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121 determine
determine [dɪ'tɜ:mɪn](a) (control, govern) déterminer, décider de;∎ the commanding officer determined the fate of the prisoners le commandant décida du sort des prisonniers(b) (establish, find out) déterminer, établir;∎ the police were unable to determine the cause of death la police n'a pas pu déterminer ou établir la cause du décès∎ she determined to prove her innocence elle a décidé de prouver son innocence -
122 group capacity assessment
Gen Mgtthe application of work measurement techniques such as activity sampling and standard time data to clerical, administrative, and indirect staff to measure group effort and establish optimum performance levels. Group capacity assessment is used to plan and control payroll costs for groups of clerical and administrative workers.The ultimate business dictionary > group capacity assessment
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123 quality audit
Gen Mgtan independent and systematic examination to establish whether quality activities and related results comply with planned arrangements. A quality audit is a form of internal audit useful in the maintenance of quality control. A quality audit needs to look at effective implementation of quality arrangements and whether they are suitable for the achievement of objectives. It is an integral part of working toward a quality standard or a quality award. -
124 Arkwright, Sir Richard
SUBJECT AREA: Textiles[br]b. 23 December 1732 Preston, Englandd. 3 August 1792 Cromford, England[br]English inventor of a machine for spinning cotton.[br]Arkwright was the youngest of thirteen children and was apprenticed to a barber; when he was about 18, he followed this trade in Bol ton. In 1755 he married Patients Holt, who bore him a son before she died, and he remarried in 1761, to Margaret Biggins. He prospered until he took a public house as well as his barber shop and began to lose money. After this failure, he travelled around buying women's hair for wigs.In the late 1760s he began spinning experiments at Preston. It is not clear how much Arkwright copied earlier inventions or was helped by Thomas Highs and John Kay but in 1768 he left Preston for Nottingham, where, with John Smalley and David Thornley as partners, he took out his first patent. They set up a mill worked by a horse where machine-spun yarn was produced successfully. The essential part of this process lay in drawing out the cotton by rollers before it was twisted by a flyer and wound onto the bobbin. The partners' resources were not sufficient for developing their patent so Arkwright found new partners in Samuel Need and Jedediah Strutt, hosiers of Nottingham and Derby. Much experiment was necessary before they produced satisfactory yarn, and in 1771 a water-driven mill was built at Cromford, where the spinning process was perfected (hence the name "waterframe" was given to his spinning machine); some of this first yarn was used in the hosiery trade. Sales of all-cotton cloth were initially limited because of the high tax on calicoes, but the tax was lowered in 1774 by Act of Parliament, marking the beginning of the phenomenal growth of the cotton industry. In the evidence for this Act, Arkwright claimed that he had spent £12,000 on his machine. Once Arkwright had solved the problem of mechanical spinning, a bottleneck in the preliminary stages would have formed but for another patent taken out in 1775. This covered all preparatory processing, including some ideas not invented by Arkwright, with the result that it was disputed in 1783 and finally annulled in 1785. It contained the "crank and comb" for removing the cotton web off carding engines which was developed at Cromford and solved the difficulty in carding. By this patent, Arkwright had mechanized all the preparatory and spinning processes, and he began to establish water-powered cotton mills even as far away as Scotland. His success encouraged many others to copy him, so he had great difficulty in enforcing his patent Need died in 1781 and the partnership with Strutt ended soon after. Arkwright became very rich and financed other spinning ventures beyond his immediate control, such as that with Samuel Oldknow. It was estimated that 30,000 people were employed in 1785 in establishments using Arkwright's patents. In 1786 he received a knighthood for delivering an address of thanks when an attempt to assassinate George III failed, and the following year he became High Sheriff of Derbyshire. He purchased the manor of Cromford, where he died in 1792.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsKnighted 1786.Bibliography1769, British patent no. 931.1775, British patent no. 1,111.Further ReadingR.S.Fitton, 1989, The Arkwrights, Spinners of Fortune, Manchester (a thorough scholarly work which is likely to remain unchallenged for many years).R.L.Hills, 1973, Richard Arkwright and Cotton Spinning, London (written for use in schools and concentrates on Arkwright's technical achievements).R.S.Fitton and A.P.Wadsworth, 1958, The Strutts and the Arkwrights, Manchester (concentrates on the work of Arkwright and Strutt).A.P.Wadsworth and J.de L.Mann, 1931, The Cotton Trade and Industrial Lancashire, Manchester (covers the period leading up to the Industrial Revolution).F.Nasmith, 1932, "Richard Arkwright", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 13 (looks at the actual spinning invention).R.L.Hills, 1970, Power in the Industrial Revolution, Manchester (discusses the technical problems of Arkwright's invention).RLH -
