν ἔσχατόν ἐστι, τοῦτο πάσχει Id.Phd. 83c

     ;

    οἱ τὰ ἔ. πεποιηκότες X.Cyr.8.8.2

     ; ζημιοῦσθαι πᾶσι τοῖς ἐ., Lat. extremis suppliciis, Pl.Plt. 297e ; ἔσχατ' ἐσχάτων κακά worst of possible evils, S.Ph.65, cf. Philem.178 ;

    εἰς τὰ ἔ. ἐληλυθώς UPZ60.12

     (ii B.C.) : [comp] Comp.

    οὔτε γὰρ τοῦ ἐσχάτου -ώτερον εἴη ἄν τι Arist.Metaph. 1055a20

     : [comp] Sup. - ώτατος f.l. in X.HG2.3.49, cf. Phryn.51 ;

    τὰ -ώτατα Phld.Hom.p.320

    .
    3 of Persons, lowest, meanest, D.S.8.18, D.C.42.5, Alciphr.3.43 : prov., οὐδείς, οὐδ' ὁ Μυσῶν ἔ., i.e. the meanest of mankind, Magnes 5, cf. Philem.77 ; in Pl.Tht. 209b it seems to mean the remotest of mankind, cf. πρὸς ἐσχάτην Μυσῶν v.l. in App.Prov.2.85 (

    παρὰ τοῖς ἐ. τῆς Μυσίας Apostol.8.1

    ); similarly

    οὐδὲ τὸν ἔσχατον Καρῶν Plu.2.871b

    .
    4 of Time, last, ἐς τὸ ἔ. to the end, Hdt.7.107, Th.3.46; ἔ. πλόος, ναυτιλίαι, the end of it, Pi.P.10.28, N.3.22 ; ἐσχάτας ὑπὲρ ῥίζας over the last scion of the race, S.Ant. 599 (lyr.); ἔ. Ἑλλήνων, Ῥωμαίων, Plu.Phil.1, Brut.44 : neut. ἔσχατον, as Adv., for the last time, S.OC 1550 ; finally, best of all, 1 Ep.Cor.15.8; at the latest,

    ἔ. ἐν τρισὶ μησίν SIG1219.11

     (Gambreion, iii B. C.), cf. Inscr.Prien.4.45 (iv B. C.); εἰς τὴν ἐσχάτην at the last, LXXEc.1.11 ; ἐπ' ἐσχάτῳ ib.2 Ki.24.25, al.: Subst. ἐσχάτη, ἡ, end,

    οὐχ ἕξεις ἐ. καλήν Astramps.Orac.21.4

    , cf. 40.3.
    5 in the Logic of Arist., τὰ ἔ. are the last or lowest species, Metaph.1059b26, or individuals, ib.998b16, cf. AP0.96b12, al.;

    τὸ ἔ. ἄτομον Metaph.1058b10

    .
    b ὁ ἔ. ὅρος the minor term of a syllogism, EN1147b14.
    c last step in geom. analysis or ultimate condition of action,

    τὸ ἔ. ἀρχὴ τῆς πράξεως de An.433a16

    .
    II Adv. - τως to the uttermost, exceedingly,

    πῦρ ἐ. καίει Hp. de Arte8

    ;

    ἐ. διαμάχεσθαι Arist.HA 613a11

     ;

    ἐ. φιλοπόλεμος X.An.2.6.1

     ;

    φοβοῦμαί σ' ἐ. Men.912

    , cf. Epicur.Ep. 1p.31U.
    b - τως διακεῖσθαι to be at the last extremity, Plb.1.24.2, D.S.18.48 ;

    ἔχειν Ev.Marc.5.23

     ;

    ἀπορεῖν Phld.Oec.p.72J.

    2 so ἐς τὸ ἔ.,=ἐσχάτως, Hdt.7.229;

    εἰς τὰ ἔ. X.HG5.4.33

     ;

    εἰς τὰ ἔ. μάλα Id.Lac.1.2

     ;

    τὸ ἔ.

     finally, in the end,

    Pl.Grg. 473c

     ; but, τὸ ἔ. what is worst of all, ib. 508d.

