Перевод: со всех языков на английский

с английского на все языки

continuous+testing

Толкование Перевод

21 текущ

1. flowing, running

текуща вода running water

2. (сегашен) current; present

текущо събития current events

текущи разходи operating costs; current expenses

на 3 число от текущия месец канц., on the 3th instant/inst.

текуща сметка a running account, търг. an account current, съкр. а/с

текущ ремонт current/routine repairs

* * *

теку̀щ,

прил.

1. flowing, running;

2. ( сегашен) current; present; ongoing; на 19-то число от \текущия месец канц. on the 19th instant/inst.; \текущ актив circulating asset; \текущ дълг floating debt; \текущ контрол testing, continuous assessment; \текущ кредит по сметка running account credit; \текущ ремонт current/routine repairs; \текуща работа routine work; \текуща сметка running account, търг. account current, съкр. a/c; \текущи разходи operating costs; current expenses; \текущи средства current funds.

* * *

current ; operating ; (за течност): flowing ; running ; fluid ;

* * *
1. (сегашен) current;present 2. 3 число отТЕКУЩия месец канц, on the 3. 4th instant/inst. 4. flowing, running 5. ТЕКУЩ ремонт current/routine repairs 6. ТЕКУЩa вода running water 7. ТЕКУЩa сметка а running account, търг. an account current, ськр. а/с 8. ТЕКУЩи разходи operating costs;current expenses 9. ТЕКУЩо събития current events 10. на

Български-английски речник > текущ
22 плавное изменение

Плавное изменение-- The improved hydraulic torsional testing machine is capable of continuous variation in strain rate from static up to approximately 500 s-1.

Русско-английский научно-технический словарь переводчика > плавное изменение
23 растягивать испытания более, чем на

Растягивать испытания более чем на-- Continuous redesign activities extended the testing over about 2 years.

Русско-английский научно-технический словарь переводчика > растягивать испытания более, чем на
24 способный

Способный - able to, capable of; tolerant of (выдерживать что-либо); has the potential to, has the potential for, is in a position to (в состоянии)
The improved hydraulic torsional testing machine is capable of continuous variation in strain rate from static up to approximately 500 s-1.

— способный выдерживать

— способный работать с

— способный удовлетворить это требование

Русско-английский научно-технический словарь переводчика > способный
25 анализатор

