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empirical+function

  • 1 Empirical Orthogonal Function

    Oceanography: EOF

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > Empirical Orthogonal Function

  • 2 empirical distribution function

    French\ \ fonction de répartition empirique
    German\ \ empirische Verteilungsfunktion
    Dutch\ \ empirische verdelingsfunctie; verdelingsfunctie in de steekproef
    Italian\ \ funzione di ripartizione empirica
    Spanish\ \ función de distribución empírica
    Catalan\ \ funció de distribució empírica
    Portuguese\ \ função de distribuição empírica; função distribuição empírica (bra)
    Romanian\ \ funcţia de distribuţie empirică
    Danish\ \ empirisk fordelingsfunktion
    Norwegian\ \ empiriske fordelingsfunksjonen
    Swedish\ \ empirisk fördelningsfunktion
    Greek\ \ εμπειρική συνάρτηση κατανομής
    Finnish\ \ empiirinen kertymäfunktio
    Hungarian\ \ tapasztalati eloszlásfüggvény
    Turkish\ \ deneysel dağılım işlevi; deneysel dağılım fonksiyonu
    Estonian\ \ empiiriline jaotusfunktsioon
    Lithuanian\ \ empirinė pasiskirstymo funkcija
    Slovenian\ \ empirična porazdelitev frekvenca
    Polish\ \ dystrybuanta empiryczna
    Ukrainian\ \ емпірична фунцкія розподілу
    Serbian\ \ функција емпиријског распореда
    Icelandic\ \ mælt dreififall; hlutfallsleg safntíðni
    Euskara\ \ enpirikoak banaketa funtzioa
    Farsi\ \ tabe-e tozi-e t jrebi
    Persian-Farsi\ \ تابع توزيع تجربي
    Arabic\ \ دالة التوزيع الاعتبارية
    Afrikaans\ \ empiriese verdelingsfunksie
    Chinese\ \ 经 验 分 布 函 数
    Korean\ \ 경험적 분포함수

    Statistical terms > empirical distribution function

  • 3 эмпирическая функция

    Русско-английский физический словарь > эмпирическая функция

  • 4 генератор эмпирической функции

    Русско-английский научно-технический словарь Масловского > генератор эмпирической функции

  • 5 емпирична функция

    created function
    created functions
    empirical function
    empirical functions
    fitted function
    fitted functions

    Български-Angleščina политехнически речник > емпирична функция

  • 6 эмпирическая функция

    1) Mathematics: created function

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > эмпирическая функция

  • 7 генератор эмпирической функции

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > генератор эмпирической функции

  • 8 эмпирическая функция

    created function мат., empirical function, fitted function

    Русско-английский научно-технический словарь Масловского > эмпирическая функция

  • 9 эмпірычная функцыя размеркавання

    empirical distribution function

    Беларуска-ангельскі слоўнік матэматычных тэрмінаў і тэрміналагічных словазлучэнняў > эмпірычная функцыя размеркавання

  • 10 функция распределения эмпирическая

    Русско-английский глоссарий по космической технике > функция распределения эмпирическая

  • 11 эмпирическая вероятность

    Русско-английский научный словарь > эмпирическая вероятность

  • 12 эмпирические данные

    [lang name="Russian"]спецификация данных; определение данных — data specification

    [lang name="Russian"]совокупность данных; данные объединенные в пул — pooled data

    Русско-английский научный словарь > эмпирические данные

  • 13 эмпирическая функция распределения

    2) Mathematics: EDF (empirical distribution function), sum polygon

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > эмпирическая функция распределения

  • 14 indiferente

    adj.
    1 indifferent.
    2 unresponsive, apathetic, having little or no interest.
    f. & m.
    indifferent person.
    * * *
    1 indifferent
    \
    me es indiferente I don't care
    * * *
    adj.
    * * *
    ADJ
    1) (=impasible) [actitud, mirada] indifferent

    dejar indiferente a algn: esas imágenes no pueden dejarnos indiferentes — those images cannot fail to move us

    permanecer o quedarse indiferente — to remain indifferent (a, ante to)

    2) (=que da igual)