125 Eisler, Paul
[br]b. 1907 Vienna, Austria[br]Austrian engineer responsible for the invention of the printed circuit.[br]At the age of 23, Eisler obtained a Diploma in Engineering from the Technical University of Vienna. Because of the growing Nazi influence in Austria, he then accepted a post with the His Master's Voice (HMV) agents in Belgrade, where he worked on the problems of radio reception and sound transmission in railway trains. However, he soon returned to Vienna to found a weekly radio journal and file patents on graphical sound recording (for which he received a doctorate) and on a system of stereoscopic television based on lenticular vertical scanning.In 1936 he moved to England and sold the TV patent to Marconi for £250. Unable to find a job, he carried out experiments in his rooms in a Hampstead boarding-house; after making circuits using strip wires mounted on bakelite sheet, he filed his first printed-circuit patent that year. He then tried to find ways of printing the circuits, but without success. Obtaining a post with Odeon Theatres, he invented a sound-level control for films and devised a mirror-drum continuous-film projector, but with the outbreak of war in 1939, when the company was evacuated, he chose to stay in London and was interned for a while. Released in 1941, he began work with Henderson and Spalding, a firm of lithographic printers, to whom he unwittingly assigned all future patents for the paltry sum of £1. In due course he perfected a means of printing conducting circuits and on 3 February 1943 he filed three patents covering the process. The British Ministry of Defence rejected the idea, considering it of no use for military equipment, but after he had demonstrated the technique to American visitors it was enthusiastically taken up in the US for making proximity fuses, of which many millions were produced and used for the war effort. Subsequently the US Government ruled that all air-borne electronic circuits should be printed.In the late 1940s the Instrument Department of Henderson and Spalding was split off as Technograph Printed Circuits Ltd, with Eisler as Technical Director. In 1949 he filed a further patent covering a multilayer system; this was licensed to Pye and the Telegraph Condenser Company. A further refinement, patented in the 1950s, the use of the technique for telephone exchange equipment, but this was subsequently widely infringed and although he negotiated licences in the USA he found it difficult to license his ideas in Europe. In the UK he obtained finance from the National Research and Development Corporation, but they interfered and refused money for further development, and he eventually resigned from Technograph. Faced with litigation in the USA and open infringement in the UK, he found it difficult to establish his claims, but their validity was finally agreed by the Court of Appeal (1969) and the House of Lords (1971).As a freelance inventor he filed many other printed-circuit patents, including foil heating films and batteries. When his Patent Agents proved unwilling to fund the cost of filing and prosecuting Complete Specifications he set up his own company, Eisler Consultants Ltd, to promote food and space heating, including the use of heated cans and wallpaper! As Foil Heating Ltd he went into the production of heating films, the process subsequently being licensed to Thermal Technology Inc. in California.[br]Bibliography1953, "Printed circuits: some general principles and applications of the foil technique", Journal of the British Institution of Radio Engineers 13: 523.1959, The Technology of Printed Circuits: The Foil Technique in Electronic Production.1984–5, "Reflections of my life as an inventor", Circuit World 11:1–3 (a personal account of the development of the printed circuit).1989, My Life with the Printed Circuit, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania: Lehigh University Press.KF -
126 McCormick, Cyrus
SUBJECT AREA: Agricultural and food technology[br]b. 1809 Walnut Grove, Virginia, USAd. 1884 USA[br]American inventor of the first functionally and commercially successful reaping machine; founder of the McCormick Company, which was to become one of the founding companies of International Harvester.