    Greek-English dictionary (Αγγλικά Ελληνικά-λεξικό) > ἔσχατος

  • 35 Computers

       The brain has been compared to a digital computer because the neuron, like a switch or valve, either does or does not complete a circuit. But at that point the similarity ends. The switch in the digital computer is constant in its effect, and its effect is large in proportion to the total output of the machine. The effect produced by the neuron varies with its recovery from [the] refractory phase and with its metabolic state. The number of neurons involved in any action runs into millions so that the influence of any one is negligible.... Any cell in the system can be dispensed with.... The brain is an analogical machine, not digital. Analysis of the integrative activities will probably have to be in statistical terms. (Lashley, quoted in Beach, Hebb, Morgan & Nissen, 1960, p. 539)
       It is essential to realize that a computer is not a mere "number cruncher," or supercalculating arithmetic machine, although this is how computers are commonly regarded by people having no familiarity with artificial intelligence. Computers do not crunch numbers; they manipulate symbols.... Digital computers originally developed with mathematical problems in mind, are in fact general purpose symbol manipulating machines....
       The terms "computer" and "computation" are themselves unfortunate, in view of their misleading arithmetical connotations. The definition of artificial intelligence previously cited-"the study of intelligence as computation"-does not imply that intelligence is really counting. Intelligence may be defined as the ability creatively to manipulate symbols, or process information, given the requirements of the task in hand. (Boden, 1981, pp. 15, 16-17)
       The task is to get computers to explain things to themselves, to ask questions about their experiences so as to cause those explanations to be forthcoming, and to be creative in coming up with explanations that have not been previously available. (Schank, 1986, p. 19)
       In What Computers Can't Do, written in 1969 (2nd edition, 1972), the main objection to AI was the impossibility of using rules to select only those facts about the real world that were relevant in a given situation. The "Introduction" to the paperback edition of the book, published by Harper & Row in 1979, pointed out further that no one had the slightest idea how to represent the common sense understanding possessed even by a four-year-old. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 102)
       A popular myth says that the invention of the computer diminishes our sense of ourselves, because it shows that rational thought is not special to human beings, but can be carried on by a mere machine. It is a short stop from there to the conclusion that intelligence is mechanical, which many people find to be an affront to all that is most precious and singular about their humanness.
       In fact, the computer, early in its career, was not an instrument of the philistines, but a humanizing influence. It helped to revive an idea that had fallen into disrepute: the idea that the mind is real, that it has an inner structure and a complex organization, and can be understood in scientific terms. For some three decades, until the 1940s, American psychology had lain in the grip of the ice age of behaviorism, which was antimental through and through. During these years, extreme behaviorists banished the study of thought from their agenda. Mind and consciousness, thinking, imagining, planning, solving problems, were dismissed as worthless for anything except speculation. Only the external aspects of behavior, the surface manifestations, were grist for the scientist's mill, because only they could be observed and measured....
       It is one of the surprising gifts of the computer in the history of ideas that it played a part in giving back to psychology what it had lost, which was nothing less than the mind itself. In particular, there was a revival of interest in how the mind represents the world internally to itself, by means of knowledge structures such as ideas, symbols, images, and inner narratives, all of which had been consigned to the realm of mysticism. (Campbell, 1989, p. 10)
       [Our artifacts] only have meaning because we give it to them; their intentionality, like that of smoke signals and writing, is essentially borrowed, hence derivative. To put it bluntly: computers themselves don't mean anything by their tokens (any more than books do)-they only mean what we say they do. Genuine understanding, on the other hand, is intentional "in its own right" and not derivatively from something else. (Haugeland, 1981a, pp. 32-33)
       he debate over the possibility of computer thought will never be won or lost; it will simply cease to be of interest, like the previous debate over man as a clockwork mechanism. (Bolter, 1984, p. 190)
       t takes us a long time to emotionally digest a new idea. The computer is too big a step, and too recently made, for us to quickly recover our balance and gauge its potential. It's an enormous accelerator, perhaps the greatest one since the plow, twelve thousand years ago. As an intelligence amplifier, it speeds up everything-including itself-and it continually improves because its heart is information or, more plainly, ideas. We can no more calculate its consequences than Babbage could have foreseen antibiotics, the Pill, or space stations.
       Further, the effects of those ideas are rapidly compounding, because a computer design is itself just a set of ideas. As we get better at manipulating ideas by building ever better computers, we get better at building even better computers-it's an ever-escalating upward spiral. The early nineteenth century, when the computer's story began, is already so far back that it may as well be the Stone Age. (Rawlins, 1997, p. 19)
       According to weak AI, the principle value of the computer in the study of the mind is that it gives us a very powerful tool. For example, it enables us to formulate and test hypotheses in a more rigorous and precise fashion than before. But according to strong AI the computer is not merely a tool in the study of the mind; rather the appropriately programmed computer really is a mind in the sense that computers given the right programs can be literally said to understand and have other cognitive states. And according to strong AI, because the programmed computer has cognitive states, the programs are not mere tools that enable us to test psychological explanations; rather, the programs are themselves the explanations. (Searle, 1981b, p. 353)
       What makes people smarter than machines? They certainly are not quicker or more precise. Yet people are far better at perceiving objects in natural scenes and noting their relations, at understanding language and retrieving contextually appropriate information from memory, at making plans and carrying out contextually appropriate actions, and at a wide range of other natural cognitive tasks. People are also far better at learning to do these things more accurately and fluently through processing experience.
       What is the basis for these differences? One answer, perhaps the classic one we might expect from artificial intelligence, is "software." If we only had the right computer program, the argument goes, we might be able to capture the fluidity and adaptability of human information processing. Certainly this answer is partially correct. There have been great breakthroughs in our understanding of cognition as a result of the development of expressive high-level computer languages and powerful algorithms. However, we do not think that software is the whole story.
       In our view, people are smarter than today's computers because the brain employs a basic computational architecture that is more suited to deal with a central aspect of the natural information processing tasks that people are so good at.... hese tasks generally require the simultaneous consideration of many pieces of information or constraints. Each constraint may be imperfectly specified and ambiguous, yet each can play a potentially decisive role in determining the outcome of processing. (McClelland, Rumelhart & Hinton, 1986, pp. 3-4)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Computers