    -¿desea salir por la mañana o por la tarde? -me es indiferente — "do you want to leave in the morning or the afternoon?" - "it makes no difference to me o I don't mind"

    es indiferente que vengáis hoy o mañana — it makes no difference o it doesn't matter whether you come today or tomorrow

    * * *
    a) (poco importante, de poco interés)

    es indiferente que salga hoy o mañana — it doesn't matter o it makes no difference whether it goes today or tomorrow

    ¿té o café? - me es indiferente — tea or coffee? - either

    me es indiferente su amistad — I'm not concerned o (colloq) bothered about his friendship

    b) ( poco interesado) indifferent

    indiferente al peligro — indifferent to o unconcerned about the danger

    * * *
    = listless, unsympathetic, indifferent, half-hearted [halfhearted], uninterested, regardless, uncaring, unconcerned, detached, impassive, unengaged, apathetic, careless, feckless, insouciant, nonchalant, nonplus, nonplussed [nonplused], soulless, unemotional.
    Ex. Rejuvenation of listless, stagnant, or failing library operations is possible through renewal methods dependent on strengthening the communication function.
    Ex. But of its four sentences, the third was so determined to present a grammatically structured metaphor for its meaning that it dazzled my eye, never mind my already unsympathetic brain.
    Ex. Contrary to popular belief, people who have been deaf from birth are not indifferent to aesthetic literature.
    Ex. Yet the response from government has been half-hearted at best.
    Ex. Other staff of the library remained at best uninterested in the project and at worst resented it as a diminution of traditional library services.
    Ex. What can we do is rethink our query, or we can 'bash on regardless' using the power of the computer to perform lots more searches in the hope that 'something will turn up'.
    Ex. The principal problem which faces archives is that of saving significant material from indiscriminate destruction by ignorant or uncaring owners.
    Ex. Then, with an elfin smile she said: 'You see, I haven't been entirely unconcerned!'.
    Ex. The attention good literature pays to life is both loving and detached.
    Ex. There is a commonly-held stereotype which views librarians as being isolated, uninformed, unengaged, impassive, and either uninterested in, or ignorant of, the world around them.
    Ex. There is a commonly-held stereotype which views librarians as being isolated, uninformed, unengaged, impassive, and either uninterested in, or ignorant of, the world around them.
    Ex. In World War 2 librarians generally sympathised with Britain, but many were isolationist or apathetic during the early years = En la Segunda Guerra Mundial los bibliotecarios generalmente simpatizaban con Gran Bretaña, aunque muchos mantuvieron una actitud no intervencionista o indiferente durante los primeros años.
    Ex. They will spend time trying to ascribe reasons to the variations whereas the true facts are that the citer was simply sloppy and careless.
    Ex. The author wrings sick humor from its feckless heroes' forlorn attempts to escape from a drug habit that they do not really enjoy any longer.
    Ex. Adopting an insouciant attitude toward empirical research -- shorn of such seemingly tough-minded concepts as objectivity and transparency -- makes her point more plausible.
    Ex. Certainly the explanation was remarkably in accordance with the nonchalant character of the noble lord who gave it.
    Ex. I remember reading an interview where Boll was nonplus about it, but then days later the site got shut down.
    Ex. Considering all that has happened to them, the cousins were nonplussed.
    Ex. Our deliberate and passionate ambition is to avoid the traps of soulless, dead villages turned into museums, slowly sinking into oblivion.
    Ex. Australian researchers have observed that four to eight year-old boys who have an unemotional temperament are less responsive to discipline.
    ----
    * de un modo indiferente = listlessly.
    * mostrarse indiferente = give + Nombre + the cold shoulder, turn + a cold shoulder to, cold-shoulder.
    * * *
    a) (poco importante, de poco interés)

    es indiferente que salga hoy o mañana — it doesn't matter o it makes no difference whether it goes today or tomorrow

    ¿té o café? - me es indiferente — tea or coffee? - either

    me es indiferente su amistad — I'm not concerned o (colloq) bothered about his friendship

    b) ( poco interesado) indifferent

    indiferente al peligro — indifferent to o unconcerned about the danger

    * * *
    = listless, unsympathetic, indifferent, half-hearted [halfhearted], uninterested, regardless, uncaring, unconcerned, detached, impassive, unengaged, apathetic, careless, feckless, insouciant, nonchalant, nonplus, nonplussed [nonplused], soulless, unemotional.