м. analyser

амплитудный анализатор — pulse-height analyser

векторный анализатор — vectorlyser

анализатор гармоник — harmonic analyzer

гармонический анализатор — harmonic analyser

анализатор диаграммы направленности антенны — radiation-pattern analyser

анализатор дыма — flue gas analyser

анализатор звука — sound analyser

импульсный анализатор — pulse analyser

анализатор импульсов — pulse analyser

анализатор искажений — distortion analyser

матричный анализатор — matrix analyser

механический анализатор — mechanical analyser

анализатор непрерывного действия — continuous analyser

анализатор остойчивости — stability analyser

анализатор передаточной функции — transfer function analyser

анализатор переходных процессов — transient response analyser

анализатор плотностей распределения — density function analyser

анализатор распределения по размеру — size distribution analyser

регистрирующий анализатор — recording analyser

анализатор релейных схем — switching circuit analyser

анализатор речи — speech analyser

анализатор системы регулирования — control system analyser

ситовый анализатор — testing sieve

анализатор скоростей — speed analyser

анализатор следящих систем — servoanalyser

анализатор смеси — mixture analyser

анализатор с непосредственным отсчётом — direct reading analyser

анализатор спектра — spectrum analyser

анализатор спектра с запоминанием — storage-type spectrum analyser

статистический анализатор — statistical analyser

трохоидальный анализатор — trochoidal analyser

анализатор ударного шума — impact-noise analyser

анализатор формы сигнала — waveform analyser; wave analyser; distortion analyser

анализатор функции распределения — distribution function analyser

цифровой анализатор — digital analyser

анализатор шума — noise analyser

анализатор линии — line analyser

анализатор цепи — circuit analyser

анализатор метана — methane analyser

анализатор сигнала — signal analyser

анализатор кислорода — oxygen analyser

Русско-английский большой базовый словарь > анализатор
26 испытание

1. с. test

выдерживать испытание — pass a test

доводить испытание до разрушения — carry a test to failure

доводить испытание до разрыва образца — carry a test to rupture of a specimen

не пройти испытания — fail the test

объявить испытания недействительными — invalidate a test

подвергать испытанию — test

представлять на испытания — present for tests

испытания — bed tests

испытание щупом — rod test

акт испытаний — test report

журнал испытаний — test log

испытание лампы — lamp test

2. с. trial, run, experiment

испытание завершается неудачей — a trial fails

испытание завершается успехом — a trial succeeds

испытание может иметь один исход — a trial may have one outcome

арбитражное испытание — arbitration test

аттестационные испытания — certification test

балансовое испытание — heat losses test; boiler efficiency test

испытание без нагрузки — no-load test

испытание без разрушения — non-destructive test

биологическое испытание — biological test

буксировочное испытание — towing test

испытание в аэродинамической трубе — tunnel test

испытание в аэродинамической трубе крупномасштабной модели — large-scale wind-tunnel test

испытание в вакууме — vacuum test

испытание в непрерывном режиме — continuous test

испытание в полевых условиях — field test

испытание в потоке — flow test

испытание в прерывистом режиме — intermittent test

испытание в свободном падении — free-fall test

испытание в свободном полёте — free-flight test

испытание в солевом тумане — salt-mist test

выборочное испытание — random test

испытание в эксплуатационных условиях — field test

гарантийное испытание — warranty test

гидравлическое испытание — hydrostatic test

государственные испытания — state testing

испытание грохочением — screen test

испытание двигателя на эффективную тормозную мощность — brake horse-power test

испытание рулевого устройства — rudder trial

испытания качки корабля — ship motion trials

испытания на погружение — submergence trials

испытания рулевого устройства — rudder trial

испытания на тихой воде — smooth water trials

Синонимический ряд:

1. проверка (сущ.) проба; пробу; проверка

2. экзамен (сущ.) экзамен

Русско-английский большой базовый словарь > испытание
27 метод

м. method; procedure; technique

агрегатнопоточный метод — conveyor-type production method

аксиоматический метод — axiomatic method

метод амплитудного анализа — kick-sorting method

анаглифический метод — anaglyphic method

метод быстрейшего спуска — steepest descent method

вариационный метод — variational method

метод Вернейля радио — Verneuil method

весовой метод — gravimetric method

метод ветвей и границ — branch and bound method

метод взбалтывания — shake method

визуальный метод — visual method

метод воздушной проекции — aero-projection method

метод вращения — method of revolution

метод врезания — plunge-cut method

метод времени пролёта — time-of-flight method

время-импульсный метод — pulse-counting method

метод встречного фрезерования — conventional milling method

метод выбега — retardation method

метод выметания — sweep-out method

метод гармонической линеаризации — describing function method

голографический метод — holographic method

гравиметрический метод — gravimetric method

графический метод — graphical method

метод графического трансформирования — grid method

графоаналитический метод — semigraphical method

метод графов — graph method

групповой метод — grouped-frequency basis

система работает групповым методом — the system operates on the grouped-frequency basis

метод двух узлов — nodal-pair method

метод дирекционных углов — method of gisements

метод запаса прочности — load factor method

метод засечек — resection method

метод зеркальных изображений — method of electrical images

метод зонной плавки — floating-zone method

метод избыточных концентраций — isolation method

метод измерения по точкам — point-by-point method

метод измерения углов по аэроснимкам — photogoniometric method

метод изотопных индикаторов — tracer method

иммерсионный метод — immersion method

импульсный метод — pulse method

метод импульсов — momentum-transfer method

метод инверсии — inversion method

интерференционный метод — interferometric method

метод испытаний — testing procedure

метод испытательной строки — test-line method

метод истечения — efflux method

метод итерации — iteration method

метод итерации приводит к сходимости процесса — the iteration converges to a solution

метод итерации приводит к сходимости процесса — the iteration converges quickly or slowly