[br]Cyrus McCormick's father, a farmer, began to experiment unsuccessfully with a harvesting machine between 1809 and 1816. His son took up the challenge and gave his first public demonstration of his machine in 1831. It cut a 4 ft swathe, but, wanting to perfect the machine, he waited until 1834 before patenting it, by which time he felt that his invention was threatened by others of similar design. In the same year he entered an article in the Mechanics Magazine, warning competitors off his design. His main rival was Obed Hussey who contested McCormick's claim to the originality of the idea, having patented his own machine six months before McCormick.A competition between the two machines was held in 1843, the judges favouring McCormick's, even after additional trials were conducted after objections of unfairness from Hussey. The rivalry continued over a number of years, being avidly reported in the agricultural press. The publicity did no harm to reaper sales, and McCormick sold twenty-nine machines in 1843 and fifty the following year.As the westward settlement movement progressed, so the demand for McCormick's machine grew. In order to be more central to his markets, McCormick established himself in Chicago. In partnership with C.M.Gray he established a factory to produce 500 harvesters for the 1848 season. By means of advertising and offers of credit terms, as well as production-line assembly, McCormick was able to establish himself as sole owner and also control all production, under the one roof. By the end of the decade he dominated reaper production but other developments were to threaten this position; however, foreign markets were appearing at the same time, not least the opportunities of European sales stimulated by the Great Exhibition in 1851. In the trials arranged by the Royal Agricultural Society of England the McCormick machine significantly outperformed that of Hussey's, and as a result McCormick arranged for 500 to be made under licence in England.In 1874 McCormick bought a half interest in the patent for a wire binder from Charles Withington, a watchmaker from Janesville, Wisconsin, and by 1885 a total of 50,000 wire binders had been built in Chicago. By 1881 McCormick was producing twine binders using Appleby's twine knotter under a licence agreement, and by 1885 the company was producing only twine binders. The McCormick Company was one of the co-founders of the International Harvester Company in 1901.[br]Bibliography1972, The Century of the Reaper, Johnson Reprint (the original is in the New York State Library).Further ReadingGraeme Quick and Wesley Buchele, 1978, The Grain Harvesters, American Society of Agricultural Engineers (deals in detail with McCormick's developments).G.H.Wendell, 1981, 150 Years of International Harvester, Crestlink (though more concerned with the machinery produced by International Harvester, it gives an account of its originating companies).T.W.Hutchinson, 1930, Cyrus Hall McCormick, Seedtime 1809–1856; ——1935, Cyrus Hall McCormick, Harvest 1856–1884 (both attempt to unravel the many claims surrounding the reaper story).Herbert N.Casson, 1908, The Romance of the Reaper, Doubleday Page (deals with McCormick, Deering and the formation of International Harvester).AP -
127 characteristic
acceleration characteristicхарактеристики приемаaerodynamic characteristicаэродинамическая характеристикаaeroelastic characteristicаэроупругая характеристикаaircraft performance characteristicsлетно-технические характеристикиair flow characteristicхарактеристика расхода воздухаbasic characteristicsосновные характеристикиcharacteristic rays coneтипичный лучевой конусcombustion characteristicхарактеристика процесса горенияcontrol characteristicхарактеристика управляемостиdecay characteristicхарактеристика затуханияdesign characteristicрасчетная характеристикаdirectional stability characteristicхарактеристика путевой устойчивостиdrainage characteristicsдренажные характеристикиeffect on flight characteristicsвлиять на летные характеристикиelevation characteristicхарактер профиля местностиestablish the characteristicsустанавливать характеристикиexcessive sound absorption characteristicповышенная способность поглощать звукfail-safe characteristicбезопасного разрушенияflight characteristicsлетные характеристикиflow characteristicхарактеристика расходаgeneralized noise characteristicsобобщенные характеристики по шумуhandling characteristicхарактеристика управляемостиhazardous characteristicsвиды опасностиlanding characteristicsпосадочные характеристикиlateral characteristicхарактеристика поперечной устойчивостиmanifold pressure characteristicхарактеристика по наддувуnoise characteristicsхарактеристики по шумуno-load characteristicхарактеристика холостого ходаonset characteristicsхарактеристики нарастанияoperating characteristicрабочая характеристикаpressure response characteristicхарактеристика чувствительности к звуковому давлениюpropulsion performance characteristicsтяговые характеристикиrunway friction characteristicхарактеристика сцепления поверхности ВППsound emission characteristicхарактеристика излучения звукаspecified characteristicsустановленные характеристикиspectral characteristicхарактеристика спектраspin-recovery characteristicsпротивоштопорные характеристикиstability characteristicхарактеристика устойчивостиstall characteristicхарактеристика сваливанияsurge characteristicпомпажная характеристикаtake characteristicsснимать характеристикиtake-off and landing characteristicsвзлетно-посадочные характеристикиthrottle characteristicдроссельная характеристикаthrust characteristicтяговая характеристикаtrack-defining characteristicsхарактеристики наведения по линии путиtrim characteristicбалансировочная характеристикаturn characteristicsхарактеристики на разворотахvibration characteristicвибрационная характеристика -
128 characteristic