    Ex: Rejuvenation of listless, stagnant, or failing library operations is possible through renewal methods dependent on strengthening the communication function.

    Ex: But of its four sentences, the third was so determined to present a grammatically structured metaphor for its meaning that it dazzled my eye, never mind my already unsympathetic brain.
    Ex: Contrary to popular belief, people who have been deaf from birth are not indifferent to aesthetic literature.
    Ex: Yet the response from government has been half-hearted at best.
    Ex: Other staff of the library remained at best uninterested in the project and at worst resented it as a diminution of traditional library services.
    Ex: What can we do is rethink our query, or we can 'bash on regardless' using the power of the computer to perform lots more searches in the hope that 'something will turn up'.
    Ex: The principal problem which faces archives is that of saving significant material from indiscriminate destruction by ignorant or uncaring owners.
    Ex: Then, with an elfin smile she said: 'You see, I haven't been entirely unconcerned!'.
    Ex: The attention good literature pays to life is both loving and detached.
    Ex: There is a commonly-held stereotype which views librarians as being isolated, uninformed, unengaged, impassive, and either uninterested in, or ignorant of, the world around them.
    Ex: There is a commonly-held stereotype which views librarians as being isolated, uninformed, unengaged, impassive, and either uninterested in, or ignorant of, the world around them.
    Ex: In World War 2 librarians generally sympathised with Britain, but many were isolationist or apathetic during the early years = En la Segunda Guerra Mundial los bibliotecarios generalmente simpatizaban con Gran Bretaña, aunque muchos mantuvieron una actitud no intervencionista o indiferente durante los primeros años.
    Ex: They will spend time trying to ascribe reasons to the variations whereas the true facts are that the citer was simply sloppy and careless.
    Ex: The author wrings sick humor from its feckless heroes' forlorn attempts to escape from a drug habit that they do not really enjoy any longer.
    Ex: Adopting an insouciant attitude toward empirical research -- shorn of such seemingly tough-minded concepts as objectivity and transparency -- makes her point more plausible.
    Ex: Certainly the explanation was remarkably in accordance with the nonchalant character of the noble lord who gave it.
    Ex: I remember reading an interview where Boll was nonplus about it, but then days later the site got shut down.
    Ex: Considering all that has happened to them, the cousins were nonplussed.
    Ex: Our deliberate and passionate ambition is to avoid the traps of soulless, dead villages turned into museums, slowly sinking into oblivion.
    Ex: Australian researchers have observed that four to eight year-old boys who have an unemotional temperament are less responsive to discipline.
    * de un modo indiferente = listlessly.
    * mostrarse indiferente = give + Nombre + the cold shoulder, turn + a cold shoulder to, cold-shoulder.

    * * *
    1
    (poco importante, de poco interés): es indiferente que salga hoy o mañana it doesn't matter o it makes no difference o it's immaterial whether it goes today or tomorrow
    ¿té o café? — me es indiferente tea or coffee? — either o I don't mind o it makes no difference
    no me cae mal, me es indiferente I don't dislike her, I don't really have any feelings one way or the other
    todo lo que no sea de su especialidad le es indiferente he's not interested in anything that isn't connected with his speciality
    me es indiferente su amistad I'm not concerned o ( colloq) bothered about his friendship
    2 (poco interesado) indifferent
    se mostró totalmente indiferente ante mi propuesta he was totally indifferent to o uninterested in my suggestion
    indiferente A algo indifferent TO sth
    indiferente al peligro indifferent to o unconcerned about the danger
    permanecieron/se mostraron indiferentes a mis súplicas they remained/they were indifferent to my pleas
    3
    (poco amable, afectuoso): conmigo es fría e indiferente she's cold and distant with me, she treats me coldly and with indifference
    4 (mediocre) indifferent
    * * *

    indiferente adjetivo
    a) (poco importante, de poco interés):