метод картосоставления — map-compilation method

метод качающегося кристалла — rotating-crystal method

качественный метод — qualitative method

кессонный метод — caisson method

количественный метод — quantitative method

колориметрический метод — colorimetric method

метод кольца и шара — ball-and-ring method

комплексометрический метод — complexometric method

кондуктометрический метод — conductance-measuring method

метод конечных разностей — finite difference method

метод консервирования — curing method

метод контроля качества — quality control method

метод контурных токов — mesh-current method

метод конуса — cone method

корреляционный метод — correlation method

косвенный метод — indirect method

метод красок — dye-penetrant method

лабораторный метод — laboratory method

метод лаковых покрытий — brittle-varnish method

метод линейной интерполяции — method of proportional parts

метод магнитного порошка — magnetic particle method

магнитно-люминесцентный метод — fluorescent magnetic particle method

метод малых возмущений — perturbation method

метод мгновенной равносигнальной зоны — simultaneous lobing method

метод механической обработки — machining method

метод меченых атомов — tracer method

метод микрометрирования — micrometer method

метод моментных площадей — area moment method

метод Монте-Карло — Monte Carlo method

метод наименьших квадратов — method of least squares

метод наискорейшего спуска — method of steepest descent

метод накачки — pumping method

метод наложения — method of superposition

метод напыления — evaporation technique

метод наружных зарядов — adobe blasting method

метод независимых стереопар — method of independent image pairs

ненулевой метод — deflection method

метод неподвижных точек — method of fixed points

неразрушающий метод — non-destructive method

нерекурсивный метод — non-recursive method

неточный метод — inexact method

нефелометрический метод — nephelometric method

метод нивелирования по частям — method of fraction levelling

нулевой метод — null method

метод нулевых биений — zero-beat method

метод нулевых точек — neutral-points method

метод обеспечения надёжности — reliability method

метод обработки — processing method

метод обратной пространственной засечки — method of pyramid

обратно-ступенчатый метод — step-back method

метод объединённого атома — associate atom method

объективный метод — objective method

объёмный метод — volumetric method

метод одного отсчёта — the total value method

окислительно-восстановительный метод — redox method

операторный метод — operational method

метод определения отбеливаемости и цветности масел — bleach-and-colour method

метод оптической корреляции — optical correlation technique

метод осаждения — sedimentation method

метод особых возмущений — singular perturbation method

метод осреднения — averaging method

метод отбора проб — sampling method

метод отклонения — deflection method

метод отопления — fuel practice

метод отражения — reflection method

метод отражённых импульсов — pulse-echo method

метод падающего тела — falling body method

метод парамагнитного резонанса — paramagnetic-resonance method

метод первого приближения — first approximation method

метод перевала — saddle-point method

метод переноса количества движения — momentum-transfer method

метод перераспределения моментов — moment distribution method

метод пересекающихся лучей — crossed beam method

метод переходного состояния — transition state method

метод перпендикуляров — offset method

метод перспективных сеток — grid method

метод пескования — sanding method

пикнометрический метод — bottle method

метод площадей — area method

метод подбора — trial-and-error method

метод подобия — similitude method

метод подориентирования — setting on points of control

метод полной деформации — total-strain method

метод половинных отклонений — half-deflection method

полуколичественный метод — semiquantitative method

метод полярных координат — polar method

метод попутного фрезерования — climb milling method

порошковый метод — powder method

метод посева — seeding technique

метод последовательного счёта — incremental method

метод последовательных исключений — successive exclusion method

метод последовательных подстановок — method of successive substitution

метод последовательных поправок — successive correction method

метод последовательных приближений — successive approximation method

метод последовательных элиминаций — method of exhaustion

метод послесплавной диффузии — post-alloy-diffusion technique

потенциометрический компенсационный метод — potentiometric method

поточно-конвейерный метод — flow-line conveyor method

поточный метод — straight-line flow method

метод прерываний — chopped-beam method

приближённый метод — approximate method

метод проб и ошибок — trial-and-error method

метод программирующих программ — programming program method

метод продолжения — setting on points on control

