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21 علامة
عَلامَة \ badge: sth. worn to show what one is or belongs to: a badge of rank; a school badge. indication: a sign. mark: any sign that one object has been touched by another: a dirty mark on the wall; a footmark in the sand, any spot or line that is of a different colour from the rest a white horse with a black mark on its nose, a sign (usu. a number, sometimes A, B, C, etc.) that is given by a teacher to show the quality of a piece of work in school low marks; full marks; a bad mark. sign: a movement or mark or notice that tells one sth.: He waved his arm as a sign that he was ready. + is a sign of addition. The road sign gave a warning of a dangerous bend. symptom: a sign of an illness: A hot head is a symptom of fever. token: a sign: The gift was a token of his love. trace: a sign or mark that shows where sth. has been: There were traces of blood on the floor. vestige: a slight mark, track, etc., remaining of sth. that is now gone or has been destroyed. \ عَلامَة (:) (للتَّرْقِيم) \ colon: the mark: used in writing and printing, before giving lists, etc.. \ العَلامَة √ (أو صَحّ) \ tick: the sign < core>, showing that sth. is correct or (on a list) that it has been dealt with, etc.. \ عَلامَة الاستفهام \ query: a question about some doubtful point; the sing (?). \ عَلامَة تجاريّة (مُسَجَّلة) \ trade mark: a sign on goods, which shows who made them. \ عَلامَة تَعَجُّب "!" \ exclamation mark: the sign "!". \ عَلامَة حَصْر \ bracket: one of the marks () used in writing to show that (a word, phrase, etc.) is separate from the rest: Put this phrase in brackets. \ عَلامَة فارِقة أو أَمَرَة \ landmark: sth. (e.g. a tower) that is clearly seen from a distance, and so can guide travellers. \ عَلامَة كِتابِيّة \ character: a kind of mark, sign, etc. used for a number or a letter; a kind of handwriting: These are printed characters. Arabic characters are written from right to left. \ عَلامَة مُمَيِّزة \ mark: a special sign that is put on sth.: A postmark; a trade mark. \ عَلامَة النَّبْر \ accent: a mark used (in writing) to show the special force given to a word or part of a word or a particular quality of sound. \ علامة وَصْل (شرطة قصيرة) \ hyphen: the make (-) that is used for joining two words, as in blood-red. \ See Also خَطّ قصير -
22 Concepts
From a psychological perspective, concepts are mental representations of classes (e.g., one's beliefs about the class of dogs or tables), and their most salient function is to promote cognitive economy.... By partitioning the world into classes, we decrease the amount of information we must perceive, learn, remember, communicate, and reason about. Thus, if we had no concepts, we would have to refer to each individual entity by its own name; every different table, for example, would be denoted by a different word. The mental lexicon required would be so enormous that communication as we know it might be impossible. Other mental functions might collapse under the sheer number of entities we would have to keep track of.Another important function of concepts is that they enable us to go beyond the information given.... When we come across an object, say a wolf, we have direct knowledge only of its appearance. It is essential that we go beyond appearances and bring to bear other knowledge that we have, such as our belief that wolves can bite and inflict severe injury. Concepts are our means of linking perceptual and nonperceptual information. We use a perceptual description of the creature in front of us to access the concept wolf and then use our nonperceptual beliefs to direct our behavior, that is, run. Concepts, then, are recognition devices; they serve as entry points into our knowledge stores and provide us with expectations that we can use to guide our actions.A third important function of concepts is that they can be combined to form complex concepts and thoughts. Stoves and burn are two simple concepts; Stoves can burn is a full-fledged thought. Presumably our understanding of this thought, and of complex concepts in general, is based on our understanding of the constituent concepts. (Smith, 1988, pp. 19-20)The concept may be a butterfly. It may be a person he has known. It may be an animal, a city, a type of action, or a quality. Each concept calls for a name. These names are wanted for what may be a noun or a verb, an adjective or an adverb. Concepts of this type have been formed gradually over the years from childhood on. Each time a thing is seen or heard or experienced, the individual has a perception of it. A part of that perception comes from his own concomitant interpretation. Each successive perception forms and probably alters the permanent concept. And words are acquired gradually, also, and deposited somehow in the treasure-house of word memory.... Words are often acquired simultaneously with the concepts.... A little boy may first see a butterfly fluttering from flower to flower in a meadow. Later he sees them on the wing or in pictures, many times. On each occasion he adds to his conception of butterfly.It becomes a generalization from many particulars. He builds up a concept of a butterfly which he can remember and summon at will, although when he comes to manhood, perhaps, he can recollect none of the particular butterflies of past experience.The same is true of the sequence of sound that makes up a melody. He remembers it after he has forgotten each of the many times he heard or perhaps sang or played it. The same is true of colours. He acquires, quite quickly, the concept of lavender, although all the objects of which he saw the colour have faded beyond the frontier of voluntary recall. The same is true of the generalization he forms of an acquaintance. Later on he can summon his concept of the individual without recalling their many meetings. (Penfield, 1959, pp. 228-229)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Concepts
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