acceleration characteristicхарактеристики приемаaerodynamic characteristicаэродинамическая характеристикаaeroelastic characteristicаэроупругая характеристикаaircraft performance characteristicsлетно-технические характеристикиair flow characteristicхарактеристика расхода воздухаbasic characteristicsосновные характеристикиcharacteristic rays coneтипичный лучевой конусcombustion characteristicхарактеристика процесса горенияcontrol characteristicхарактеристика управляемостиdecay characteristicхарактеристика затуханияdesign characteristicрасчетная характеристикаdirectional stability characteristicхарактеристика путевой устойчивостиdrainage characteristicsдренажные характеристикиeffect on flight characteristicsвлиять на летные характеристикиelevation characteristicхарактер профиля местностиestablish the characteristicsустанавливать характеристикиexcessive sound absorption characteristicповышенная способность поглощать звукfail-safe characteristicбезопасного разрушенияflight characteristicsлетные характеристикиflow characteristicхарактеристика расходаgeneralized noise characteristicsобобщенные характеристики по шумуhandling characteristicхарактеристика управляемостиhazardous characteristicsвиды опасностиlanding characteristicsпосадочные характеристикиlateral characteristicхарактеристика поперечной устойчивостиmanifold pressure characteristicхарактеристика по наддувуnoise characteristicsхарактеристики по шумуno-load characteristicхарактеристика холостого ходаonset characteristicsхарактеристики нарастанияoperating characteristicрабочая характеристикаpressure response characteristicхарактеристика чувствительности к звуковому давлениюpropulsion performance characteristicsтяговые характеристикиrunway friction characteristicхарактеристика сцепления поверхности ВППsound emission characteristicхарактеристика излучения звукаspecified characteristicsустановленные характеристикиspectral characteristicхарактеристика спектраspin-recovery characteristicsпротивоштопорные характеристикиstability characteristicхарактеристика устойчивостиstall characteristicхарактеристика сваливанияsurge characteristicпомпажная характеристикаtake characteristicsснимать характеристикиtake-off and landing characteristicsвзлетно-посадочные характеристикиthrottle characteristicдроссельная характеристикаthrust characteristicтяговая характеристикаtrack-defining characteristicsхарактеристики наведения по линии путиtrim characteristicбалансировочная характеристикаturn characteristicsхарактеристики на разворотахvibration characteristicвибрационная характеристика
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См. также в других словарях:
control — n. 1) to establish; exercise, exert control over 2) to assume, take control of 3) to bring smt. under control (the fire was finally brought under control) 4) to wrest control from 5) to lose control of (she lost control of the car) 6) absolute;… … Combinatory dictionary
control — [[t]kəntro͟ʊl[/t]] ♦ controls, controlling, controlled 1) N UNCOUNT: oft N of/over n Control of an organization, place, or system is the power to make all the important decisions about the way that it is run. The restructuring involves Mr Ronson… … English dictionary
Control system security — is the prevention of intentional or unintentional interference with the proper operation of industrial automation and control systems. These control systems manage essential services including electricity, petroleum production, water,… … Wikipedia
establish — [ə stab′lish, istab′lish] vt. [ME establissen < extended stem of OFr establir < L stabilire < stabilis, STABLE1] 1. to make stable; make firm; settle [to establish a habit] 2. to order, ordain, or enact (a law, statute, etc.) permanently … English World dictionary
Establish — Es*tab lish, v. t. [imp. & p. p. {Established}; p. pr. & vb. n. {Establishing}.] [OE. establissen, OF. establir, F. [ e]tablir, fr. L. stabilire, fr. stabilis firm, steady, stable. See {Stable}, a., { ish}, and cf. {Stablish}.] 1. To make stable… … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
Control (management) — Controlling is one of the managerial functions like planning, organizing, staffing and directing. It is an important function because it helps to check the errors and to take the corrective action so that deviation from standards are minimized… … Wikipedia
control — {{Roman}}I.{{/Roman}} noun 1 power over sb/sth ADJECTIVE ▪ absolute, complete, full, total ▪ effective, proper (esp. BrE) ▪ close … Collocations dictionary
establish — verb 1 start/create sth ADVERB ▪ initially, originally ▪ The Internet was originally established by scientists to share information. ▪ formally ▪ The League was formally established in 1920 … Collocations dictionary
establish — /əsˈtæblɪʃ / (say uhs tablish) verb (t) 1. to set up on a firm or permanent basis; institute; found: to establish a government; to establish a business; to establish a university. 2. to settle or install in a position, business, etc.: to… …
establish — establishable, adj. establisher, n. /i stab lish/, v.t. 1. to found, institute, build, or bring into being on a firm or stable basis: to establish a university; to establish a medical practice. 2. to install or settle in a position, place,… … Universalium
establish — es•tab•lish [[t]ɪˈstæb lɪʃ[/t]] v. t. 1) to bring into being on a firm or permanent basis; found; institute: to establish a university[/ex] 2) to install or settle in a position, place, business, etc.: to establish oneself in business[/ex] 3) to… … From formal English to slang