    ◊ es indiferente que venga hoy o mañana it doesn't matter o it makes no difference whether he comes today or tomorrow;

    me es indiferente su amistad I'm not concerned o (colloq) bothered about his friendship

    indiferente a algo indifferent to sth
    indiferente adjetivo
    1 (irrelevante) unimportant: le es indiferente el color, colour makes no difference to her
    2 (impasible) indifferent: es indiferente a mi dolor, he doesn't care about my grief
    ' indiferente' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    fresca
    - fresco
    - igual
    - despreocupado
    - displicente
    - frío
    - resbalar
    English:
    care
    - cold
    - hard
    - indifferent
    - listless
    - lukewarm
    - nonchalant
    - skin
    - unconcerned
    - unemotional
    - uninterested
    - detached
    - uncaring
    - unresponsive
    - unsympathetic
    * * *
    1. [indistinto] indifferent;
    me es indiferente [me da igual] I don't mind, it's all the same to me;
    me es indiferente que vayas o no it's all the same to me whether you go or not;
    ¿prefieres hacerlo hoy o mañana? – me es indiferente would you rather do it today or tomorrow? – I don't mind
    2. [apático]
    siempre se muestra indiferente he always seems so apathetic;
    es indiferente a la miseria ajena other people's suffering means nothing to him;
    no puedo permanecer indiferente ante tanto sufrimiento I cannot remain indifferent in the face of so much suffering;
    su belleza me deja indiferente her beauty leaves me cold o does nothing for me
    * * *
    adj
    1 indifferent
    2 ( irrelevante) immaterial
    * * *
    1) : indifferent, unconcerned
    2)
    ser indiferente : to be of no concern
    me es indiferente: it doesn't matter to me
    * * *
    indiferente adj (persona) indifferent / not interested
    ser indiferente to make no difference / not to matter
    serle indiferente a alguien not to mind / not to care

    Spanish-English dictionary > indiferente

  • 15 Reading

       1) The Discovery of Truth Depends on the Thoughtful Reading of Authoritative Texts
       For the Middle Ages, all discovery of truth was first reception of traditional authorities, then later-in the thirteenth century-rational reconciliation of authoritative texts. A comprehension of the world was not regarded as a creative function but as an assimilation and retracing of given facts; the symbolic expression of this being reading. The goal and the accomplishment of the thinker is to connect all these facts together in the form of the "summa." Dante's cosmic poem is such a summa too. (Curtius, 1973, p. 326)
       The readers of books... extend or concentrate a function common to us all. Reading letters on a page is only one of its many guises. The astronomer reading a map of stars that no longer exist; the Japanese architect reading the land on which a house is to be built so as to guard it from evil forces; the zoologist reading the spoor of animals in the forest; the card-player reading her partner's gestures before playing the winning card; the dancer reading the choreographer's notations, and the public reading the dancer's movements on the stage; the weaver reading the intricate design of a carpet being woven; the organ-player reading various simultaneous strands of music orchestrated on the page; the parent reading the baby's face for signs of joy or fright, or wonder; the Chinese fortune-teller reading the ancient marks on the shell of a tortoise; the lover blindly reading the loved one's body at night, under the sheets; the psychiatrist helping patients read their own bewildering dreams; the Hawaiian fisherman reading the ocean currents by plunging a hand into the water; the farmer reading the weather in the sky-all these share with book-readers the craft of deciphering and translating signs....
       We all read ourselves and the world around us in order to glimpse what and where we are. We read to understand, or to begin to understand. We cannot do but read. Reading, almost as much as breathing, is our essential function. (Manguel, 1996, pp. 6-7)
       There is a pitched battle between those theorists and modellers who embrace the primacy of syntax and those who embrace the primacy of semantics in language processing. At times both schools have committed various excesses. For example, some of the former have relied foolishly on context-free mathematical-combinatory models, while some of the latter have flirted with versions of the "direct-access hypothesis," the idea that skilled readers process printed language directly into meaning without phonological or even syntactic processing. The problems with the first excess are patent. Those with the second are more complex and demand more research. Unskilled readers apparently do rely more on phonological processing than do skilled ones; hence their spoken dialects may interfere with their reading-and writing-habits. But the extent to which phonological processing is absent in the skilled reader has not been established, and the contention that syntactic processing is suspended in the skilled reader is surely wrong and not supported by empirical evidence-though blood-flow patterns in the brain are curiously different during speaking, oral reading, and silent reading. (M. L. Johnson, 1988, pp. 101-102)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Reading