  • 36 длина

    1) length

    2) patn
    – длина анкеровки
    – длина базиса
    – длина базы
    – длина вектора
    – длина взаимодействия
    – длина волновая
    – длина волны
    – длина выбега
    – длина дуги
    – длина зацепления
    – длина зонда
    – длина камеры
    – длина когерентности
    – длина консоли
    – длина кривошипа
    – длина нахлестки
    – длина обточки
    – длина орбиты
    – длина плато
    – длина плеча
    – длина поглощения
    – длина пробега
    – длина прокатки
    – длина пролета
    – длина проходки
    – длина пути
    – длина разбега
    – длина рассеяния
    – длина резания
    – длина рулона
    – длина связи
    – длина серии
    – длина слова
    – длина сообщения
    – длина спайки
    – длина стороны
    – длина строгания
    – длина строительная
    – длина строки
    – компарированная длина
    – кратная длина
    – несущая длина
    – обратная длина
    – полная длина
    – приведенная длина
    – разрывная длина
    – строительная длина

    граничная длина волны — cut-off wave-length


    длина волны записи — recorded wavelength


    длина геодезической линии — geodetic distance


    длина дебаевского экранирования — Debye shielding length


    длина заборной части — chamfer length


    длина заделки арматуры — legnth of an embedment


    длина замкнутой кривой — perimeter


    длина кодовой комбинации — word length


    длина летного поля — field length


    длина математического маятника — length of simple pendulum


    длина области генерации — lasing length


    длина образующей конуса — slant height of cone


    длина образца до испытания — original length of specimen


    длина полосы набора — depth of page


    длина пробега до захвата — capture length


    длина пути луча — beam path length


    длина разгона волны — fetch


    длина свободного пробега — free path


    длина тяговых плеч — length of run


    длина участка разгона — distance to accelerate


    длина хода поршня — stroke


    защемленная длина заклепки — grip of rivet


    критическая длина волны — critical wavelength


    нормальная длина торгово проката — commercial stock length


    полезная длина строки — available line


    полная длина пробега — maximum range


    полная длина судна — extreme length


    пороговая длина волны — threshold wave-length


    приведенная длина маятника — equivalent length of pendulum


    рабочая длина волны — operating wavelength


    рабочая длина звукоснимателя — effective length of a pickup


    расчетная длина образца — gauge length of specimen


    собственная длина волны — natural wave-length


    средняя длина свободного пробега — mean free path


    строительная длина вентиля — face-to-face dimension


    эффективная длина канала — effective channel length

    Русско-английский технический словарь > длина

  • 37 осадка

    settlement

    – влажность осадка
    – выпадение осадка
    – осадка колоши
    – осадка породы
    – осадка рессоры
    – осадка судна
    – осадка шихты

    балластная осадка судна — ballast draught


    грузовая осадка судна — load draught


    конструктивная осадка судна — design draught


    максимальная осадка судна — extreme draught


    осадка судна кормой — after draught


    осадка судна на плаву — floating draught


    осадка судна носом — forward draught


    осадка судна порожнем — light draught


    средняя осадка судна — mean draught

    Русско-английский технический словарь > осадка

  • 38 крайнее и среднее отношение

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > крайнее и среднее отношение

  • 39 предельное значение

    1) Medicine: Specification limit
    2) Engineering: limit value, limiting value
    3) Construction: ceiling value, maximum value
    4) Information technology: bound, extreme value
    5) Special term: value
    6) Sociology: boundary value
    7) Astronautics: crest value, peak value
    8) Mechanics: level change value
    9) Business: limit
    10) SAP. value limit
    12) Automation: threshold
    13) Makarov: limiting mean, ultimate value
    14) oil&gas: cutoff value

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > предельное значение

  • 40 деление в крайнем и среднем отношении

    Русско-английский политехнический словарь > деление в крайнем и среднем отношении

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