метод пространственного кодирования — coded pattern method

метод пространственной самофиксации — self-fixation space method

прямой метод — direct method

метод псевдослучайных чисел — pseudorandom number method

метод равных высот — equal-altitude method

метод равных деформаций — equal-strain method

метод равных отклонений — equal-deflection method

радиационный метод — radiation method

метод радиоавтографии — radioautograph technique

метод радиоактивных индикаторов — tracer method

радиометрический метод — radiometric method

метод разбавления — dilution method

метод разделения — separation method

метод разделения переменных — method of separation of variables

метод разливки — teeming practice

метод размерностей — dimensional method

разностный метод — difference method

метод разрушающей нагрузки — load-factor method

разрушающий метод — destructive check

метод рассеяния Рэлея — Rayleigh scattering method

метод растра — grid method

метод растрового сканирования — raster-scan method

метод расчёта по допустимым нагрузкам — working stress design method

метод расчёта по разрушающим нагрузкам — ultimate-strength design method

метод расчёта при помощи пробной нагрузки — trial-load method

резонансный метод — resonance method

рентгеноструктурный метод — X-ray diffraction method

метод решения задачи о четвёртой точке — three-point method

метод решета — sieve method

рупорно-линзовый метод радио — horn-and-lens method

метод самоторможения — retardation method

метод свилей — schlieren technique

метод сдвинутого сигнала — offset-signal method

метод секущих — secant method

метод серого клина — gray-wedge method

метод сечений — method of sections

метод сил — work method

символический метод — method of complex numbers

метод симметричных составляющих — method of symmetrical components

метод синхронного накопления — synchronous storage method

метод сканирования полосой — single-line-scan television method

метод сканирования пятном — spot-scan photomultiplier method

метод смещения отдельных узлов — method of separate joint displacement

метод совпадений — coincidence method

метод сосредоточенных параметров — lumped-parameter method

метод спадания заряда — fall-of-charge method

спектроскопический метод — spectroscopic method

метод спирального сканирования — spiral-scan method

метод сплавления — fusion method

метод сплошных сред — continuous field analog technique

метод средних квадратов — midsquare method

статистический метод — statistical technique

статистический метод оценки — statistical estimation

метод статистических испытаний — Monte Carlo method

стробоголографический метод — strobo-holographic method

стробоскопический метод — stroboscopic method

струйный метод — jet test

ступенчатый метод — step-by-step method

субъективный метод — subjective method

метод сухого озоления — dry combustion method

метод сухого порошка — dry method

счётно-импульсный метод — pulse-counting method

табличный метод — diagram method

телевизионный метод электронной аэросъёмки — television method

телевизионный метод электронной фотограмметрии — television method

теневой метод — shadow method

термоанемометрический метод — hot-wire method

топологический метод — topological method

метод точечного вплавления — dot alloying method

точный метод — exact method

метод трёх баз — three-base method

метод триангуляции — triangulation method

метод трилатерации — trilateration method

метод угловой деформации — slope-deflection method

метод угловой модуляции — angular modulation method

метод удаляемого трафарета — rejection mask method

метод удаляемой маски — rejection mask method

метод узлов — method of joints

метод узловых потенциалов — node-voltage method

метод уравновешивания — balancing method

метод усреднения — averaging method

метод фазового контраста — phase contrast

наблюдать методом фазового контраста — examine by phase contrast

метод фазовой плоскости — phase plane method

метод факторизации — factorization method

флотационный метод — floatation method

метод формирования сигналов цветности — colour-processing method

метод центрифугирования — centrifuge method

цепной метод — chain method

численный метод — numerical method

метод Чохральского — Czochralski method

метод Шора — Shore hardness

щуповой метод — stylus method

метод цветоделения — color-separation method

метод цветокодирования — color coding method

методы прогнозирования — forecasting methods

предпочтительный метод — procedure of choice

психометрический метод — psychometric method

Русско-английский большой базовый словарь > метод
28 systems engineering

Gen Mgt

the process of planning, designing, creating, testing, and operating complex systems. Systems engineering can be viewed as a continuous cycle, aimed at developing alternative strategies for effective systems utilization. It is concerned with the definition, planning, and deployment of future systems.