  • 16 функция корреляции

    [lang name="Russian"]сериальная корреляция; автокорреляция — serial correlation

    Русско-английский научный словарь > функция корреляции

  • 17 Thinking

       But what then am I? A thing which thinks. What is a thing which thinks? It is a thing which doubts, understands, [conceives], affirms, denies, wills, refuses, which also imagines and feels. (Descartes, 1951, p. 153)
       I have been trying in all this to remove the temptation to think that there "must be" a mental process of thinking, hoping, wishing, believing, etc., independent of the process of expressing a thought, a hope, a wish, etc.... If we scrutinize the usages which we make of "thinking," "meaning," "wishing," etc., going through this process rids us of the temptation to look for a peculiar act of thinking, independent of the act of expressing our thoughts, and stowed away in some particular medium. (Wittgenstein, 1958, pp. 41-43)
       Analyse the proofs employed by the subject. If they do not go beyond observation of empirical correspondences, they can be fully explained in terms of concrete operations, and nothing would warrant our assuming that more complex thought mechanisms are operating. If, on the other hand, the subject interprets a given correspondence as the result of any one of several possible combinations, and this leads him to verify his hypotheses by observing their consequences, we know that propositional operations are involved. (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958, p. 279)
       In every age, philosophical thinking exploits some dominant concepts and makes its greatest headway in solving problems conceived in terms of them. The seventeenth- and eighteenth-century philosophers construed knowledge, knower, and known in terms of sense data and their association. Descartes' self-examination gave classical psychology the mind and its contents as a starting point. Locke set up sensory immediacy as the new criterion of the real... Hobbes provided the genetic method of building up complex ideas from simple ones... and, in another quarter, still true to the Hobbesian method, Pavlov built intellect out of conditioned reflexes and Loeb built life out of tropisms. (S. Langer, 1962, p. 54)
       Experiments on deductive reasoning show that subjects are influenced sufficiently by their experience for their reasoning to differ from that described by a purely deductive system, whilst experiments on inductive reasoning lead to the view that an understanding of the strategies used by adult subjects in attaining concepts involves reference to higher-order concepts of a logical and deductive nature. (Bolton, 1972, p. 154)
       There are now machines in the world that think, that learn and create. Moreover, their ability to do these things is going to increase rapidly until-in the visible future-the range of problems they can handle will be coextensive with the range to which the human mind has been applied. (Newell & Simon, quoted in Weizenbaum, 1976, p. 138)
       But how does it happen that thinking is sometimes accompanied by action and sometimes not, sometimes by motion, and sometimes not? It looks as if almost the same thing happens as in the case of reasoning and making inferences about unchanging objects. But in that case the end is a speculative proposition... whereas here the conclusion which results from the two premises is an action.... I need covering; a cloak is a covering. I need a cloak. What I need, I have to make; I need a cloak. I have to make a cloak. And the conclusion, the "I have to make a cloak," is an action. (Nussbaum, 1978, p. 40)
       It is well to remember that when philosophy emerged in Greece in the sixth century, B.C., it did not burst suddenly out of the Mediterranean blue. The development of societies of reasoning creatures-what we call civilization-had been a process to be measured not in thousands but in millions of years. Human beings became civilized as they became reasonable, and for an animal to begin to reason and to learn how to improve its reasoning is a long, slow process. So thinking had been going on for ages before Greece-slowly improving itself, uncovering the pitfalls to be avoided by forethought, endeavoring to weigh alternative sets of consequences intellectually. What happened in the sixth century, B.C., is that thinking turned round on itself; people began to think about thinking, and the momentous event, the culmination of the long process to that point, was in fact the birth of philosophy. (Lipman, Sharp & Oscanyan, 1980, p. xi)
       The way to look at thought is not to assume that there is a parallel thread of correlated affects or internal experiences that go with it in some regular way. It's not of course that people don't have internal experiences, of course they do; but that when you ask what is the state of mind of someone, say while he or she is performing a ritual, it's hard to believe that such experiences are the same for all people involved.... The thinking, and indeed the feeling in an odd sort of way, is really going on in public. They are really saying what they're saying, doing what they're doing, meaning what they're meaning. Thought is, in great part anyway, a public activity. (Geertz, quoted in J. Miller, 1983, pp. 202-203)
       Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler. (Einstein, quoted in Minsky, 1986, p. 17)
       What, in effect, are the conditions for the construction of formal thought? The child must not only apply operations to objects-in other words, mentally execute possible actions on them-he must also "reflect" those operations in the absence of the objects which are replaced by pure propositions. Thus, "reflection" is thought raised to the second power. Concrete thinking is the representation of a possible action, and formal thinking is the representation of a representation of possible action.... It is not surprising, therefore, that the system of concrete operations must be completed during the last years of childhood before it can be "reflected" by formal operations. In terms of their function, formal operations do not differ from concrete operations except that they are applied to hypotheses or propositions [whose logic is] an abstract translation of the system of "inference" that governs concrete operations. (Piaget, quoted in Minsky, 1986, p. 237)
       [E]ven a human being today (hence, a fortiori, a remote ancestor of contemporary human beings) cannot easily or ordinarily maintain uninterrupted attention on a single problem for more than a few tens of seconds. Yet we work on problems that require vastly more time. The way we do that (as we can observe by watching ourselves) requires periods of mulling to be followed by periods of recapitulation, describing to ourselves what seems to have gone on during the mulling, leading to whatever intermediate results we have reached. This has an obvious function: namely, by rehearsing these interim results... we commit them to memory, for the immediate contents of the stream of consciousness are very quickly lost unless rehearsed.... Given language, we can describe to ourselves what seemed to occur during the mulling that led to a judgment, produce a rehearsable version of the reaching-a-judgment process, and commit that to long-term memory by in fact rehearsing it. (Margolis, 1987, p. 60)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Thinking