The ultimate business dictionary > systems engineering
29 Lovelock, James Ephraim

SUBJECT AREA: Domestic appliances and interiors, Electricity, Electronics and information technology

[br]

b. 26 July 1919 Brixton, London, England

[br]

English biologist and philosopher, inventor of the microwave oven and electron capture detector.

[br]

Lovelock was brought up in Brixton in modest circumstances. At the age of 4 he was given a toy electrical set, which first turned his attention towards the study of science. From the Strand School, Brixton, he went on to the universities of Manchester and London, and after graduating in science, in 1941 he joined the National Institute for Medical Research, Mill Hill, as a staff scientist, remaining there for twenty years. During the early 1950s, he and his colleagues were engaged in research into freezing live animals and bringing them back to life by heating: Lovelock was struck by the intense pain this process caused the animals, and he sought a more humane method. He tried diathermy or internal heating through the effect of a continuous wave magnetron borrowed from the Navy. He found that the animals were brought back to life painlessly, and impressed with his success he tried baking a potato for his lunch in the apparatus and found that it cooked amazingly quickly compared with the one hour normally needed in an ordinary oven. Lovelock had invented the microwave oven, but its commercial possibilities were not at first realized.

In the late 1950s he invented the electron capture detector, which proved to be more sensitive than any other analytical equipment in detecting and measuring toxic substances. The apparatus therefore had obvious uses in testing the quality of the environment and so offered a tremendous boost to the "green" movement. In 1961 he was invited to joint the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to employ the apparatus in an attempt to detect life in space.

In the early 1970s Lovelock relinquished his biological work in order to devote his attention to philosophical matters, specifically to develop his theory of the Universe, now widely celebrated as the "Gaia theory". In this controversial theory, Lovelock regards our planet and all its living beings, including humans, as a single living organism.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

CBE 1990. FRS 1974. Many academic awards and honorary degrees. Visiting Professor, University of Reading 1967–90.

Bibliography

1979, Gaia.

1983, The Great Extinction.

1988, The Ages of Gaia.

1991, Gaia: The Practical Science of Planetary Medicine.

LRD

Biographical history of technology > Lovelock, James Ephraim
30 контроль

контроль сущ
1. monitoring
2. surveillance автоматический контроль
self-test
автоматический контроль траектории
automatic path control
алгоритм контроля ошибок
error checking algorithm
блок контроля
monitor
блок контроля скорости пробега по земле
ground run monitor
ведомость технического контроля
checklist
визуальный контроль
visual monitoring
встроенная система контроля
integrated control system
встроенный контроль
integral test
диспетчер радиолокационного контроля
radar controller
заход на посадку на посадку под контролем наземных средств
ground controlled approach
зона диспетчерского контроля
control zone
зона контроля аэродрома диспетчерской службой
aerodrome control sector
зона полного диспетчерского контроля
positive control zone
зона таможенного контроля
customs surveillance zone
иммиграционный контроль
1. immigration
2. immigration control комплексная система контроля воздушного пространства
integrated system of airspace control
конечный пункт радиолокационного контроля
terminal radar control
контроль в зоне
area watch
контроль за выполнением технического обслуживания
maintenance supervision
контроль за использованием территории
land use control
контроль за полетом
flight monitoring
контроль за производством полетов
operating supervision
контроль за ходом полета
flight supervision
контроль за ходом расследования
control of an investigation
контроль качества изготовления воздушных судов
aircraft production inspection
контроль полета
flight watch
контроль состояния двигателей
engines trend monitoring
контроль состояния посевов по пути выполнения основного задания
associated crop control operation
контроль уровня шума
noise control
летать под контролем
fly under the supervision of
медицинский контроль
health control
международный контроль частот
international frequency monitoring
метод контроля шума
noise control technique
методы неразрушающего контроля
nondestructing testing
непосредственный контроль
direct control
непрерывный контроль
continuous watch
оборудование встроенного контроля
built-in test equipment
оборудование системы контроля окружающей среды
environmental control system equipment
орган контроля летной годности
airworthiness authority
осуществлять контроль за ходом полета
exercise flight supervision
отдел контроля
inspection department
панель контроля хода полета
flight deck
паспортный контроль
passport control
полет для контроля состояния посевов
crop control flight
полет для контроля состояния посевов с воздуха
crop control operation
порядок контроля
clearance procedure
прекращать контроль воздушного судна
release the aircraft
пункт контроля на наличие металлических предметов
metal-detection gateway
радиолокатор контроля за рулением
taxi radar
радиолокационный контроль
radar control
рамочная антенна контроля курса
heading control loop
санитарный контроль воздушных судов
aircraft sanitary control
Сектор контроля за документацией
Document Control Unit
Секция контроля за выполнением бюджета
Budget Control Section
(ИКАО) система автоматического контроля
1. automatic monitor system
2. automatic test system система встроенного контроля
build-in test system
система контроля взлета
takeoff monitoring system
система контроля за летной годностью
airworthiness control system
система контроля за работой визуальных средств
system of monitoring visual aids
(на аэродроме) система контроля количества и расхода топлива
fuel indicating system
таможенный контроль
customs surveillance
условия без радиолокационного контроля
nonradar environment
условия с использованием радиолокационного контроля
radar environment
цветовая система таможенного контроля
color coded system
цепь встроенного контроля
built-in test circuit
цепь контроля
monitoring circuit
штуцер контроля заправки
filling check connection
эксперт по контролю за качеством
quality control expert

Русско-английский авиационный словарь > контроль
31 Language

   1) The Book of Nature Is Written in the Language of Mathematics

   Philosophy is written in that great book, the universe, which is always open, right before our eyes. But one cannot understand this book without first learning to understand the language and to know the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and the characters are triangles, circles, and other figures. Without these, one cannot understand a single word of it, and just wanders in a dark labyrinth. (Galileo, 1990, p. 232)

   2) Arranging Speech so as to Reply Appropriately

   It never happens that it [a nonhuman animal] arranges its speech in various ways in order to reply appropriately to everything that may be said in its presence, as even the lowest type of man can do. (Descartes, 1970a, p. 116)

   3) No Other Animal Has the Language Capacity of the Human

   It is a very remarkable fact that there are none so depraved and stupid, without even excepting idiots, that they cannot arrange different words together, forming of them a statement by which they make known their thoughts; while, on the other hand, there is no other animal, however perfect and fortunately circumstanced it may be, which can do the same. (Descartes, 1967, p. 116)

   4) Human Beings Do Not Live Only in the World of Objects

   Human beings do not live in the object world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication or reﬂection. The fact of the matter is that the "real world" is to a large extent unconsciously built on the language habits of the group.... We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation. (Sapir, 1921, p. 75)

   5) Language Powerfully Conditions All Our Thinking

   It powerfully conditions all our thinking about social problems and processes.... No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same worlds with different labels attached. (Sapir, 1985, p. 162)

   6) A List of Language Games

   [A list of language games, not meant to be exhaustive:]

   Giving orders, and obeying them- Describing the appearance of an object, or giving its measurements- Constructing an object from a description (a drawing)Reporting an eventSpeculating about an eventForming and testing a hypothesisPresenting the results of an experiment in tables and diagramsMaking up a story; and reading itPlay actingSinging catchesGuessing riddlesMaking a joke; and telling it

   Solving a problem in practical arithmeticTranslating from one language into another

   LANGUAGE Asking, thanking, cursing, greeting, and praying-. (Wittgenstein, 1953, Pt. I, No. 23, pp. 11 e-12 e)

   7) Language Constrains Certain Modes of Interpretation

   We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages.... The world is presented in a kaleidoscopic ﬂux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... No individual is free to describe nature with absolute impartiality but is constrained to certain modes of interpretation even while he thinks himself most free. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 153, 213-214)

   8) We Dissect Nature in Accordance with Our Native Languages

   We dissect nature along the lines laid down by our native languages.