  • 18 Logic

       My initial step... was to attempt to reduce the concept of ordering in a sequence to that of logical consequence, so as to proceed from there to the concept of number. To prevent anything intuitive from penetrating here unnoticed, I had to bend every effort to keep the chain of inference free of gaps. In attempting to comply with this requirement in the strictest possible way, I found the inadequacy of language to be an obstacle. (Frege, 1972, p. 104)
       I believe I can make the relation of my 'conceptual notation' to ordinary language clearest if I compare it to the relation of the microscope to the eye. The latter, because of the range of its applicability and because of the ease with which it can adapt itself to the most varied circumstances, has a great superiority over the microscope. Of course, viewed as an optical instrument it reveals many imperfections, which usually remain unnoticed only because of its intimate connection with mental life. But as soon as scientific purposes place strong requirements upon sharpness of resolution, the eye proves to be inadequate.... Similarly, this 'conceptual notation' is devised for particular scientific purposes; and therefore one may not condemn it because it is useless for other purposes. (Frege, 1972, pp. 104-105)
       To sum up briefly, it is the business of the logician to conduct an unceasing struggle against psychology and those parts of language and grammar which fail to give untrammeled expression to what is logical. He does not have to answer the question: How does thinking normally take place in human beings? What course does it naturally follow in the human mind? What is natural to one person may well be unnatural to another. (Frege, 1979, pp. 6-7)
       We are very dependent on external aids in our thinking, and there is no doubt that the language of everyday life-so far, at least, as a certain area of discourse is concerned-had first to be replaced by a more sophisticated instrument, before certain distinctions could be noticed. But so far the academic world has, for the most part, disdained to master this instrument. (Frege, 1979, pp. 6-7)
       There is no reproach the logician need fear less than the reproach that his way of formulating things is unnatural.... If we were to heed those who object that logic is unnatural, we would run the risk of becoming embroiled in interminable disputes about what is natural, disputes which are quite incapable of being resolved within the province of logic. (Frege, 1979, p. 128)
       [L]inguists will be forced, internally as it were, to come to grips with the results of modern logic. Indeed, this is apparently already happening to some extent. By "logic" is not meant here recursive function-theory, California model-theory, constructive proof-theory, or even axiomatic settheory. Such areas may or may not be useful for linguistics. Rather under "logic" are included our good old friends, the homely locutions "and," "or," "if-then," "if and only if," "not," "for all x," "for some x," and "is identical with," plus the calculus of individuals, event-logic, syntax, denotational semantics, and... various parts of pragmatics.... It is to these that the linguist can most profitably turn for help. These are his tools. And they are "clean tools," to borrow a phrase of the late J. L. Austin in another context, in fact, the only really clean ones we have, so that we might as well use them as much as we can. But they constitute only what may be called "baby logic." Baby logic is to the linguist what "baby mathematics" (in the phrase of Murray Gell-Mann) is to the theoretical physicist-very elementary but indispensable domains of theory in both cases. (Martin, 1969, pp. 261-262)
       There appears to be no branch of deductive inference that requires us to assume the existence of a mental logic in order to do justice to the psychological phenomena. To be logical, an individual requires, not formal rules of inference, but a tacit knowledge of the fundamental semantic principle governing any inference; a deduction is valid provided that there is no way of interpreting the premises correctly that is inconsistent with the conclusion. Logic provides a systematic method for searching for such counter-examples. The empirical evidence suggests that ordinary individuals possess no such methods. (Johnson-Laird, quoted in Mehler, Walker & Garrett, 1982, p. 130)
       The fundamental paradox of logic [that "there is no class (as a totality) of those classes which, each taken as a totality, do not belong to themselves" (Russell to Frege, 16 June 1902, in van Heijenoort, 1967, p. 125)] is with us still, bequeathed by Russell-by way of philosophy, mathematics, and even computer science-to the whole of twentieth-century thought. Twentieth-century philosophy would begin not with a foundation for logic, as Russell had hoped in 1900, but with the discovery in 1901 that no such foundation can be laid. (Everdell, 1997, p. 184)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Logic