   The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic ﬂux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... We are thus introduced to a new principle of relativity, which holds that all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar or can in some way be calibrated. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 213-214)

   9) The Forms of a Person's Thoughts Are Controlled by Unperceived Patterns of His Own Language

   The forms of a person's thoughts are controlled by inexorable laws of pattern of which he is unconscious. These patterns are the unperceived intricate systematizations of his own language-shown readily enough by a candid comparison and contrast with other languages, especially those of a different linguistic family. (Whorf, 1956, p. 252)

    10) The Analysis of Certain Types of Utterances

   It has come to be commonly held that many utterances which look like statements are either not intended at all, or only intended in part, to record or impart straightforward information about the facts.... Many traditional philosophical perplexities have arisen through a mistake-the mistake of taking as straightforward statements of fact utterances which are either (in interesting non-grammatical ways) nonsensical or else intended as something quite different. (Austin, 1962, pp. 2-3)

    11) The Dictionary of a Language Is a System of Concepts

   In general, one might define a complex of semantic components connected by logical constants as a concept. The dictionary of a language is then a system of concepts in which a phonological form and certain syntactic and morphological characteristics are assigned to each concept. This system of concepts is structured by several types of relations. It is supplemented, furthermore, by redundancy or implicational rules..., representing general properties of the whole system of concepts.... At least a relevant part of these general rules is not bound to particular languages, but represents presumably universal structures of natural languages. They are not learned, but are rather a part of the human ability to acquire an arbitrary natural language. (Bierwisch, 1970, pp. 171-172)

    12) Talk about the Evolution of the Language Capacity is Beside the Point

   In studying the evolution of mind, we cannot guess to what extent there are physically possible alternatives to, say, transformational generative grammar, for an organism meeting certain other physical conditions characteristic of humans. Conceivably, there are none-or very few-in which case talk about evolution of the language capacity is beside the point. (Chomsky, 1972, p. 98)

    13) The Development of Language

   [It is] truth value rather than syntactic well-formedness that chieﬂy governs explicit verbal reinforcement by parents-which renders mildly paradoxical the fact that the usual product of such a training schedule is an adult whose speech is highly grammatical but not notably truthful. (R. O. Brown, 1973, p. 330)

    14) Sentential and Conceptual Levels in Language

   he conceptual base is responsible for formally representing the concepts underlying an utterance.... A given word in a language may or may not have one or more concepts underlying it.... On the sentential level, the utterances of a given language are encoded within a syntactic structure of that language. The basic construction of the sentential level is the sentence.

   The next highest level... is the conceptual level. We call the basic construction of this level the conceptualization. A conceptualization consists of concepts and certain relations among those concepts. We can consider that both levels exist at the same point in time and that for any unit on one level, some corresponding realizate exists on the other level. This realizate may be null or extremely complex.... Conceptualizations may relate to other conceptualizations by nesting or other specified relationships. (Schank, 1973, pp. 191-192)

    15) Linguistic Realities Have Not Yet Been Captured by Theoretical Models

   The mathematics of multi-dimensional interactive spaces and lattices, the projection of "computer behavior" on to possible models of cerebral functions, the theoretical and mechanical investigation of artificial intelligence, are producing a stream of sophisticated, often suggestive ideas.

   But it is, I believe, fair to say that nothing put forward until now in either theoretic design or mechanical mimicry comes even remotely in reach of the most rudimentary linguistic realities. (Steiner, 1975, p. 284)

    16) The Final Steps to Human Language

   The step from the simple tool to the master tool, a tool to make tools (what we would now call a machine tool), seems to me indeed to parallel the final step to human language, which I call reconstitution. It expresses in a practical and social context the same understanding of hierarchy, and shows the same analysis by function as a basis for synthesis. (Bronowski, 1977, pp. 127-128)

    17) The Inadequacy of Formal Linguistic Models for Ordinary Language Usage

    t is the language donn eґ in which we conduct our lives.... We have no other. And the danger is that formal linguistic models, in their loosely argued analogy with the axiomatic structure of the mathematical sciences, may block perception.... It is quite conceivable that, in language, continuous induction from simple, elemental units to more complex, realistic forms is not justified. The extent and formal "undecidability" of context-and every linguistic particle above the level of the phoneme is context-bound-may make it impossible, except in the most abstract, meta-linguistic sense, to pass from "pro-verbs," "kernals," or "deep deep structures" to actual speech. (Steiner, 1975, pp. 111-113)