  • 19 Memory

       To what extent can we lump together what goes on when you try to recall: (1) your name; (2) how you kick a football; and (3) the present location of your car keys? If we use introspective evidence as a guide, the first seems an immediate automatic response. The second may require constructive internal replay prior to our being able to produce a verbal description. The third... quite likely involves complex operational responses under the control of some general strategy system. Is any unitary search process, with a single set of characteristics and inputoutput relations, likely to cover all these cases? (Reitman, 1970, p. 485)
       [Semantic memory] Is a mental thesaurus, organized knowledge a person possesses about words and other verbal symbols, their meanings and referents, about relations among them, and about rules, formulas, and algorithms for the manipulation of these symbols, concepts, and relations. Semantic memory does not register perceptible properties of inputs, but rather cognitive referents of input signals. (Tulving, 1972, p. 386)
       The mnemonic code, far from being fixed and unchangeable, is structured and restructured along with general development. Such a restructuring of the code takes place in close dependence on the schemes of intelligence. The clearest indication of this is the observation of different types of memory organisation in accordance with the age level of a child so that a longer interval of retention without any new presentation, far from causing a deterioration of memory, may actually improve it. (Piaget & Inhelder, 1973, p. 36)
       4) The Logic of Some Memory Theorization Is of Dubious Worth in the History of Psychology
       If a cue was effective in memory retrieval, then one could infer it was encoded; if a cue was not effective, then it was not encoded. The logic of this theorization is "heads I win, tails you lose" and is of dubious worth in the history of psychology. We might ask how long scientists will puzzle over questions with no answers. (Solso, 1974, p. 28)
       We have iconic, echoic, active, working, acoustic, articulatory, primary, secondary, episodic, semantic, short-term, intermediate-term, and longterm memories, and these memories contain tags, traces, images, attributes, markers, concepts, cognitive maps, natural-language mediators, kernel sentences, relational rules, nodes, associations, propositions, higher-order memory units, and features. (Eysenck, 1977, p. 4)
       The problem with the memory metaphor is that storage and retrieval of traces only deals [ sic] with old, previously articulated information. Memory traces can perhaps provide a basis for dealing with the "sameness" of the present experience with previous experiences, but the memory metaphor has no mechanisms for dealing with novel information. (Bransford, McCarrell, Franks & Nitsch, 1977, p. 434)
       7) The Results of a Hundred Years of the Psychological Study of Memory Are Somewhat Discouraging
       The results of a hundred years of the psychological study of memory are somewhat discouraging. We have established firm empirical generalisations, but most of them are so obvious that every ten-year-old knows them anyway. We have made discoveries, but they are only marginally about memory; in many cases we don't know what to do with them, and wear them out with endless experimental variations. We have an intellectually impressive group of theories, but history offers little confidence that they will provide any meaningful insight into natural behavior. (Neisser, 1978, pp. 12-13)
       A schema, then is a data structure for representing the generic concepts stored in memory. There are schemata representing our knowledge about all concepts; those underlying objects, situations, events, sequences of events, actions and sequences of actions. A schema contains, as part of its specification, the network of interrelations that is believed to normally hold among the constituents of the concept in question. A schema theory embodies a prototype theory of meaning. That is, inasmuch as a schema underlying a concept stored in memory corresponds to the mean ing of that concept, meanings are encoded in terms of the typical or normal situations or events that instantiate that concept. (Rumelhart, 1980, p. 34)
       Memory appears to be constrained by a structure, a "syntax," perhaps at quite a low level, but it is free to be variable, deviant, even erratic at a higher level....
       Like the information system of language, memory can be explained in part by the abstract rules which underlie it, but only in part. The rules provide a basic competence, but they do not fully determine performance. (Campbell, 1982, pp. 228, 229)
       When people think about the mind, they often liken it to a physical space, with memories and ideas as objects contained within that space. Thus, we speak of ideas being in the dark corners or dim recesses of our minds, and of holding ideas in mind. Ideas may be in the front or back of our minds, or they may be difficult to grasp. With respect to the processes involved in memory, we talk about storing memories, of searching or looking for lost memories, and sometimes of finding them. An examination of common parlance, therefore, suggests that there is general adherence to what might be called the spatial metaphor. The basic assumptions of this metaphor are that memories are treated as objects stored in specific locations within the mind, and the retrieval process involves a search through the mind in order to find specific memories....
       However, while the spatial metaphor has shown extraordinary longevity, there have been some interesting changes over time in the precise form of analogy used. In particular, technological advances have influenced theoretical conceptualisations.... The original Greek analogies were based on wax tablets and aviaries; these were superseded by analogies involving switchboards, gramophones, tape recorders, libraries, conveyor belts, and underground maps. Most recently, the workings of human memory have been compared to computer functioning... and it has been suggested that the various memory stores found in computers have their counterparts in the human memory system. (Eysenck, 1984, pp. 79-80)
       Primary memory [as proposed by William James] relates to information that remains in consciousness after it has been perceived, and thus forms part of the psychological present, whereas secondary memory contains information about events that have left consciousness, and are therefore part of the psychological past. (Eysenck, 1984, p. 86)
       Once psychologists began to study long-term memory per se, they realized it may be divided into two main categories.... Semantic memories have to do with our general knowledge about the working of the world. We know what cars do, what stoves do, what the laws of gravity are, and so on. Episodic memories are largely events that took place at a time and place in our personal history. Remembering specific events about our own actions, about our family, and about our individual past falls into this category. With amnesia or in aging, what dims... is our personal episodic memories, save for those that are especially dear or painful to us. Our knowledge of how the world works remains pretty much intact. (Gazzaniga, 1988, p. 42)
       The nature of memory... provides a natural starting point for an analysis of thinking. Memory is the repository of many of the beliefs and representations that enter into thinking, and the retrievability of these representations can limit the quality of our thought. (Smith, 1990, p. 1)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Memory

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