    18) When a Language Is an Abstract Machine

   A higher-level formal language is an abstract machine. (Weizenbaum, 1976, p. 113)

    19) Metaphor and Metonymy Underpin the Formation of Linguistic Signs

   Jakobson sees metaphor and metonymy as the characteristic modes of binarily opposed polarities which between them underpin the two-fold process of selection and combination by which linguistic signs are formed.... Thus messages are constructed, as Saussure said, by a combination of a "horizontal" movement, which combines words together, and a "vertical" movement, which selects the particular words from the available inventory or "inner storehouse" of the language. The combinative (or syntagmatic) process manifests itself in contiguity (one word being placed next to another) and its mode is metonymic. The selective (or associative) process manifests itself in similarity (one word or concept being "like" another) and its mode is metaphoric. The "opposition" of metaphor and metonymy therefore may be said to represent in effect the essence of the total opposition between the synchronic mode of language (its immediate, coexistent, "vertical" relationships) and its diachronic mode (its sequential, successive, lineal progressive relationships). (Hawkes, 1977, pp. 77-78)

    20) Language and the Analysis of Nature

   It is striking that the layered structure that man has given to language constantly reappears in his analyses of nature. (Bronowski, 1977, p. 121)

    21) Correspondence Rules for Mapping Old Theory into Subsets of New Theory

   First, [an ideal intertheoretic reduction] provides us with a set of rules"correspondence rules" or "bridge laws," as the standard vernacular has it-which effect a mapping of the terms of the old theory (T o) onto a subset of the expressions of the new or reducing theory (T n). These rules guide the application of those selected expressions of T n in the following way: we are free to make singular applications of their correspondencerule doppelgangers in T o....

   Second, and equally important, a successful reduction ideally has the outcome that, under the term mapping effected by the correspondence rules, the central principles of T o (those of semantic and systematic importance) are mapped onto general sentences of T n that are theorems of Tn. (P. Churchland, 1979, p. 81)

    22) The Inclusion of Non- linguistic Factors in a Theory of Grammar

   If non-linguistic factors must be included in grammar: beliefs, attitudes, etc. [this would] amount to a rejection of the initial idealization of language as an object of study. A priori such a move cannot be ruled out, but it must be empirically motivated. If it proves to be correct, I would conclude that language is a chaos that is not worth studying.... Note that the question is not whether beliefs or attitudes, and so on, play a role in linguistic behavior and linguistic judgments... [but rather] whether distinct cognitive structures can be identified, which interact in the real use of language and linguistic judgments, the grammatical system being one of these. (Chomsky, 1979, pp. 140, 152-153)

    23) Language Is Inevitably Inﬂuenced by Specific Contexts of Human Interaction

   Language cannot be studied in isolation from the investigation of "rationality." It cannot afford to neglect our everyday assumptions concerning the total behavior of a reasonable person.... An integrational linguistics must recognize that human beings inhabit a communicational space which is not neatly compartmentalized into language and nonlanguage.... It renounces in advance the possibility of setting up systems of forms and meanings which will "account for" a central core of linguistic behavior irrespective of the situation and communicational purposes involved. (Harris, 1981, p. 165)

    24) The Genetic Blueprints of Language

   By innate [linguistic knowledge], Chomsky simply means "genetically programmed." He does not literally think that children are born with language in their heads ready to be spoken. He merely claims that a "blueprint is there, which is brought into use when the child reaches a certain point in her general development. With the help of this blueprint, she analyzes the language she hears around her more readily than she would if she were totally unprepared for the strange gabbling sounds which emerge from human mouths. (Aitchison, 1987, p. 31)

    25) Languages Are Machines

   Looking at ourselves from the computer viewpoint, we cannot avoid seeing that natural language is our most important "programming language." This means that a vast portion of our knowledge and activity is, for us, best communicated and understood in our natural language.... One could say that natural language was our first great original artifact and, since, as we increasingly realize, languages are machines, so natural language, with our brains to run it, was our primal invention of the universal computer. One could say this except for the sneaking suspicion that language isn't something we invented but something we became, not something we constructed but something in which we created, and recreated, ourselves. (Leiber, 1991, p. 8)

Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Language

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